E Book Bio English 05

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HEALTH AND DISEASES

Health
Health is defined as the state of wellbeing of a person. It involves physical,
mental, social and emotional health.
This health interruption can be caused due to infections, improper life style,
lack of exercise, bad food habits, lack of rest, deficiency of some important
nutritional component or due to genetic disorders.
So, it is necessary to take balanced diet, take care of personal and
surrounding hygiene, do regular exercise, spread awareness about diseases,
and their control, vaccinations etc. to maintain good health.
Disease
Disease is an uncomfortable state of body in which the functions of the body (or its part are disturbed).
Types of Disease
In living organisms specifically in humans, diseases are broadly categorised into two types; congenital diseases and acquired
diseases.
Congenital Diseases
The diseases that occur from the time of birth are referred to as the congenital diseases. These may include anatomical or
physiological abnormalities in the organisms. Their main causes are genetical, hereditary errors, lack of nutrition (from mother to
child during pregnancy) etc. These diseases when develop during the first month of life, are called neonatal diseases.
Anomalies include 5th finger curvature, a third nipple, dimple over the lower spine, birth defects, cleft lip and palate, malformation
syndrome, dysplasia, erythroblastosis, neural tube defects, congenital heart defects, cystic fibrosis.
Acquired Diseases
The diseases that occur or develop after birth of a child are referred to as acquired diseases. These diseases are also called the post-
foetally acquired diseases.
These diseases are characterized into two main types i.e., communicable and non-communicable diseases.
Communicable Diseases or Infections Diseases

These diseases are considered as spreading or transmissible diseases as they spread from an infected organism to another. The
agents that cause these diseases are infections agents or pathogens such as viruses, viroid and prions, microorganisms such as
bacteria, nematodes such as roundworms and pinworms, arthropods such as ticks, mites, flies and lice, fungi (such as ringworm)
and other microparasites such as tapeworms.
Common Infectious (or communicable) Diseases in Humans

Infectious diseases are classified into different categories on the basis of their pathogens
Viral Diseases
Viruses are parasitic in nature and cause numerous diseases.
Some Common Viral Diseases

Viruses are parasitic in nature and cause numerous diseases.
(i) Hepatitis It is characterised by the presence of inflammatory cells in the tissue of the organ particularly liver. This condition can
be limiting or can progress to fibrosis (scaring) and cirrhosis. (extensive damage to liver)
Symptoms may or may not appear but can often lead to jaundice, anorexia and acute malaise.
Hepatitis is generally of three types, i.e., hepatitis-A, hepatitis-B and hepatitis-C.
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Hepatitis-A It is an acute infectious disease of liver caused by Hepatitis-A virus (HAV). Main symptoms are fatigue, fever, nausea.
• Other symptoms include appetite loss, jaundice, bile is removed from blood stream and excreted in urine, giving it’s dark
colour, diarrhoea, clay coloured faeces etc.
• Preventive measures are vaccination, good hygiene, sanitation.
Hepatitis-B It is caused by hepatitis-B virus and mainly transmitted through blood fluids, such semen and vaginal fluids but not
through saliva, tears etc.
Hepatitis-B virus generally has circular genome partially double stranded DNA. The virus replicates through RNA intermediate
forms by reverse transcription that relates them to retro viruses.
Hepatitis-B is mainly prevented by vaccination (given in three does over a course of month).
Hepatitis-C It is mainly caused by hepatitis-C virus and is transmitted by use of intravenous drug or blood transfusion from
infected person to a healthy one.
Prevention of Hepatitis-C is not available by vaccination, avoiding infectious transmission is the only measure.
(ii) Bird Flu It is caused by influenza virus-A(H1N1) that primarily affects birds. People like farmers and others who work with
poultry. Travelers who are visiting affected countries, eaters who eat raw or uncooked poultry meat, eggs or blood from infected
birds are also affected.
Symptoms of bird flu are fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, eye infections (conjunctivitis), low lever, tonsils.
In order to cure bird-flue, i.e., taking immunisation vaccine or injection of antitoxin diphtheria within 12-24 hours of appearance of
the symptoms.
(iii) AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system-caused by the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).
AIDS was first recognised by the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 1981. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is
a lentivirus (a member of the retrovirus family).
It gradually destroys the immune system which in turn makes harder for the body to fight against disease.
AIDS is generally transmitted by following

• Through sexual contact may be by oral, vaginal and anal sex.
• Through blood transfusions by accidentally using infected needle sticks or needle sharing.
• From mother to child A pregnant woman can transmit virus to her foetus through their shared blood circulation or a
nursing mother can pass it her baby through breast’s milk.
Symptoms of AIDS include

• Weight loss and loss of breath
• Soaking night sweats, shaking chills
• Cough, headache
• Skin rashes, blurred vision, etc.
Tests for AIDS are

• Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay/Enzyme Immuno Assays (ELISA/EIA)

• Radio Immuno Precipitation Assay/Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Assay (RIP/IFA).
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
• Western Bl or Confirmatory Test.
Treatment AIDS can be treated by using anti-retroviral drugs etc. and by spreading awareness and taking precautions.
(iv) Swine Flu or Swine Influenza or Pig Influenza It is mainly caused by swine influenza virus which is transmitted from pigs to
humans. Swine flu called H1N1 commonly infected many people. The common symptoms of swine flu in people are fever, cough,
sore throat, body aches, headache, chills and fatigue. It is commonly prevented by vaccination.
Viral Diseases
Disease Causative Transmission Symptoms Prevention
Organism
Influenza or Influenza • Air borne droplets • Fever, chill, muscular aches, • Vaccination with live
flu Viruses into the respiratory uneasiness, etc. attenuated virus vaccines
(A and B) tract. • Antibiotics such as
tetracycline, tetracycline,
etc.
Small pox Variola virus • Air borne droplets • High fever, headache, backache, skin • Vaccination
or indirectly rashes on the third day passing • Should remain isolated
through the infected through bright red spots, pustules, from healthy person.
articles. papules and vesicles scabs which fall
on leaving pitted pock marks.
Polio Poliovirus • Intestinal • Effect on central nervous system, • Vaccination: Inoculation
myelitis discharge, cells of the back bone and intestine of salk vaccine invented by
contaminated food, become completely damaged. Salk provide prevention
drink, etc. • Paralytic type of indication follows for polio myelitis.
and reaches maximum within 2-3 days. • Oral vaccine invented by
• Difficulty in forward bending Albert Sabine in 1957 for
movement of head. polio eradication.
Rabies Rabies virus • Bite of animals like • Central nervous system effected. • Anti-rabies vaccine
dog, wolf, fox, etc. • Severe headache, high fever with invented by Louis Pasteur.
alternating stages of excitement and • Series of antibiotics are
depression. given.
• Difficulty in swallowing • Cleaning of wound with
• Paralysis pure carbolic acid or nitric
acid.
• Convulsions, etc.
Chicken pox (Varicella • Infected person, • Fever (appearing about 14 days after • Usage of calamine lotion
zoster virus) clothing or other the contact of disease), headache, on affected area.
articles. appearance of reddish spots turning • Isolated from healthy
into the pearly blisters on the chest, persons.
back and face, abdomen
• Scabs from 4-5th day of the fever.
Meningitis Enterovirus, • Through cerebo • Vaccination
Herpes spinal fluid. • Antibiotics
simplex
virus.
Dengue or Dengue virus • Bite of mosquitoes • High fever • Use of mosquito
break bone (Flavin ribo like Aedes aegypti, • Rashes on face and head repellents, bed rest
fever virus) Aedes albopictus, • Hygiene maintenance
• Severe pain in eyes
Culex fatigans • Weakness • Proper medication by

• Muscle and joint pain doctor
SARS SARS corona Virus can spread the • Fever and cough • Antibiotics
virus infection by leaving • Lethargy symptoms • High doses of steroids to
respiratory droplets reduce swelling in Lungs.
• Sore throat
on objects.
• Breathing problem • Oxygen, breathing
support.
Viral Herpes • Through mosquito • Fever, headache, vomiting, pain, • Vaccination
encephalitis simplex bite drowsiness, stiffness of neck,
virus, rabies • Incubation period convulsions, mental confusions may
virus, polio is 5-25 days. lead to blindness, deafness, etc.
virus, etc.
Mumps Paramyxo • Through infected • Fever, swelling in glands particularly • Vaccination with live
virus saliva and by means salivary gland, parotid gland or organs. attenuated virus like MMR
of spreads of virus • Severe pain when mouth is opened. vaccine.
mumps. • Mouth wash with a soft
• Incubation period is 25-25 days.
warm water relaxes the
suffering in people up to a
great extent.
Measles Rubeola • Air borne diseases • Fever, inflammation of respiratory • Inoculation of gamma
virus occurs specially in mucous membranes, sensitive to light, globulin
children. loss of appetite, vomiting, rashes on • Complete rest
the skin, which are eliminated in
• Good light intake
nearly 10 days.
• Drinking boiled, filtered
water.
Yellow Yellow fever • Bite of mosquito • Fever begins after an incubation • Plasma transfusion
fever virus (live as Aedes aegypti period of three to six days. • Use of mosquito
parasite in • Fever, headache, chills, back pain, repellent
animals) loss appetite, nausea, vomiting. • Vaccination
Flavin virus
• Liver damage resulting in severe
jaundice yellowing of the skin.
• Human death in severe cases.
Herpes Herpes • Contact with an • Typical skin sores. • Antiviral drugs such as
simplex virus infected area of skin acyclovir and vala cyclovir.
during reaction
action of virus.
Chikunguny Chikungunya By the bite of Aedes Sudden onset of fever, Crippling joint • Bed rest and adequate
a virus aegypti mosquito pain. fluid intake.
Zika Virus
• It is caused by virus and spread by Ades Agypti Mosquito
• Symptoms: Headache, fever, Rashes
• It was discovered in Human 1952 in Uganda.
Nipah Virus
• It was discovered in Malaysia in 1999
• It spread by pig and Bat
• Symptoms Brain Swelling
Ebola Virus
• It was discovered in 2014 in Malaysia.
• Symptoms: Fever, Headache, Bleeding.
• Spread by air
Fungal Diseases
Pathogenic fungi are the fungi that has the ability to cause disease in humans or other organisms.
Fungal Diseases
Organism
Athlete's Trichophyton • Through, walking on infected • Skin problems • Consult physician
foot floors and mats • Wear footwears
Scabies Acarus • Direct skin to skin contact • Some irritation occur Usage of permethrin,
scabies • Contact with infected object on skin making it dry invermectin.
with white rashes.
Dhobie itch Candida • Direct contact of the objects • Red rashes with • Antifungal medication of the
or crotch albicans handled by infected person. itching usually in groin. allylamine or azole type
itch or
Tinea cruris
Ringworm Micosporum • Acquired from soil • Dry scaly lesions, • Avoiding the use of articles
trichophyton • Heat and moisture • Intense itching such as towel, clothes, comb of
infected person
• Avoiding the direct contact
with infected articles.
Protozoan Disease
Protozoans are single-celled organisms that cause disease in humans ranging in severity from wild to deadly.
Protozoan Diseases
Organism
Kala-azar Leishmania • Through bite of sand fly • Enlargement of organs • As directed by physician.
donovani like spleen, liver
• Fever, jaundice and
skin pigmentation
Sleeping Trypanosoma • Through the bite of tse-tse • Fever, headache. • Injecting tripermide.
sickness brucei fly • Enlargement of glands
(Protozoan at the back of the neck,
parasite) rashes on the back and
chest, pain in the joints,
eyelid swelling in ankles
and hands, mental
disturbance, lethargy,
etc.
Amoebic Entamoeba • Through contaminated raw • Mild diarrhoea, in • Environmental
dysentery or histolytica fruit and other food and severe cases, mucosa sanitation
amoebiasis drinks. and blood appears in the • Drink filtered water.
stools.
• No immunisatioin is
available.
• Effective medicines like
antrichondiro form,
mexaform, etc.
Pyorrhoea Entamoeba • Sexually transmitted • Pus in teeth emerges • Regular dental check up
gingivalis through the gums of the regular cleaning of teeth
teeth. gums, flossing and
• Sometime wounds also brushing, use of antiseptic
occur in the roots of the mouthwashes.
teeth.
Malaria
It is a common disease caused by a protozoan Plasmodium species and its transmitting agent is female Anopheles mosquito that
transfers the sporozoites of Plasmodium.
Symptoms of malaria include
• Influenza like illness, shaking chills, headache, muscle ache, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea may occur.
• Malaria may also cause anemia and jaundice because of the loss of red blood cells. It if remain untreated, can quickly become
life-threatening by disrupting the blood supply to vital organs.
• May even cause kidney failure, seizures, mental confusion, coma and even death.
Bacterial Diseases
The diseases which are caused by bacteria by its interference in host mechanism are termed as bacteria diseases.
Some Common Bacteria Diseases
Some common diseases caused by bacteria are

(i) Tuberculosis It is commonly known as TB, is a bacterial infection caused by bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis that can
spread through the lymph nodes and blood stream to any organ in the body.
It is most often found in the lungs. Most people who are exposed to TB never develop symptoms because the bacteria can live in an
inactive from in the body. But if the immune system weakens such as in people with HIV or elderly adults, TB bacteria can become
active. In their active state, TB bacteria causes death of tissue and organs they infect. Active TB disease can be fatal if left untreated.
Infection is most likely to occur if a normal person is exposed to TB patient on a day-to-day basis such as by living or working is
close quarters with someone who has the active disease.
(ii) Typhoid It is a common bacterial disease whose agent is bacteria Salmonella typhi, which enters the small intestine through
contaminated water and food and migrate to other organs of the body through blood.
Its symptoms include high fever (39 – 400C), weakness, stomach pain, constipation, headache and loss of appetite. In serious cases,
intestinal perforation and death may also occur. Widal test is the diagnostic test for the typhoid.
(iii) Tetanus or Lock Jaw It is a condition characterised by prolonged contraction of skeletal muscle fibres particularly those of
face and jaws. It is caused by Clostridum or Bacillus tetani.
Bacterial Diseases
Organism
Cholera Vibrio cholerae • Contaminated food and • Reduction in body's water • Drink pure water or
water level. boiled water, eat light
• Spread by house fly. • Slow down of blood food and careful disposal
circulation. of wastes.
• Incubation period 2-3 days. • Vaccine is available for
immunisation.
• Vomiting, acute diarrhoea,
muscular cramps, etc.
Diphtheria Corynebacterium • Droplets sprayed from • Mild fever, sore throat, • Immunisation vaccine or
diphtheriae mouth and nose during patches on false membrane in to take the injection of
talking, coughing, etc. the throat. antitoxin diphtheria
• Incubation period of disease within 12-24 hours of its
is nearly 3-5 days. appearance
Plague Yersinia or • Through flea bite or • Acute body pain, reddish • Exit of infected rats from
Bacillus pestis accidental contact with eyes, increase in body the diseased zone
infected rat. temperature, inflammation of • Proper vaccination
• Xanopsylla cheopis is a glands in the neck, armpit
• Usage of sulphur drugs
deadly flea that causes and thigh and delirivchi, etc.
and streptomycin.
plague by entering in the
human body.
Whooping Bordetalla • Through air and • Cough in night initially and • Immunisation of infants
cough pertusis commonly occur in after sometime occur in day with the immune serum
infants and children. as well as in night. and vaccine such as DPT,
etc.
Pneumonia Streptococcus • Through air borne • Chills, chest pain, • Protection from
pneumoniae droplets and the affected production of sputum, excessive cold must be
people suffer from a breathing problems, taken.
chronic fever and abdominal pain, etc. • Antibiotic drugs must be
respiratory problems. used.
Syphilis Treponema • Through sexual • Red spots on penis and • Use penicillin and other
(sexually pallidium intercourse made with vagina after sexual antibiotic, drugs.
transmitted infected person. intercourse
disease) • Serious tissue disruption on
any part of the body.

• Painless sore on the genitlia.
• Skin eruptions, etc.
Gonorrhoea Neisseria • Through sexual • Joint pain redness, swelling, • Avoid sexual contact
(sexually gonorrhoea intercourse with the pus discharge through with infected person.
transmitted infected person, in which urethra, frequent and • Effective drugs for
disease) mucous is confined in burning urination. gonorrhoea are penicillin,
between the urine- tetracycline,
reproductive tract, thus streptomycin, etc.
become infected.
Helminths/Worms Diseases
These are parastic worms that cause a wide variety of infectious diseases in humans.
Helminths Diseases
Organism
Tapeworm Taenia • Infected pork • Gastric problems • Take antihelminthic
saginata, • Tapeworm attaches • Anemia medicines as directed by
Taenia solium. itself to the wall of the physician.
small intestine in human.
Filaria Wuchereria • Through biting of the • Enlargement of certain part • Hetrad and medicines
bancrofti infected mosquitoes like legs in elephantiasis MSE, eradication of host
having the filarial • Lymph channel affected mosquitoes.
worms.
• Inflammation
Ascariasis Ascaris • Transmitted through • Internal bleeding, muscular • Anti helminthic
lumibricoides many means which are pain, fever anemia, blockage medication are given
generally contaminated of intestinal passage. using proper sanitation
with faeces technique and by avoiding
uncooked food
Hookworm Roundworm • Through soil in which • Blood loss, anemia heart • Proper disposal of
infection that affects larve lives. burn and constipation, etc. sewage.
small intestine • Hookworm lives as
parasite in the intestine
where they suck blood
by means of a bell
shaped mouth with
teeth.
Non-Communicable Diseases
The diseases that do not transmit from one individual to another individual, i.e., from patient to healthy person are called non-
communicable diseases.
These diseases are mainly caused by exogenous factors like nutritional deficiencies, e.g., protein deficiency (kwashiorkor or
marasmus), vitamin-B deficiency (pellagra), vitamin-C (scurvy), vitamin-D (rickets), lack of iodine (goitre) etc. However, some of
them are caused by endogenous factors like hormonal deficiencies e.g. hypo or hyper thyroidism.
Types of Non-Communicable Diseases
The non-communicable diseases can be of the following types.
Degenerative Diseases
These are caused by malfunctioning of some vetal organ or organs of the body e.g., cancer, heart attack, diabetes, arthritis, etc.
Cancer
Cancer is a disease in which normal cell loses their growth control and regulating abilities and generate an abnormal mass of cells
called neoplasm.
These cells are called cancerous cells and the genes that are responsible for causing cancer are known as oncogenes.
Cancer is the most common in elderly people because they have accumulated more mutations.
Tumor It is a mass of cells, formed due to uncontrolled division of cells. Tumors are the characteristic sign of cancerous growth.
These are broadly divided into two types of tumors
• Benign Tumor They remain confined to their original location and do not spread to other parts to the body. They cause less
damage to the body.
• Malignant Tumor They are a mass of proliferating cells, called as neoplastic or tumor cells. These cells grow rapidly,
invading and damaging the surrounding normal cells and tissue.
These cancerous cells let other cells to starve competing for the nutrients because of their unregulated growth reach other cells as
will through blood flow, where they start forming a new tumor. This property is called metastasis.
Carcinogenic Agents
Cancer is caused due to various agents. It can be induced by physical, chemical or biological means such as X-ray, UV-rays,
radioactive isotopes and other ionising radiations which cause mutations in DNA, RNA. Some chemicals like nicotine, caffeine,
colchine, several polycyclic hydrocarbons, sex hormones and steroids or viruses like DNA virus, simian virus 40 and a group of RNA
virus called retro viruses act as corcinogenic agents.
Symptoms of Cancer Cancer symptoms include unhealing wound or unusual bleeding or discharge, a lump or thickening in the
breast or else where hearseness or cough, indigestion or difficulty in swallowing.
Types of Cancer and their Origin
Types of Cancer Origin
Carcinomas Cells of the skin, living membranes from the internal organs and glandular
organs.
Sarcomas Muscles, bone cartilages and connective tissue.
Gliomas Networks of supporting tissues in the brain and central nervous systems.
Melanoma (most dangerous type of cancer) Pigmented moles on the skin.

Lymphomas or Hodgkin's disease (now Lymphatic system (lymph nodes and other tissues).
known as lymphoma)
Retinoblastoma Eye (hereditary tumor).
Cancer Detection and Diagnosis

Radiography, Biopsy, Blood and Bone Marrow tests, Resonance imaging, Monoclonal antibodies and Computed tomography.
Treatment of Cancer
Treatment of cancer involves the following methods
• Chemotherapy Several chemotherapeutic drugs are in use to kill cancer cells. But their side effects like hair loss, anemia etc.
are also reported.
• Surgery Tumors are removed by surgery to check further spread of cancer cells.
• Radiotherapy Tumor cells are irradiated by lethal doses of radiation by protecting the surrounding normal cells.
• Immunotherapy Biological modifiers like -interferons are used to activate the immune system and help in destroying the
tumor.
Diabetes
It is a long-term condition caused when too much glucose (sugar) gets accumulated in the blood.
It occurs due to the lack of production of insulin (insulin is a hormone produced by part of the pancreas; a large gland located
behind the stomach). It controls the amount of glucose in our blood. It moves glucose from the blood into our cell, where it is
converted into energy.
There are two main types of diabetes
Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes Insipidus
Type 1 Diabetes mellitus occurs when the body doesn’t produce enough insulin to function property. Without insulin, the body
breaks down its own fat and muscle (leading to weight loss). In type 1 diabetes this can lead to a serious short-term condition,
where the bloodstream becomes acidic along with dangerous dehydration (diabetic ketoacidosis). Usually diagnosed in children
and adults.
Type 2 Diabetes insipidus is far more common that type 1 diabetes, which occurs when the body doesn’t use insulin property.
(insulin resistance) At first, pancreas makes extra insulin. But over time, it is not able to keep up and cannot make enough insulin to
keep blood glucose at normal levels. Type 2 diabetes usually affects people over the age of 40, although increasingly, younger
people are also being affected.
Arthritis
It is mainly a joint disorder in which inflammation of one or more joints occur.
• Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) It is a long-term disease that leads to the inflammation of joints and surrounding tissues. It can
also affect other organs.
• Osteoarthritis It is a joint inflammation that results from cartilage degeneration. It can be caused by ageing, hereditary and
injury from trauma or disease. The most common symptoms of osteoarthritis is pain in the affected joint(s) after repetitive
use.
• Gout It is a kind of arthritis. It can cause an attack of sudden burning pain, stiffness and swelling in a joint, usually a big toe.
These attacks can happen over and over unless gout is treated. Overtime, they can harm your joints, tendons and other
tissues. Gout is the most common disease in men.
Deficiency Diseases
The disease caused due to the lack of any nutrient like vitamin, mineral, carbohydrate etc. are termed as deficiency diseases.
Goitre
It is the enlargement of the thyroid gland and is not cancerous. A person with goitre can have normal levels of thyroid hormone
(euthyrodism), excessive levels (hyperthyroidism) or levels that are too low (hypothyroidism).
It is commonly caused by a lack of iodine in a person’s diet. Some patients may have goitre and not know it because they have no
symptoms in most cases.
Anemia
It is a condition that develops when your blood lacks enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin. Symptoms of anemia-like
fatigue-
There are more than 400 types of anemia which are divided into three groups
• Anemia caused by blood loss.
• Anemia caused by decreased or faulty red blood cell production.
• Anemia caused by destruction of red blood cells.
Deficiency Diseases, their Symptoms and Prevention

Disease Deficiency Symptoms Prevention
Marasmus Protein and • Chronic diarrhoea • Well balanced diet with lots of fruits
carbohydrates • Dizziness and vegetables, grains and proteins.
(occur in age less • Mother milk.
• Fatigue, rapid weight loss
than one)
• Dry skin, loose skin folds on buttocks,
armpit, etc.
• Muscle degeneration, loss of adipose
tissue from buttocks and thigh.
Rickets Vitamin-D • Bone tenderness • Intake of diet rich in calcium,
• Dental problems phosphates and Vitamin-D
• Muscle weakness
• Increased tendency to fractures
• Skeletal deformities i.e. bowed legs,
knock knees, cranial deformities and
pelvic deformities
• Hypocalcemia
Hypokalemia Potassium • Cardiac arrhythmias or RS abnormalities • Oral or intravenous potassium salts
• Rapid ventricular responses • Proper medication.
• Severe muscular weakness or paralysis
• Kidney damage
Hyponatremia Sodium • Non-specific and include mental changes, • Intravenous fluid and electrolyte
headache, nausea, vomiting, tiredness, replacement.
muscle spasms, etc.
Beri-Beri Vitamin-B1 • Weight loss • Usage of thiamine
(Thiamine) • Emotional disturbance • Feeding with thiamine rich-diet, e.g.,
• Impaired sensory perception. whole grain brown bread.
• Weakness and pain in the limbs
• Loss of appetite
• Headache
• Breathlessness
• Increase or irregularity in heart rate
• Edema
Pellagra Vitamin-B3 • High sensitivity to sunlight • Treatment with nicotine-amide
(Niacin) • Aggression
• Dermatitis's, hair loss, edema
• Red skin lesions
• Weakness
• Diarrhoea
• Mental confusion
• Insomnia
Scurvy Vitamin-C • Early symptoms-malaise and lethargy • Intake of vitamin-C rich food like
(Ascorbic acid) • After 1-3 months breath-lessness, bone orange, lemon, papaya, strawberries
pain, skin changes like roughness, etc.
bruising, gum disease, dental problems,
emotional changes etc.
Ariboflavinosis Vitamin-B2 • Cheilosis (lesions the lips and the angles • Intake of riboflavin rich diet i.e.,
(Riboflavin) of the mouth) milk and milks products, meats, leafy
• Angular stomatitis (inflammation of the vegetables, eggs, wheat germ, fortified
mucous membrane of the mouth) flour and bread.
• Itching, burning, dimness of vision and
feeling of grittiness in the eyes
Night Vitamin-A • Short-sightedness • Uses of lenses
blindness or • Cataract • Glaucoma medication
nyctalpia
• Problem in cells of retina
• Retinitis pigmentosa
Pernicious Vitamin-B12 • Fatigue, depression, low-grade fever, • Supplements for Vitamin-B12
anemia or (cobalamin) nausea, jaundice, glossitis, gastrointestinal • Intramuscular injection
megalycytic disorders, headache, increases pulse rate,
• Oral doses
anemia high blood pressure
Osteoporosis Calcium • Bone loss, backpain, loss of height and • Calcium and vitamin D, intake taking
overtime bone fracture protein supplements, proper exercise
and medications.
Genetic Diseases
The diseases occur due to deficiency in the chromosome or gene are referred to as genetic or genetic disorders, e.g., Progeria, Cri-du
chat syndrome and Patau’s syndrome.
Mental Disorder
A mental disorder or mental illness is a disturbed psychological pattern or anomaly, potentially reflected in behaviour, that is
generally associated with distress or disability, which is not considered as part of normal development of a person’s culture.
Alzheimer’s Disease
There is no cure for the disease which worsens as it progresses and eventually leads to death.
Dyslexia
It is a learning disorder characterised by difficulty in reading common in children. It is also called specific reading disability. These
inherited traits appear to affect parts of the brain concerned with language.
Signs and symptoms that a young child may be at risk of dyslexia include
• Late talking
• Learning new words slowly
• Difficulty in rhyming
There’s no cure for dyslexia. Emotional support in curing the disease plays an important role.
Schezophrenia
It is a brain disorder that affects the way a person acts, thinks, and sees the world. People with schizophrenia have an altered
perception of reality, often a significant loss of contact with reality.
It is a chronic disorder and tends to be more severe in men than in women.
Immunity
The ability of the body (host) to fight against the disease causing agent, is called immunity. It is of two types
Innate Immunity
It includes all the defense elements with which an individual is born and are always available to protect the body.
It consists of barrier system that prevent the entry of pathogens or foreign elements into the body. e.g., skin, acid in stomach, tears
from eyes, WBCs, etc.
Acquired Immunity
It is pathogen specific and is not present from birth and is developed during an individual’s lifetime. i.e., it is acquired after the birth
either by contracting the disease or by vaccination.
Types of Acquired Immunity
(i) Active Immunity It is the immunity developed by the body, when it is exposed to the antigens. Antibodies are produced by the
body in this case.
Introduction of pathogens or microbes either during immunisation or by any infection induce active immunity. It is slow but long
lasting process and has no side effects.
(ii) Passive Immunity It is simply the direct transfer of actively formed antibodies from one person (or other animal) to another,
the recipient-thus receives preformed antibodies.
Some examples of passive immunity are
(i) Antibodies received by foetus from mother through placenta.
(ii) Antibodies in the colostrum (IgA rich), i.e., yellowish fluid secreted by mother during the initial days of lactation.
Antibodies
It is a type of protein molecule produced by B-lymphocytes in response to antigents. (foreign molecule that can trigger immune
response) T-cells do not secrete antibodies directly however, they help B-cells to produce them.
Types of Antibodies
Class Description
IgG Main antibody type in circulation, attacks microorganisms and their toxins.
IgA Main antibody type in secretions, such as saliva and milk attacks microorganisms and their toxins.
IgE Antibody responsible for allergic reactions.
IgM Antibody type found in circulation largest antibody with 5 subunits
IgD Antibody type found primarily as a membrane bound immunoglobulin.
Immune Responses
(i) Primary Response It is the response, when a body encounters a pathogen for the first time. It is of low intensity. After every
primary response, memory stores the details of the encounter.
(ii) Secondary Immune Response/Anamnestic Response It develops when the same antigen encounters the second time, i.e.,
the memory of the first encounter helps in the intense secondary response. It has the capacity to distinguish between self
and the foreign molecules/cells as it is highly specific.
Primary and secondary responses are carried out with the help of two types of lymphocytes i.e. B and T-lymphocytes.
Immunisation
It is the process by which an individual’s immune system becomes fortified against an agent. The most important elements of the
immune system that are improved by immunisation are the T-cells, B-cells and the antibodies that B cells produce.
Allergies
The exaggerated or hypersensitive response of the immune system to certain agents in the environment is called allergy. It occurs
when a person’s immune system reacts to harmless substances such as dust, pollen, heat, cold, fabric etc. These all are called
allergens. The antibodies produced in response to allergens are of Ig E type.
Symptoms are sneezing, watery eyes, rashes, running nose, difficulty in breathing (asthma).
Allergy occurs due to release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast cells. Drugs like anti-histamine, adrenaline
and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy.
Autoimmunity
It is the state, where body loses the ability to distinguish between self and non-self cells. The body’s immune system goes off the
track and start destroying self cells and molecules. This leads to damage of body and results in auto immune diseases. e.g.,
Rheumatoid arthritis, Addison’s disease, Hashimoto disease.
Angioplasty
It is the technique of mechanically widening narrowed or obstructed arteries,
the latter typically being a result of atherosclerosis. An empty and collapsed
balloon on a guide wire, known as a balloon catheter, is passed into the
narrowed locations and then inflated to a fixed size using water pressures some
75-500 times normal blood pressure (6-20 atmosphere). The balloon crushes
the fatty deposits, opening up the blood vessel for improved flow, and the
balloon is then deflated and withdrawn. A stent may or may not be inserted at
the time of ballooning to ensure the vessel remains open.
Organ Transplantation
It is the transfer of an organ from one body to another or from a donor site to another
location on the patient’s own body, for the purpose of replacing the recipient’s damaged or
absent organ.
Organs and/or tissues that are transplanted within the same person’s body are called auto
grafts. Transplants that are performed between two subjects of the same species are called
allografts.
Non-Invasive Technique
Some diagnostic techniques
X-ray Radiography
In this, an X-ray beam is allowed to pass through the patient on to a photographic plate.
It is commonly employed for diagnosing diseases of the heart, lungs and bones.
Angiography
It is used to visualise the insider or lumen of blood vessels and organs of the body, particularly in arteries, veins and heart
chambers.
In this image intensifiers are used to provide real image and Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) are used to view the images.
Computed Tomographic Scanning (CT Scan)

It is a special radiograph technique which combines X-ray imaging with computer
techniques to produce and visualize clearly two or three-dimensional cross sectioned
image of deep internal organs that could never be attained by conventional X-ray
methods.
Since, this technique combines the use of X-ray with computers and hence, it is called
Computed Tomography (CT) or Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT). CT scan
provides broad and detailed information that obtained by X-rays.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

This medical test is used by the doctors to diagnose and treat
diseases that cannot be accurately diagnosed by X-rays,
ultrasound and CT scan. It is mainly used to detect lesions of
multiple sclerosis on brain and spinal cord and also to examine
joint injuries and slip disk conditions. It can have be helpful in
examination of cancerous tumors and to measure blood flow.
By this technique, the detailed picture of organs such as heart,
kidney, liver pancreas is obtained on a computer screen. This
image can be printed or copied on a Compact Disc (CD).
Ultrasound Imagine (Sonography)

This technique uses ultrasound for producing images of internal body parts. Ultrasound
is mainly a high frequency sound waves, above the human hearing range of 20 kHz to
2000 kHz. In sonography, inaudible high frequency sound waves in the range of 1-15
MHz, are produced through a physical phenomenon called piezo electric effect.
• It is very useful in diagnosing kidney stones, gall bladder stones, liver cirrhosis,
obstructions in intestine, uterus, etc.
• It also reveals pregnancy and foetal abnormalities and ultrasound also plays an
important role in studying heart functioning by echocardiography.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
This test is performed to measure the electrical activity of the brain, i.e.,
voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current flow within the neurons of
the brain. It is mainly used to diagnose epilepsy, brain diseases such as
encephalitis, dementia, head injuries, brain tumors, brain haemorrhage,
insomnia etc.
It is also helpful in determining the level of brain functions in people who are
in coma. The functioning of EEG depends on the neurons of the brains that
generate electrical impulse which fluctuate rhythmically in a specific manner.
Immunotherapy
It is a medial term defined as the treatment of disease by inducing, enhancing
or suppressing an immune response.
Hormone Therapy or Hormonal Therapy

Some useful examples include
• Hormonal therapy for cancer.

• Testosterone replacement in males with low levels due to disease or ageing.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
It is a nuclear medical imaging technique that produces a three-dimensional image or picture of functional processes in the body.
Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery
It is a surgical procedure performed to reduce the risk of death from coronary artery disease. Arteries or veins from elsewhere in
the patient’s body are grafted to the coronary arteries to bypass atherosclerotic narrowing's and improve the blood supply to the
coronary artery supplying the myocardium (heart muscle). This surgery is usually performed with the heart stopped.
Some Diagnostic Techniques Available in Kits

(i) Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) It is mainly used as an initial screening or HIV detection on the basic of
antigen-antibody interaction.
(ii) Pregnancy Test Kits This kit is usually to test or determine whether a woman is pregnant or not. It uses markers, i.e., urine and
blood that indicate pregnancy and require them as sampling substances.
These kits are used by women now-a-days at home to check pregnancy. The kit method is simple. It measured the hormone, human
Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) in urine.
These kits are easily available in market by various brands such i-sure, Prega news etc.
INTRODUCTION TO BIOTECHNOLOGY
Biotechnology is technology based on biology - biotechnology harnesses cellular and
biomolecular processes to develop technologies and products that help improve our lives and
the health of our planet. We have used the biological processes of microorganisms for more
than 6,000 years to make useful food products, such as bread and cheese, and to preserve
dairy products.
Some Interrelated Fields of Biotechnology

Blue biotechnology - Marine and aquatic application of biotechnology
Green biotechnology - Agricultural processes
Red biotechnology - Medical processes
White biotechnology - Industrial processes
Conversion of Milk into Curd Usage of Lactobacillus bacteria can convert lactose sugar present in milk into lactic acid. When milk
is heated to a temperature of 30-400C and then, Lactocillus bacteria is added to it in the form of old curd (inoculum). It slowly gets
converted into curd by the growth of Lactobacillus bacteria and this slow conversion process is known as fermentation.
Formation of Alcoholic Beverages Alcoholic beverages contain ethanol which is produced by fermentation i.e. by metabolism of
carbohydrates, by certain species of yeasts under anaerobic or low oxygen conditions.
DNA Fingerprinting
It is also known as DNA typing or genetic fingerprinting This technique is mainly used to identify a person on the basis of person’s
DNA specificity.
Uses of DNA Fingerprinting
(i) In identification of individuals in case of rape, murder and other crimes.
(ii) In solving maternity and paternity disputes.
(iii) It is also helpful in breeding programmes for endangered animals.
Gene Therapy
It is a very important technique of genetic engineering that is used to treat genetic diseases by altering defected genes. The most
common form of gene therapy involves use of DNA that encodes a functional, therapeutic gene in order to replace a mutated or
damaged gene
Types of Gene Therapy
Gene therapy is of the following two types
(i) Somatic Gene Therapy In which, genes are transferred into the somatic cells (cell other than reproductive cell) or body of a
patient.
(ii) Germ Line Gene Therapy In which, germ cells i.e. sperm or eggs are modified by the introduction of functional genes, which
are integrated into their genomes.
Cloning
It is the process of producing genetically identical organisms. Organism cloning is also known as reproductive cloning. It generally
uses Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT) to create animals that are generally identical.
The lamb Dolly was the first successful clone obtained from differentiated animal cells.
Human Genome Project (HGP)

This was a mega project of 13 years that was launched in the year 1990 by collaborative research work and completed in 2003. It
was coordinated by US department of Energy and the National Institute of Health. Its main aim was to do complete mapping and
understanding of all the genes (or genome) of human beings
Note:
• The field which deals with the study of structure and functions of genes is called genomics.
• Sources in Pencillium notatum (P. Chrysogenum)
In-vitro Fertilisation (IVF)

It is a process by which an egg is fertilised by sperm outside the body. IVF is a major treatment for infertility. The process, involves
monitoring a woman’s ovulatory process, removing eggs from the woman’s ovaries and fertilising them in a fluid medium in
laboratory (in vitro).
The fertilized egg i.e., zygote is then transferred to the patient’s uterus with the intention of establishing a successful pregnancy. It
is also termed an ‘test tube baby’ technique and It was developed by Robert G Edwards and Patrick Streptoe.
IVF can also be used with egg donation or surrogacy, where the woman providing the egg isn’t the same who will carry the
pregnancy to term. This means that IVF can be used for females, who have already gone through menopause.
Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT)
In this method, eggs are removed from a woman’s ovaries and placed in the Fallopian tubes along with the man’s sperm.
Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT)
This technique is used where a blockage in the Fallopian tubes prevents the normal binding of sperm to the egg. Egg cell is removed
from a woman’s ovaries and is fertilised in-vitro. The resulting zygote is placed into the Fallopian tube by the use of laparoscopy.
ZIFT has a success rate of 64.8% in all cases.
Aloe Vera (Medicinal Aloe, Burn Plant, Ghrit kumari)
Aloevera helps in curing various diseases and also help in sustaining youth due to its positive effects on the skin and health. Hence,
it is called ghee kunvar or ghee kumari.
Neem
Its botanical name is Azadirchta Indica
(i) It helps in curing several skin diseases.
(ii) It also helps in providing healthy hair, to improve liver functions, detoxify the blood and balance blood sugar levels. Its
leaves have also been used to treat skin diseases like eczema, psoriasis, etc.
Tulsi (Ocimum tenuiflorum)
Tulsi is mostly used for medicinal purposes and in herbal cosmetics and is widely used in skin preparations, for fever, cold and
infections.
Turmeric
Zingberene, Cineol and berneol are the constituents found in turmeric.
It has curcumin, as an active ingredient that is used in the treatment of an array of disease i.e. cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes,
allergies, arthritis and other chronic illness. India is considered as a significant producers of turmeric.
Banyan Tree
Or ficus benghalensis, which is the National Tree of the Republic of India.
The rubber produced from the sticky milk of banyan tree, is used for gardening.
Common Name Scientific Name Uses
Anti-pyretic, digestive and carminative ionic, provide relief in colics, jaundice,
Amla Emblica officinalis
haemorrhages, etc.
Brahmi Bacopa monnieri Helps to treat brain disease, rheumatism, constipation, bronchitis, etc.
Sericulture
It is a rearing practice of silkworm for producing raw silk. China was known to be the
originator for cultivating silk for cloth preparation. Now Japan, India, Russia, Brazil. Italy and
France are also participating in silk cultivation.
Pisciculture
It deals with the cultivation of fishes. Fishes are regarded as a valuable and easily available source of protein rich food.
By-products of Fishes
(i) Fish Oil It is extracted from the body liver of fishes. It is used for medicinal purposes.
Liver oil contains vitamin-A, vitamin-D, vitamin-E, cholesterol, hydrocarbons.
(ii) Fish Meal After obtaining fish oil rest part fish is dried and used to feed cattle, pigs,
poultry birds. etc.
(iii) Fish Flour It is consumed by humans, as it is rich in proteins and easily digestible.
(iv) Isinglass It is obtained from the swim bladder of different fishes by scraping and drying. It is a gelatinous substance used for
the purification of wine beer, vinegar, etc and for the preparation of purse, ribbon, plaster etc.
SENSORY ORGANS
Sensory organ includes the organs that respond to the stimuli and send signal to the CNS where all the inputs are processed and
analysed, signals are then sent to different parts or centres of the brain.
e.g., for vision-eye, for hearing-ear, for smell-nose, for taste –tongue and for touch-skin.
Eye (Photoreceptors)
Humans have a pair of eyes situated in the sockets of the
skull called orbits. The eye ball is mainly spherical in
structure.
A human eye has the following main parts
• Cornea It is the transparent spherical membrane
covering the front of the eye. Light enters the eye
through this membrane. Most of the refraction of
light ray entering the eye occurs at the outer
surface of the cornea.
• Lens It is the central part of the eye that facilitates
the image formation.
• Iris It is dark muscular diaphragm between the
cornea and the lens. It controls the size of the pupil.
It is the colour of the iris that we call colour of the eye.
• Pupil It is a small hole between the iris through which light enters the eye. In dim light, it opens up completely due to
contraction of iris muscle, but in bright light it becomes very small due to relaxation of iris muscles.
• Ciliary Muscles They hold the lens in position and help in modifying the curvature of the lens.
• Retina It is the light-sensitive surface of eye on which the image is formed. It contains light-sensitive cells rods and cones.
Rod cells respond to the intensity of light and cones respond to the illumination. There number is around 125 million.
Number of rod cells is greater than number of cone cells. These cells generate signals which are transmitted to the brain
through optical nerves.
• Optic Nerves It transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.
• Sclera It is an opaque, fibrous, protective, outer layer of an eye containing collagen and elastic fiber. It is also known as
white of the eye.
• Blind Spot It is the point at which the optic nerves leave the eye. It contains no rods and cones, so an image formed at this
point is not sent to the brain.
Age (years) Least distance of distinct vision
10 18 cm
20 25 cm
40 50 cm
60 200 cm or more
• Aqueous Humor Behind the cornea, we have a space filled with a transparent liquid called the aqueous humour and behind
this there is a crystalline lens, which helps to refract light to be focused on retina and maintains intraocular pressure.
• Vitreous Humor The space between eye less and retina is filled with another liquid called vitreous humour.
• Iris regulates the amount of light entering through the eye by adjusting the size of the pupil.
• The pupil appears black, because no light is reflected from it.
• The eyeball is nearly spherical in shape with a diameter of 2.3 cm.
Mechanism of Vision
The process of vision take place in the following Steps
(i) The light rays in visible wavelength focus on retina through cornea and lens generate impulse in rods and cones.
(ii) Human eyes are composed of opsin (protein) and retinal (aldehyde of vitamin-A). Light induces dissociation of retinal from
option resulting changes in the structure of opsin. This cause change in membrane permeability.
(iii) Consequently, potential difference generated in the photoreceptor cells.
(iv) This product a signal that generates an action potential in ganglion cells through bipolar cells.
(v) The action potential or impulses are transmitted by the optic nerves to the visual cortex area of the brain, where the neural
impulses are analysed.
(vi) The image formed on the retina is recognized based on earlier memory and experience.
Note:
• All babies are colour blind when they are born.
• Shark cornea has been used in eye surgery due to its similarity with human cornea.
• Birds can see ultraviolet frequencies
Ear
The human ear-participate in the following two functions, i.e., hearing and maintenance of balance of the body.
Structurally, an ear is divided into three major sections, i.e., Outer ear, middle ear and the inner ear.
Outer ear further consists of two main parts.
Pinna It collects vibrations in the air that produce sound.
External Auditory Meatus It leads inwards and extends up to the tympanic membrane (ear drum). Middle ear contains three ear
ossicles, i.e., malleus, incus and stapes, which are attached to one another in a chain like manner.
The ear ossicles mainly increase the efficiency of transmission of sound waves to the inner ear. There is an eustachian tube that
connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx and equalize the pressure on either side of the ear drum.
The fluid-filled in the inner part of the ear is called labyrinth which consist of two parts. i.e., bony labyrinth and membranous
labyrinth.
The inner portion of ear also contains a complex system called vestibular apparatus, which is mainly responsible for the
maintenance of balance of the body and posture.
Mechanism of Hearing
(i) The external ear receives sound waves and direct them to ear drum.
(ii) It vibrates in response to the sound waves and these vibrations are transmitted through ear ossicles to oral window
(attached to stapes).
(iii) The vibrations are passed through the oval window on the fluid of the cochlea, where waves generate.
(iv) Nerve impulses are generated in associated afferent neurons.
(v) These impulses are transmitted by the afferent fibers via auditory nerves to the auditory lartex of the brain, where the
impulses are analysed and the sound is recognized.
Nose (Smell)
The nose is the organ responsible for the sense of smell. The cavity of the nose is lined with
mucous membranes that have smell receptors connected to the olfactory nerve. The smell
themselves consists of vapours of various substances. The smell receptors interact with the
molecules of these vapours and transmit the sensations to the brain.
Skin (Touch)
Structure of skin
The sense of touch is distributed throughout the body. Nerve endings in the skin and other parts of the body transmit sensations to
the brain. Some parts of the body have a larger number of nerve endings and therefore, are more sensitive. Four kinds of touch
sensations can be identified cold, heat, contact, and pain. Hairs on the skin magnify the sensitivity and act as an early warning
system for the body. The fingertips and the sexual organs have the greatest concentration of nerve endings.
The skin is composed of two major layers: a superficial epidermis and a deeper dermis. The epidermis consists of several layers.
The topmost layer consists of dead cells that shed periodically and is progressively replaced by cells formed from the basal layer.
The dermis connects the epidermis to the hypodermis, and provides strength and elasticity due to the presence of collagen and
elastin fibers. The hypodermis, deep to the dermis of skin, is the connective tissue that connects the dermis to underlying
structures; it also harbors adipose tissue for fat storage and protection
Layers of the Skin

Although you may not typically think of the skin as an organ, it is in fact made of tissues that work together as a single structure to
perform unique and critical functions. The skin and its accessory structures make up the integumentary system, which provides
the body with overall protection. The skin is made of multiple layers of cells and tissues, which are held to underlying structures by
connective tissue . The deeper layer of skin is well vascularized (has numerous blood vessels). It also has numerous sensory, and
autonomic and sympathetic nerve fibers ensuring communication to and from the brain.
Epidermis
The epidermis is composed of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. It is made of four or five layers of epithelial cells,
depending on its location in the body. It does not have any blood vessels within it (i.e., it is avascular). Skin that has four layers of
cells is referred to as “thin skin.” From deep to superficial, these layers are the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum
granulosum, and stratum corneum. Most of the skin can be classified as thin skin. “Thick skin” is found only on the palms of the
hands and the soles of the feet. It has a fifth layer, called the stratum lucidum, located between the stratum corneum and the
stratum granulosum
The cells in all of the layers except the stratum basale are called keratinocytes. A keratinocyte is a cell that manufactures and
stores the protein keratin. Keratin is an intracellular fibrous protein that gives hair, nails, and skin their hardness and water
resistant properties. The keratinocytes in the stratum corneum are dead and regularly slough away, being replaced by cells from
the deeper layers
Dermis
The dermis might be considered the “core” of the integumentary system (derma- = “skin”), as distinct from the epidermis (epi– =
“upon” or “over”) and hypodermis (hypo– = “below”). It contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and other structures, such as hair
follicles and sweat glands. The dermis is made of two layers of connective tissue that compose an interconnected mesh of elastin
and collagenous fibers, produced by fibroblasts
Papillary Layer
The papillary layer is made of loose, areolar connective tissue, which means the collagen and elastin fibers of this layer form a
loose mesh. This superficial layer of the dermis projects into the stratum basale of the epidermis to form finger-like dermal papillae.
Within the papillary layer are fibroblasts, a small number of fat cells (adipocytes), and an abundance of small blood vessels. In
addition, the papillary layer contains phagocytes, defensive cells that help fight bacteria or other infections that have breached the
skin. This layer also contains lymphatic capillaries, nerve fibers, and touch receptors called the Meissner corpuscles.
Reticular Layer
Underlying the papillary layer is the much thicker reticular layer, composed of dense, irregular connective tissue. This layer is well
vascularized and has a rich sensory and sympathetic nerve supply. The reticular layer appears reticulated (net-like) due to a tight
meshwork of fibers. Elastin fibers provide some elasticity to the skin, enabling movement. Collagen fibers provide structure and
tensile strength, with strands of collagen extending into both the papillary layer and the hypodermis. In addition, collagen binds
water to keep the skin hydrated. Collagen injections and Retin-A creams help restore skin turgor by either introducing collagen
externally or stimulating blood flow and repair of the dermis, respectively.
Hypodermis
The hypodermis (also called the subcutaneous layer or superficial fascia) is a layer directly below the dermis and serves to connect
the skin to the underlying fascia (fibrous tissue) of the bones and muscles. It is not strictly a part of the skin, although the border
between the hypodermis and dermis can be difficult to distinguish. The hypodermis consists of well-vascularized, loose, areolar
connective tissue and adipose tissue, which functions as a mode of fat storage and provides insulation and cushioning for the
integument.
Lipid Storage
The hypodermis is home to most of the fat that concerns people when they are trying to keep their weight under control. Adipose
tissue present in the hypodermis consists of fat-storing cells called adipocytes. This stored fat can serve as an energy reserve,
insulate the body to prevent heat loss, and act as a cushion to protect underlying structures from trauma.
Where the fat is deposited and accumulates within the hypodermis depends on hormones (testosterone, estrogen, insulin,
glucagon, leptin, and others), as well as genetic factors. Fat distribution changes as our bodies mature and age. Men tend to
accumulate fat in different areas (neck, arms, lower back, and abdomen) than do women (breasts, hips, thighs, and buttocks). The
body mass index (BMI) is often used as a measure of fat, although this measure is, in fact, derived from a mathematical formula that
compares body weight (mass) to height. Therefore, its accuracy as a health indicator can be called into question in individuals who
are extremely physically fit.
In many animals, there is a pattern of storing excess calories as fat to be used in times when food is not readily available. In much of
the developed world, insufficient exercise coupled with the ready availability and consumption of high-calorie foods have resulted
in unwanted accumulations of adipose tissue in many people. Although periodic accumulation of excess fat may have provided an
evolutionary advantage to our ancestors, who experienced unpredictable bouts of famine, it is now becoming chronic and
considered a major health threat. Recent studies indicate that a distressing percentage of our population is overweight and/or
clinically obese. Not only is this a problem for the individuals affected, but it also has a severe impact on our healthcare system.
Changes in lifestyle, specifically in diet and exercise, are the best ways to control body fat accumulation, especially when it reaches
levels that increase the risk of heart disease and diabetes.
Pigmentation
The color of skin is influenced by a number of pigments, including melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin. Recall that melanin is
produced by cells called melanocytes, which are found scattered throughout the stratum basale of the epidermis. The melanin is
transferred into the keratinocytes via a cellular vesicle called a melanosome
Tongue (Taste)
The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth. The tongue is covered with
moist, pink tissue called mucosa. Tiny bumps called papillae give the tongue
its rough texture. Thousands of taste buds cover the surfaces of the papillae.
Taste buds are collections of nerve-like cells that connect to nerves running
into the brain.
The tongue is anchored to the mouth by webs of tough tissue and mucosa.
The tether holding down the front of the tongue is called the frenum. In the
back of the mouth, the tongue is anchored into the hyoid bone. The tongue is
vital for chewing and swallowing food, as well as for speech.
The four common tastes are sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. A fifth taste, called
umami, results from tasting glutamate present in MSG. The “G” in “MSG” is
responsible for umami, Glutamate is found naturally in many foods such as tomatoes, walnuts, mushrooms and meat. It's also present in many food
ingredients such as soy sauce and MSG (monosodium glutamate). The tongue has many nerves that help detect and transmit taste signals
to the brain. Because of this, all parts of the tongue can detect these four common tastes; the commonly described “taste map” of the
tongue doesn’t really exist.
Taste buds contain the taste receptor cells, which are also known as gustatory cells The taste receptors are located around the
small structures known as papillae found on the upper surface of the tongue, soft palate, upper esophagus, the cheek, and epiglottis.
These structures are involved in detecting the five elements of taste perception
ENVIRONMENT AND ITS EFFECTS

Environment
Environment means the surrounding and everything around us and it can also be defined as the composition of the physical and
biological condition in which can we live. It includes physical conditions like air (atmosphere), water (hydrosphere) and land
(lithosphere) and the biological conditions like plants, animals, human beings, microorganisms (like bacteria, fungi etc.,) and their inter-
relationships.
Types of Environment
There are mainly three types of environment
(i) The Physical Environment (abiotic or natural environment) It includes land, water, atmospheric conditions that leads to the soil
formation.
The factors involved in physical environment are temperature, pressure, moisture precipitation, wind speed, rain water etc.
(ii) Biotic Environment (organic environment) It is the environment responsible for the existence and survival of life.
(iii) Social or Cultural Environment It involves the environment created by man through his different social and cultural activities. It
also constitutes historical, cultural, political, normal and economic aspects of human life.
Atmosphere of Earth
Atmosphere of Earth is in the form of gaseous layer that surrounds the plant. It is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects
the life forms from ultraviolet solar radiation, greenhouse gases etc.
The atmospheric gases, in common term are collectively known as air. Air is colourless, odourless, tasteless and chemically constitutes
of components like nitrogen (78.09%), oxygen (20.95%), argon (0.93), carbon dioxide (0.039%) and small amount of other gases. Air
also contains a variable amount of water vapours, on an average of about 1%. Air content and pressure vary at different layers of
atmosphere. It has different density at different height from sea level which result in the formation of several layers.
Good Ozone and Bad Ozone Good ozone is found in stratosphere which is formed by oxygen molecules. This type of ozone is beneficial for
living organisms. Whereas, bad ozone is found in troposphere which is formed by the reaction of VOC (Volatile Organic Compound) and NO2.
This type of ozone is harmful for living organisms.
Pollution
Pollution is defined as the presence of abnormally high concentrations of harmful substances in the environment. Odum defined
pollution as any undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological properties of air, water and soil due to the presence of pollutant
in it, which can directly or indirectly affect human beings. The continuous rise in human population is the major cause of pollution.
Pollutants
Pollutant includes the substances (may be chemical or other factors) that cause pollution and thereby, change the natural balance of
environment. It can be natural or man made origin.
Types of Pollutants
On the basis of their production, pollutants are of two types
(i) Primary Pollutants These are directly available in the atmosphere such as ash from a volcanic eruption, carbon monoxide
emitted from motor vehicle exhaust, sulphur dioxide released from factories, chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide emitted from
combustion, suspended particulate matter (including smoke, dust and vapour), nitrogen oxides which emerge from burning
from burning of fuels etc.
(ii) Secondary Pollutants These are pollutants which are not emitted directly into the air. They generally form when primary
pollutants come in contact of air and react to form complex compounds. e.g., Peroxyacytyl Nitrate (PAN), ground level ozone
formed from NO and VOCs.
• the order of different pollutants to cause pollution is CO > SO2 > hydrocarbon > particulates > nitrogen oxides.
On the basis of their decomposition, pollutants are also classified into two types.
(i) Biodegradable Pollutants These are the pollutants that may be degraded by natural means like bacteria, fungi etc. e.g.,
municipal solid waste (green waste), food, waste paper, waste biodegrable plastics, human waste, manure, sewage, slaughter
house waste etc.
(ii) Non-biodegradable Pollutants These are the pollutants that either do not degrade or degrade very slowly in nature. These
pollutants are generally toxic and enter into the food chain of organisms. e.g., salts of heavy metals, radioactive materials, DDT,
long chains of phenolic chemical.
• Synergism is the phenomenon of increased toxicity of reaction among the pollutants.
• Most of the biodegradable wastes decay to methane by anaerobic digestion (in the absence of oxygen).
Types of Pollution
Pollution can be classified into the following four groups; air pollution, water pollution, soil and land pollution and sound or noise
pollution.
Air pollution
The occurrence or addition of foreign particles, high concentration of gases etc. which cause an imbalance in the definite ratio of the air,
is called air pollution.
Air Pollution Sources

Smog  Sunlight + Smoke + fog
Oxides of Nitrogen Automobile exhaust and some chemical industries
Carbon Monoxide Automobile exhaust
Sulphur Dioxide Combustion of fossil fuels, Smelting of ores
Hydrogen Sulphide Industrial effluent
Hydrogen Fluoride Laundry, fertilisers, aluminium smelting industries
Aldehydes and Organic Acids Incomplete combustion of petroleum etc.
Secondary Pollutants NO2, O3, N2O5, RCOOH, HCO3 Photochemical reactions of primary pollutants
Dust (SPM) Raw dust from woodworks, sands from sandblasting
Fume Particles of metals and metal oxide formed by condensation of vapour by sublimation etc.
Spray Mechanical disintegration processes
Smoke Incomplete combustion of carboneous material, smoke stacks of thermal power plants
Toxicants and Heavy metals Metallurgical operations (Hg, Ni, Pb, Cd)
Photochemical Products Photolysis of NOX, O3 and hydrocarbons from PAN, PBN (Peroxybenzoyl Nitrate), Benzopyrene (C20H12).
Effects of Air Pollution on Plants and Human Health

• Carbon Monoxide (CO) It combines with O2 for haemoglobin and form carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb) which is highly poisonous
and results in headache, irritation, decreased vision, cardiovascular malfunction and asphyxia.
• Particulate Matter It includes soot, fly ash, dust of various types, fur, hair, spores, pollen grains, heavy metals etc. All of these
cause respiratory problems.
• Carbon Dioxide It is greenhouse gas, the concentration of which is constantly rising. In excess, it causes headache and nausea.
• Hydrogen Sulphide It is a product of treatment of sulphur containing ores, refineries, chemical plants. It causes chlorosis and
defoliation in plants, eye irritation, throat irritation and nausea in animals.
• Sulphur Oxides it occurs mostly in the form of sulphur dioxide. It is produced during the smelting of metallic substances (e.g.
iron, copper, lead, zinc, nickel etc.) and burning of petroleum and coal, thermal plants, motor vehicles and causes respiratory
problems including permanent lung damage.
Smog
The word smog is derived from smoke and fog. It is of two types; classical smog and photochemical smog.
Classical Smog It occurs in cool humid climate. It is a mixture of smoke, fog and sulphur dioxide. It is also called reducing smog due to
its nature.
Photochemical Smog It occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate. It consists of nitrogen dioxide, hydrocarbons (as primary precursors),
ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN). It is also called oxidising smog due to its nature.
Hydrocarbons and nitric oxide are produced during burning of fossil fuels. Nitric oxide (NO) is converted to nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
which in turn absorbs energy from sunlight and gets decomposed into nitric oxide and free oxygen atoms. These free oxygen atoms
react with O2 to form ozone (O3). Both O3 and NO2 are oxidising agents. These react with unburnt hydrocarbons to produce chemicals
like formaldehyde, acrolein and peroxyacetyl nitrate.
Effects of Photochemical Smog Ozone and nitric oxide are strong irritant and their high concentration causes headache, chest pain,
dryness of the throat, cough and difficulty in breathing. Photochemical smog also causes cracking of rubber, corrosion of metals,
building material etc.
(i) Photochemical smog can be controlled by using catalytic converters in vehicles which prevent the release of nitrogen oxide and
hydrocarbons into air.
(ii) Plants like Pinus, Pyrus, juniparus and vitis metabolises nitrogen oxides.
Water Pollution
It is the degradation of quality of water due to addition of substances (such as inorganic, organic, biological or radiological), factors
(such as heat) etc. that makes it a health hazard i.e. unfit for human use and growth of aquatic biota.
According to definition of WHO, water pollution occurs when foreign materials (either from natural or other sources) are added to
water supplies and may be harmful to life, because of their toxicity, reduction of normal oxygen level of water, aesthetically unsuitable
effects and spread of epidemic diseases.
Potable Water
Water which is suitable for drinking, is called potable water. Water can be made safe for drinking.
• By filtration A candle type filter is a popular house hold filter.
• By boiling It kills the germs present in water.
• By chlorination By adding chlorine tablets or bleaching powder to water.
Sources of Water Pollution

Various sources of water pollution are as follows
Water Pollution Sources

Industrial Agents
Paper and Pulp— Free chlorine
Textile— Minor acids, fats, oils and grease
Food processing— Starch
Chemical— Mineral acids, NH3, tartaric acid and nitrocompounds
Metal— Fluorides, cyanogen and limestone are called nuisance.
Petroleum— Hydrocarbons, phenols, fats.
Tanneries— Sulphide, chromium, phenol tannic acid.
Acid and Grease— Bad taste and odour to H2O.
Battery— Lead mineral acids.
Wool Scouring— Alkalies, fats, oils, grease.
Acids
HNO3, H2SO4
Dyes
Chemical industries
Fats, Soaps and Waxes
Food and household industries
Gaseous Pollutants
NH3, Cl2, H2S, O2, Phosphine etc.
Oils
Tanks, machines, lubricants, factories and refineries waste.
Toxic Metal
Pb, Zn, Ar, Cu, Cd, Hg, Ni form electroplating, chemical and copper pickling industries
Household Wastage and Sewage
Include carbohydrates, proteins, sugars, starch, cellulose, dextrin, glycogen,
alginic acid etc.
Pesticides
Include DDT, 2, 4-D, TEPP, Aldrin, BHC, Parathion
Synthetic Detergents
Washing clothes near water bodies
Fertilisers and Farm Wastes
Runoff from agricultural fields
Water Pollutants
Water pollutants are categorised as under
(i) Point Source It refers to pollutants which enter the water-body from a single source.
(ii) Non-Point Source If refers to pollutants which enter the water-body from a wide source.
Effects of Water Pollution

Eutrophication It is the natural aging of lake or lake or other water streams due to over biological enrichment of water by nutrients
such as nitrogen, phosphorus etc. This has emerged to be one of the major or leading cause of water quality impairment. The two most
acute symptoms of eutrophication are hypoxia (or oxygen depletion) and harmful algal blooms.
Biomagnification (Also known as bio amplification) It refers to an increase in the concentration of toxicants at successive trophic
levels. This occurs when substances such as DDT or mercury that cannot be metabolised or excreted, accumulate in an organism and
pass on to higher trophic levels.
Due to this, these substances can pass to the next tropic levels via food chain. The high concentration of DDT interferes with calcium
metabolism in birds and causes thinning of eggshells and their premature breaking, ultimately causing decline in bird population.
Measurment of Water Pollution

Water pollution can be measured in terms of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD).
Biochemical Oxygen Demand Chemical Oxygen Demand
It is the amount of oxygen used for biochemical It is the amount of oxygen required by organic matter in a sample of water
oxidation by microorganisms in a unit volume of for its oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant and is expressed as ppm of
water. oxygen taken from the solution of potassium dichromate in 2 hour.
BOD value approximates the amount of oxdisable The value is a poor measure of strength of organic matter, as oxygen is also
organic matter and therefore, used as a measure consumed in the oxidation of inorganic matter such as nitrates, sulphates
of degree of water pollution and waste. reduced metal ions and also that some organic molecules such as benzene,
BOD test is influenced by many factors such as pyridine and few other cyclic organic compounds are not oxidised by this
types of microorganism, pH, presence of toxins, test.
some reduced mineral matter and nitrification of Presence of toxins and other such unfavorable conditions for the growth of
microorganisms. microorganisms do not affect COD values.
Notes:
1. Ganga Action Plan (GAP) Ganga is a river in India to which people are attached spiritually and emotionally. Department of
Environment, in December 1984, prepared an action plan for immediate reduction of pollution load on the river Ganga. The cabinet
approved the GAP (Ganga Action Plan) in April 1985, as a 100% centrally sponsored scheme.
The efforts to decrease the pollution level in the river proved prodigal. Therefore, this plan was withdrawn on 31 st March, 2000.
2. Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) The Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) is a bilateral project between the Government of India and Japan. It is one
of the largest river restoration projects in India.
The Government of Japan, via the Japanese Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC), has provided financial aid of 17.7 billion yen to
carry out the project, which is being executed by the National River Conservation Directorate, the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
and the Government of India.
The first phase of the Yamuna Action Plan was launched in 1993, the project was originally planned to be completed by April 2000, but
was later extended until February 2003.
Oil Zapper
It is a new technique developed by TERI (The Energy and Resource Institute, Government of India) to clean the oil spill by using a
bacteria. This process is used for bioremediation process. It was most recently used to clean the oil spill at Mumbai shore in August
2010 which occurs due to the collision between a cargo and merchant ship resulting in 400 tonnes of oil leaked in the sea.
The Maharashtra pollution board uses the service of TERI to clean oil sludge near the coast of Mumbai. There are five different bacterial
strains that are immobilised and mixed with carrier materials with powered corncob. This mixture of bacteria is called oil zapper. Oil
zapper reacts with hydrocarbon materials present in the oil spill and oil sludge (A hazardous waste produced by oil refineries
companies like Bharat Petroleum or ONGC) and converts them into harmless CO2 and water.
•CAT •GMAT •UPSC •SSC •BANK
Sources of Soil Pollution
Biological Agents Radiological Agents Agricultural Practices

Excreta of humans, animals and birds From nuclear explosion and radioactive Fertilisers, pesticides, soil condition
is the major one. Digested sewage wastes (nuclear testing and laboratories) fumigant and other chemical agents.
sludge. like, ruthenium 106, rhodium 106, iodine DDT, BHC, endrin, aldnin, dieldrin,
Pathogenic organisms are 131, barium 140, lanthanum 140, cerium organosulphurous compounds,
(i) Excreted by man, bacteria and 144, promethium 144, C14, Cesium 137, organic compounds with Pb, Hg, Ar
parasitic worms. create several serious health hazards e.g. are toxic to plants. Lindance has been
(ii) Excreted by animals, cow, pig, cancer. reported so taint carrots. Flies,
sheep etc. bacteria and other worms. insects and rodents multiply which in
(iii) Naturally found in soil due to turn harm the crop.
some edaphic cause they develop.
Diseases caused are dysentery.
cholera, typhoid, etc.
Industrial and Urban Waste

Examples of industrial and urban wastes are
(i) Coal and mineral mines, metal processing
industries and engineering industries.
(ii) Domestic and community wastes i.e. sludge.
(iii) Garbage, rubbish materials such as paper,
residues from home, fuels, street sweepings,
glasses, rubble and abandoned vehicles etc.
Dumping of solid wastes not only create, aesthetic
problems but also public health problems.
Dysentery, diarrhoea etc. are common diseases.
E-Waste or Electronic Waste

E-waste comprises of Wastes generated from used electronic devices and household appliances, which are no longer suitable for their
original intended use and are best suited only for recovery, recycling or disposal. Such wastes encompasses a wide range of electrical
and electronic devices, (such as computers, mobiles or cell phones, personal stereos) and large household appliances (such as
refrigerators, air-conditioners etc.).
Sound or Noise Pollution
It is defined as the presence of disturbing unpleasurable sound that may cause harm to human or animal life.
Sources of Sound Pollution
Major sources that contribute in noise pollution are
(i) Indoor Noise caused by machines, building activities and music etc.
(ii) Outdoor Noise caused by transportation system, motor vehicles, aircraft etc.
Causes of Sound Pollution
(i) The sound produced by vehicles.
(ii) Construction works uses different machines that produce an annoying sound.
(iii) Noise produced by machines used for industrial work.
(iv) Music concerts etc.
Effects of Sound Pollution

(i) Elevated Sound level causes hearing impairment, hypertension, ischemic heart diseases, annoyance and sleep disturbance.
(ii) It also changes immune system and induce birth defects.
(iii) It also induces tinnitus, vasoconstriction and other cardiovascular adverse effects.
(iv) It also cause ill-temperedness, anger, frustration, excitement, heartbeat increase, irritation and secretion of adrenal hormone etc.
Control of Noise/ Sound Pollution
(i) By suppressing noise which can be done by planting more trees.
(ii) Creating horn free zones around hospitals and schools.
(iii) Framing of laws to enforce timing after which loudspeakers cannot be played.
(iv) Silencers should be filled to automobiles and industrial goods.
(v) By sticking to the permissible sound level of crackers and loudspeakers.
(vi) Use of sound absorbent material in buildings.
• Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981, amended in 1987 to include noise as an air pollutant.
Radioactive Wastes
It is the physical pollution of air, water and soil with radioactive materials, which release radioactive particles (i.e., emission of ,  and
 particles). e.g., radium, thorium, uranium etc.
Causes It is chiefly caused by man-made radiations and due to various human activities.
El Nino
El Nino is an abnormal warming of surface ocean waters in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. During El Nino, there is movement of warm water
to East, which causes bleaching and death of coral reefs. It changes the route of migration of birds, fishes and whales thereby increasing
the risk for them. It is also known to be responsible for sudden changes in rainfall pattern and drought. All this makes El Nino a factor
for biodiversity loss. It also leads to melting of the polar ice caps resulting in the rise of the level and submergence of the coastal areas.
Montreal Protocol
Painstaking research on ozone and the atmosphere over the past 40 years has led to a global ban of CFC production. Since 1987, more
than 150 countries have signed an international agreement, the Montreal Protocol, which called for a phases reduction in the release of
CFCs such that the yearly amount added to the atmosphere in 1999, would be half that of 1986.
Modifications of that treaty called for a complete ban on CFCs which began in January 1996. Even with this ban in effect chlorine from
CFCs will continue to accumulate in the atmosphere for another decade. It may take until the middle of the next century for ozone levels
in the Antarctic to return to 1970s levels.
Scientists
1. Aristotle Father of Biology
2. Aristotle Father of Zoology
3. Theophrastus Father of Botany
4. Carolus Linnaues Father of Modern Botany
5. Leeuwenhoek Father of Bacteriology
6. Edward Jeneer Father of Immunology
7. G J Mendel Father of Genetics
8. T H Morgan Father of Modern Genetics
9. Louis Pasteur Father of Microbiology
10. Robert Hooke Father of Cytology
11. Micheli Father of Mycology
12. Stephen Hales Father of Plant Physiology
13. R Mishra Father of Indian Ecology
14. Francis Galton Father of Eugenics
15. Hugo de Vries Father of Mutation
16. William Harvey Father of Blood Circulation
17. Karl Landsteiner Father of Blood Groups
18. Carolus Linnaeus Father of Taxonomy
19. H J Muller Father of Radiation Genetics
20. Hippocrates Father of Medicine
21. Leonardo da Vinci Father of Palaeontology
22. Marcello Malpighi Father of Microscopy
23. Paul Berg Father of Genetic Engineering
24. Anderson Father of Gene Therapy
25. Robert G. Edwards (2010) For the development of in vitro fertilization

1
1. AID (Artificial) A procedure in which a fine cathete is inserted through the cervix into the uterus to deposit a sperm-sample.
2. Angiography A procedure performed to new blood vessels after injecting them with a radio-opaque dye that outlines them on
X-ray. It can be usefully used to look at arteries including the brain, neck, heart, aorta, chest etc.
3. Biopsy The removal of a sample of tissue for examination under a microscope to check for cancer cells or other abnormalities.
4. ICU (Intensive Care Unit.) It is designated as the area of a hospital facility that is dedicated to the care of patient who are
seriously ill.
5. Infertility Diminished or absent ability to conceive and bear offspring.
6. Bronchoscope: An instrument with a lighted tube that is passed down the trachea (windpipe) for the examination of air tubes
of lungs.
7. CAT Scanner computerized axial tomography (CAT) Scanner, a machine for photographing a selected plane of the human
body using X-ray.
8. Colposcope A surgical instrument used to examine the vagina and the cervix of the womb.
9. Defibrillator Used for restoration of rhythmical heart beat by electrical stimulation in case of fibrillation (rapid
uncoordinated heat beating), which is a dangerous condition.
10. Endoscope Used for internal examination by direct vision through a lighted tube fitted with a system of lenses.
11. EpiPen A needle fitted into a tube that looks like a pen, used for putting a drug into someone who is having a severe allergic
reaction to something.
12. Glucometer A device used to determine the approximate concentration of glucose in the blood.
13. Heart-lung Machine Comprises a system of pumps that takes over the function of the heart during an open-heart surgery and
circulates the blood around the body; also takes over the function of the lungs in supplying fresh oxygen to the blood.
14. Laproscope Used for the examination of abdominal cavity.
15. Microscope A device used to see objects that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. In medical field, it help in pathology
for diagnostic purposes.
16. Otoscope or Auriscope A medical device which is used to look into the ears.
17. Olfactometer Instrument used in testing sense organs.
18. Opthalmoscope A device to insect the inside of the eye and diagnose eye ailments.
19. Oxygenator A device used for introducing oxygen into the blood during circulation outside the body (as during open heart
surgery).
20. Sphygmomanometer Device used to measure blood pressure.
21. Shygmometer Device for measuring pulse rate.
22. Stethoscope It is an acoustic medical device for auscultation or listening to the internal sounds of an animal or human body.
23. Thermometers It is a device that measures temperatures or temperature gradient using a variety of different principles.
24. Ventilator It is a machine designed to mechanically more breathable air into and out of the lung to provide the mechanism of
breathing for a patient who is physically unable to breathe.
25. X-Rays It create images of the insides of our body and mainly used for checking broken bones.
26. CT Scan Computerized tomography is mainly used to look for broken bones, cancers, blood clots, signs for heart disease,
internal bleeding, etc.
27. Nuclear Scan it uses radioactive substances to see structures and functions of the body. It helps in diagnosing conditions
including cancers, injuries and infections etc.
28. Appendectomy Surgical removal of an inflamed appendix from the abdomen.
29. Cryosurgery A surgical technique of destroying a tissue by extreme cold.
30. Cystoscopy The technique of examining the inside of the urinary bladder using an optical instrument called a Cystoscope. This
instrument is inserted through the urethra.
31. Chemotherapy It is a drug therapy for cancer. In this anti-cancer agents are taken orally by mouth.
32. Dialysis A method of removing nitrogenous waste products from the blood in case of a kidney failure.
33. Diathermy A technique of generating heat in a tissue to relieve pain due to muscular disorders.
34. Enterostomy A surgical technique of making an artificial opening in the intestines, usually in treatment of ulcers.
35. Gastrectomy Surgical removal of the stomach or part of it in the treatment of tumors.
36. Hysterectomy Surgical of lowering body temperature to reduce the body’s requirement of during extended surgery of the
brain or heart.
37. Hysterectomy Surgical removal of the uterus or womb in women.
38. Lumbar Puncture A technique of obtaining a specimen of the cerebrospinal fluid of the diagnosis of meningitis and disorders
affecting the brain or spinal cord.
39. Nephrectomy Surgical removal of a diseased or damaged kidney.
40. Oophorectomy Surgical removal of a diseased ovary or one with a tumor or cyst.
41. Venipuncture The puncturing of a vein to inject a drug, blood, or other fluids into the vein can obtain a blood sample for
clinical examination.
42. Fibrinogen A soluble protein present in blood plasma from which the insoluble protein called fibrin is produced by the action
of the enzyme thrombin.
Note: A pair of feet has 500,000 sweat glands.
Some key facts

Common Name Indian Name Botanical Name
Apple Seb Malus pumila
Banana Kela Musa balbisiana
Emblic Amla Emlica officinalis
Grapes Angoor Vitis vinifera
Lime Nimbu Citrus aurantifolia
Litchi Litchi Litchi chinesis
Mandaoria/Orange Santara Citrus reticulate
Mango Aam Mangifera indica
Drug Plants Uses

It is used for the treatment of bacterial
Penicillin Pencillium notatum endocarditis, gonorrhea, mastoiditis, local
infections
It is helpful in treating tularemia, empyema,
urinary and local infections and some forms of
Streptomycin Streptomyces griseus
tuberculosis, peritonitis, meningitis and
pneumonia.
Morphine/thebaine/codeine It is used in case of parkinson’s disease.
Opium Poppy (Papaver Somnifrum)
/Papaverine/nosapine
Resperine Sarpagandha (Rauwolfia sepentina) Used to treat high blood pressure
It is used as an analgesis, antipyretic and an anti
Aspirin Bark willow tree
inflammatory.
It reduces swelling and might cure symptoms of
Curcumnin Turmeric (Curcuma longa)
osteorthritis and rhumatid arthritis etc.
It acts as a antipyretic, analgesic and anti
Quinine Bark of cinchona tree
inflammatory.
Smallest in the World

Bacteria Dialister Pneumosintes
Bird Humming bird (Cuba)
Bone Stapes (bone of middle ear)
Endocrine gland Pituitary
Snake Barbados Threadsnake
Flower Wolffia microscopic (Angiosperm)
Mammal Shrew (Suncus etruscus)
Muscles Stapedius or arrector pili
Virus Foot and mouth disease virus
Largest in the World

Mammal (on land) African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
Mammal (in the biosphere) Blue whale
Flower Raffesia
Vertebra Lumbar vertebrae
Bone Femur (thing bone)
Bone (in frog) Tibia-fibula
Sense organ (human body) Skin
Muscles Gluteus maximus (buttock muscle of hip)
Egg or cell Ostrich egg
Tooth Tusk of elephant (upper incisor moditication)
Tallest angiosperm Eucalyptus
Tallest gymnosperm Sequoia sempervirens (Sequoia gigantea)
Coral reef Great barrier reef (in Australia)
Cell (human body) Ovum
Egg or cell Ostrich egg
Vein Inferior vena cava
Artery Abdominal aorta
Virus Parrot fever virus
Seed coco demer (18 kg)

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Income Tax Inspector •CAT •GMAT •UPSC •SSC •BANK

HEALTH AND DISEASES

Communicable Diseases or Infections Diseases

Common Infectious (or communicable) Diseases in Humans

Some Common Viral Diseases

AIDS is generally transmitted by following

Symptoms of AIDS include

Tests for AIDS are

• Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay/Enzyme Immuno Assays (ELISA/EIA)

Culex fatigans • Weakness • Proper medication by

Some common diseases caused by bacteria are

any part of the body.

Melanoma (most dangerous type of cancer) Pigmented moles on the skin.

Cancer Detection and Diagnosis

Deficiency Diseases, their Symptoms and Prevention

Computed Tomographic Scanning (CT Scan)

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Ultrasound Imagine (Sonography)

Hormone Therapy or Hormonal Therapy

• Hormonal therapy for cancer.

Some Diagnostic Techniques Available in Kits

Some Interrelated Fields of Biotechnology

Human Genome Project (HGP)

In-vitro Fertilisation (IVF)

Layers of the Skin

ENVIRONMENT AND ITS EFFECTS

Air Pollution Sources

Effects of Air Pollution on Plants and Human Health

Sources of Water Pollution

Water Pollution Sources

Effects of Water Pollution

Measurment of Water Pollution

Sources of Soil Pollution

Biological Agents Radiological Agents Agricultural Practices

Industrial and Urban Waste

E-Waste or Electronic Waste

Effects of Sound Pollution

2. Aristotle Father of Zoology

3. Theophrastus Father of Botany

4. Carolus Linnaues Father of Modern Botany

5. Leeuwenhoek Father of Bacteriology

6. Edward Jeneer Father of Immunology

7. G J Mendel Father of Genetics

8. T H Morgan Father of Modern Genetics

9. Louis Pasteur Father of Microbiology

10. Robert Hooke Father of Cytology

11. Micheli Father of Mycology

12. Stephen Hales Father of Plant Physiology

13. R Mishra Father of Indian Ecology

14. Francis Galton Father of Eugenics

15. Hugo de Vries Father of Mutation

16. William Harvey Father of Blood Circulation

17. Karl Landsteiner Father of Blood Groups

18. Carolus Linnaeus Father of Taxonomy

19. H J Muller Father of Radiation Genetics

20. Hippocrates Father of Medicine

21. Leonardo da Vinci Father of Palaeontology

22. Marcello Malpighi Father of Microscopy

23. Paul Berg Father of Genetic Engineering

24. Anderson Father of Gene Therapy

25. Robert G. Edwards (2010) For the development of in vitro fertilization

Some key facts