ASSIGNMENT

Course Code: BBYCT-131

Assignment Code: BBYCT-131/TMA/2023
Maximum Marks: 100
Note: Attempt all questions. The marks for each question are indicated Marks
against it.

a) Describe the structure of tobacco mosaic virus with the help of a well (5x2=10)
labelled diagram.

b) Write a brief note on the mechanism of conjugation in bacteria.

Give an exhaustive overview of the economic importance of bacteria. (10)

Describe the morphology and mode of reproduction of Polysiphonia with (10)
labelled diagrams.

a) Write a note on blue green algae as a major source of biofertilizer. (5*2=10)

0) Describe the structure of basidiocarp of Agaricus with the help of a well
labelled diagram.

a) How do the bryophytes serve as indicators of pH and pollution? (5x2=10)

How pteridophytes are different from bryophytes? Discuss.

Explain the mode of reproduction in Equisetum with special reference (5x2=10)

to sporangiophore structure.

0) Write a note on glossopodium.

Describe the structure of root and stem of Pinus. Discuss the importance of (5+5=10)
Pinus as a major source of timber.

a) Discuss the mechanism of Crozier and clamp connection in (5x2=10)

Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.

What are the symptoms and control measures of early blight of potato?

Describe the different forms of lichen? (5*2=10)

b) Give a elaborate account about the significance of lichens.
10. Write notes on the following: (2 ‘4x4=10)

Algal blooms

Endospore

Petrifaction

Gemma cups

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1. a) Describe the structure of tobacco mosaic virus with the help of a well labelled diagram.
ANS: TMV is a sunple rod-shaped helical virus (Fig. 13.20) consisting of centrally located single-
stranded RNA (5.6%) enveloped by a protein coat (94.4%). The rod is considered to be 3,000 A
in length and about 180 A in diameter.

tobacco mosaic virus

-RNA

x Capsid
proteins
joc, ASE SATE IY
Adobe !

The protein coat is technically called ‘capsid’. R. Franklin estimated 2.130 sub-units, namely,
capsomeres in a complete helical rod and 49 capsomeres on every three turns of the helix; thus
there would be about 130 turns per 100 of TMV. The diameter of RNA helix is about 80 A and the
RNA molecule lies about 50 A inward from the outer-most surface of the rod. The central core of

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the rod is about 40 A in diameter. Each capsomere is a grape like structure containing about 158
amino acids and having a molecular weight of 17,000 dalton as determined by Knight.
b) Write a brief note on the mechanism of conjugation in bacteria. (5x2=10)
ANS: Conjugation in bacteria is one of the three processes of gene transfer (transfer of DNA) from
one bacteria to another. The other two being transformation, and transduction.
It was the first extensively studied method of gene transfer. Conjugation occurs between two living
cells, involves cell-to-cell contact, and requires mobilization of either a plasmid or a chromosome
of donor bacterial! cells.
C Proves. oud Mei = Aacmd Cr me जज को Toe

Donor

Ciba Precip iat ta ot:

Old Donor New Donor

Bacterial conjugation and transfer of F plasmid
Conjugative plasmid transfers themselves between bacteria, which had led to the spread of
antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria.
Before talking about the mechanism of conjugation let’s first revisit some of the key information
related to the plasmid.
Plasmids are small, circular pieces of DNA that are separate and replicate independently from the
bacterial chromosome.
Plasmid carries genes associated with specialized functions such as drug resistance.
Plasmids may encode genes that mediate their transfer from one organism to another but not all
plasmids are capable of conjugative transfer

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Plasmids that can transmit from one cell to another cell independently are called self-transmissible
plasmids. Non-transmissible plasmids are not able to go through independent transmission.
2. Give an exhaustive overview of the economic importance of bacteria. (10)
ANS: 1. Dairy products
Quite a few geneta of bacteria are used in food preparation, directly or indirectly.
a. Formation of Curd: Milk 1s converted into curd by bacterial action. The milk’s lactose 15
converted into lactic acid, which gives the characteristic sour taste of the curd. Lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) like Lactobacillus are added to milk. Indian curd is prepared by inoculating milk
with Lactobacillus acidophilus.
b. Yoghurt preparation: It is produced by curding milk — with Streptococcus
thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus.
c. Cheese production starts with milk coagulated with lactic acid bacteria and the curd formed 1s
filtered to separate the whey. The solid mass 1s then ripened with the growth of mould that develops
flavour in it. Propionibactertum shermanii is used to make cheese.
2. In Industry
A large mnunber of products are obtained due to bacterial activity, directly proportional to the
economic importance of Bacteria.
3 In Medicine
Some bacteria have been exploited to produce antibiotics. Antibiotics like Terramycin,
Streptomycin, Tetracycline, Aureomycin, Neomycin are obtained from different bacterial species.
a. Vaccines: Several vaccines have been developed from either killed or attenuated (living but
multiplying at low rates) bacteria. For example, tuberculosis vaccine, whooping cough vaccine,
plague vaccine, DIP (Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis) vaccine, pneumonia vaccine are all prepared
with the help of bacteria.
4. In Maintenance of Environmental Balance and Agriculture:
Bacteria act as decomposers. They make the nutrient available for plants. Specific genera of
bacteria are used as biocontrol agents in agriculture. Bacillus thurmgiensis (Bt) yields protein-
based toxins used to kill insects.
5. Nitrogen fixation and soil fertility:
Certain bacteria are helpful in the fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen. Azotobacter and Clostridium are present in the soil and help in nitrogen fixation. Species
of Rhizobmm bacteria are present in the root nodules of leguminous plants, and they increase the
soil’s nitrogen content by fixing up atmospheric nitrogen. The process 18 known as symbiotic
nitrogen fixation.
Several cyanobacteria also help in nitrogen fixation. Nostoc, Anabaena, etc., possess heterocysts
with nitrogenase enzymes and fix atmospheric nitrogen in symbiotic conditions. Nostoc is
associated with the coralloid roots of Cycas and helps in this process. Anabaena azollae is
associated with water fern, Azolla, and helps in nitrogen fixation in paddy fields.
6. Role in Nitrogen Cycling:
Nitrification is one of the most critical steps in the nitrogen cycle, performed by nitrifying bacteria.
Nitrifying bacteria are chemolithotrophic organisms that include the genera Nitrosomonas,
Nitrococcus, Nitrobacter, Nitrobacillus, etc. These bacteria get their energy by the oxidation of
inorganic nitrogen compounds.

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The denitrifying bacteria, like Pseudomonas denitrificans, Thiobacillus denitrificans, transform
the nitrates to free atmospheric nitrogen.
7. Biogas Production:
Biogas 15 a standard domestic and industrial fuel, which
contains 50—60%50—60% methane, 30-—40%30—40% carbon dioxide, 0-3%0—3% Sulphur
compounds, and traces of other gases like hydrogen CO, nitrogen, etc.
3. Describe the morphology and mode of reproduction of Polysiphonia with labelled
diagrams. (10)
ANS:
Vegetative structure
Plan body is composed of branched filamentous and basal attachment disc.
Attachment discs: The basal attachment disc 1s formed of several unseptate, branched rhizoids.
Vertical portion: The vertical portion is formed of laterally branched axis. It is polysiphonous. Its
axis is formed of a bundle of filaments or siphons. The cells of each filament lie at the same level.
These cells are placed one above the other and form bundles of siphons. The central siphon is
primary axis. It is surrounded by variable number of pericentral filaments. The number of
peticentral cells in each tier is constant for a particular species.
Apical cell

Corticating filament: The central axis in the basal portion is further surrounded by one or more
layers of corticating filaments. The.e corticating filaments are present in the basal portion.
Trichoblasts: The tips of branches are monosiphonous. So these are apering. These branches are
fine hair like. So these are called trichoblasts. Trichoblasts are borne in spiral manner on the axis.
The cells of the tichoblasts are uuimucleate and colourless.Growth
Plant grows by single apical cell. This cell divides transversely. It produces a row of cells which
form the central siphon.
The cells of this central siphon divide obliquely near the upper End. It produces a trichoblast initial.
The trichoblast initial divides transversely to produce a dichotomously forked trichoblast clament.
A trichoblast initial fiction as an apical cell. It gives -ise to a literal branch. The lateral branches
arise from the younger portion.
After cutting off the trichoblast initials, the cells of the central siphon undergo several oblique
vertical divisions. It produces the characteristic number of pericentral cells. The central cell and
surrounding pericentral cells become longer than broad.

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The pericentral cells in the basal portion undergo longitudinal divisions. It produces corticating
filaments or the cortex.
Cell structure
Young cells are always unmucleate. But the older cells are multinucleate. Each cell contains
several discoid chloroplasts. Its
pigments are chlorophyll a and carotene, xanthophyll,
phycoerythrin and phycocyanin. It lacks pyrenoid. The reserve food material is fioridean starch.
Floridean starch is intermediate between the true starch and the dextrin.
Reproduction
Polysiphonia shows an isomorphic alternation of generation. Both gametophytic (haploid) and
sporophytic (diploid) generations are identical. Sexual reproduction occurs in gametophytic plants
and the asexual reproduction occurs in sporophytic plants.
Sexual Reproduction
Majority of the species are heterothallic (dioccious).
Spermatangia: The male sex organs are spermatangia. Spermatangia are produced in clusters on
fertile branches. Each fertile branch has a central row of cells. This row of cells is surrounded by
pericentral cells. Each pericentral cell cuts off one or mor.: spermatangial mother cells. Each
spermatangial mother cell produces one to four spermatangia. The contents of each sper natangium
are changed in to single non-motile spermatium.
The spermatangial wall ruptures and release spennatium. Water currmts carry them to the
carpogonia.

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 ANEH| Qe

carpeznnial
filament

Pig 4-cepogors famecr 13.C-Oeewoorg capogoiad Vamer, O-

Fig: 4-carpogonial filament. 13,C-Developing carpogonial filament, D-sterile filament initial. E-
Section of sterile filament. D-The formation of mat lazy cell
Carpogonia: The female sex organs are carpogonia. They are procuced singly on the female fertile
branches. Fertile branch remains short. They are about five to seven cells in length. The two basal
cells produce the pericentral cells. The adaxial (that facing the main axis) pericentral cell of the
upper tier (second from the base) proriuces a carpogonial initial. Transverse divisions occur in
carpogonial initial. It produces a curved four-celled filament carpogonial filament. The apical cell
of this carpogonial filament is charged into carpogonium. Carpogonium 1s flask shaped. its basal
portion has single egg or oosphere. Its upper elongated neck is called trithogyne. The supporting
cells produce a short sterile filament. The pericentral cells adjacent to the supporting cell divide
sinu Itaneously: They produce a single layered covering around the carpogonium. This sterile
covering develops an opening at the tip, This opening is called ostiole,
4. a) Write a note on blue green algae as a major source of biofertilizer.
ANS: Blue green algae are popular biofertilizers because of their innumerable advantages to the
agro-ecosystem. The algal biofertilizers are environment friendly, unlike chemical fertilizers that
damage the environment. They are cheap alternatives as they require low cost inputs. Although
they do not show immediate results but they show cumulative effect after 3-4 years.

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The main advantage of BGA is biological nitrogen fixation, also it enriches soils with organic
matter and reduces the C: N ratio. The other uses of BGA are enhanced solubilization of immobile
phosphates and producing growth promoting substances in the soil. They improve the physical,
chemical and biological nature of the soil and are responsible for long term soil fertility (figure
3.7). BGA has been reported to reduce the pH of soil and helps the soil to retain exchangeable
calcium.
BGA as a biofertilizer in Rice Cultivation:
The term algalization was introduced by Prof. G.S. Venkataraman for use of BGA as a fertilizer.
BGA can contribute about 20-30 kg N ha-1 along with organic matter to the soil, which is quite
significant for the economically weak farmers incapable of investing in costly chemical nitrogen
fertilizers.
Many Asian countries like India, China, Vietnam, etc., have been utilizing BGA in paddy
cultivation as the alternative to nitrogen. It has been reported that Nitrogen availability, particularly
in the rice fields, to plants 1s increased due to application of BGA.
The other reason for BGA becoming popular as bio fertilizer is the presence of growth requirement
conditions which are easily available in India.
In India, a general predominance of BGA such as Anabaena, Nostoc and Calothrix were found to
be widely distributed throughout rice growing tracts except in acidic soils of Kerala, Assam and
parts of Tamil Nadu. Other forms like Cylindrosporum, Tolypothnx, Scytonema and Aulosira had
localised distribution.
The distribution of soils harboring blue green algae in India varies from as low as 7 to as high as
80 percent in different states. For instance, Uttar Pradesh soils are rich in Aulosira, whereas
Mastigocladae is found in Gujarat, Cylindrospermum occurs in Karnataka and Calothrix 15
commonly found m Puryab soils.
BGA occutred at densities from 1.0 x 10-2 to 8.0 x 10-6CFU/cm -2 and their abundance was
correlatedto pH and available ‘P’ content of soil. During recent years, quantitative studies showed
consistent presence of BGA at high densities in soils under rice cultivation m countries like India,
Malaysia, Philippines and Portugal.
b) Describe the structure of basidiocarp of Agaricus with the help of a well labelled diagram.
ANS: The secondary mycelium grows extensively under the soil and becomes organised into
special tissue to form the fnuting body or basidiocarp. The fruiting body appears like umbrella
above ground. It is made up of dikaryotic hyphae. The development of the basidiocarp takes place
from the subterranean mycelial strand known as rhizomorph. After absorbing sufficient 1000
material mycelium produces fruiting bodies, which are very small in size and remain underground.

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 MATURE BASIDIOCARP
These tiny, pin head structures come above the soil under favourable conditions (i.e., after rain or
when enough moisture is present in the soil). These are the priumodia of basidiocarp. These
primordia enlarge into round or ovoid structures and represent the ‘button stage’ of the
basidiocarp .
5. a) How do the bryophytes serve as indicators of pH and pollution?
ANS: Bryophyte proves to be a potential bio-indicator of air pollution. The habitat diversity,
structural simplicity, totipotency, rapid rate of multiplication and high metal accumulation capacity
make bryophytes an ideal organism for pollution studies. The decline and absence of bryophyte
populations especially epiphytes is a phenomenon primarily induced by air pollution caused by
gaseous and particulate pollutants. Bryophytes are reliable indicators and monitors of air pollution
as they are easy to handle and show a vast range of specific sensitivity and visible symptoms to
pollutants greatly exceeding that of higher plants. Bryophytes are able to concentrate heavy metals
in large amounts than that of vascular plants. Heavy metals are absorbed either from the
atmosp— here or from the substrate or from both the sources. The older tissues of the plant have
higher concen — trations of the metallic ions as compared to the younger portions. The ability of
mosses to accumulate heavy metals depends upon the total leaf surface and the number of thin
walled paren— chymatous cells. Atrichum undulatum is highly sensitive to air pollution and proves
best as a 00 indicator. Ceratodon purpureus is not a good indicator because its leaves have a
small surface and contains many thick walled cells.
b) How pteridophytes are different from bryophytes? Discuss.
AWS: Bryophytes are the simplest plants that grow in the moist terrestrial land. It consists of no
true roots, rhizoids for anchorage. Moses is an example of bryophytes.
Pteridophytes are the plants that grow in a damp and shady place. It consists of a leaf, proper roots,
and underground stems. The leaf is finely divided into small parts. Ferns are an example of
pteridophytes.
Both plants consist of the heteromorphic alternation of generations.
They are multicellular sporangia.
The cuticle is present in both the plants.
Sexual reproduction takes place due to the presence of oogamous.
They consist of flagellated male gametes whereas the female gametes are non-motile.
Due to the absence of siphanogamy, the fertilization 15 internal with the requirement.

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6. a) Explain the mode of reproductionin Equisetum with special reference to
sporangiophore structure.
ANS: The cones are made up of compactly arranged whorls of peltate appendages, the
sporangiophores. At successive whorls the sporangiophores alternate but somewhat irregularly,
due to condensation of axis. Each sporangiophore has a slender stalk by which it 18 attached to the
strobilus axis and its free distal end 18 expanded into an hexagonal disc. The discs of
sporangiophores at the basal and apical regions are of different configurations to suit the shape of
cone. On the underside of the sporangiophore disc are borne 5-10 elongate sporangia with their
round apices facing the central axis.

Strobilus

Fig: Equisetum spp. (A) A part of fertile shoot bearing strobilus;

(B) LS of strobilus: (C) TS of strobilus; (D) Single sporangi-
ophore.
The sporangiophores have been variously interpreted as sporophylls, stems or other organs. The
primordia of sporangiophores are dome-shaped and develop at the apex in position where leaf
primordia are formed, on vegetative apices. Sporangial initials differentiate on the dome of
sporangiophore apex very early, and later with the expansion of the dome the sporangia are pushed
to the underside of the disc Sporangia are eusporangiate. However, all sporogenous tissue can be
traced to a single initial. Therefore, it has been questioned whether the sporangia originate from
one cell or a group of cells.
b) Write a note on glossopodium.

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ANS: Leaves of Selaginella are small and ligulate. A minute leaf-like structure, called as ligule 1s
present on the adaxial side of the leaf. The ligule has a minute body structure with a bulbous base,
called as glossopodium.
Above the glossopodium is the body of ligule. It is made up of many large and small cells. The
function of the ligule is not well known. It may be a water secreting or water absorbing or
protective organ. According to Earner (1936) the ligule is perhaps a vestigial organ.

A
Fig. 2 (A, 8). Sefaginelia. Structure ot ligule ; A. Leaf with ligule, 8. Longitudinal sectionof ligule

7. Describe the structure of root and stem of Pinus. Discuss the importance of Pinus as a
source
major of timber.
ANS: Roots: Pinus has a well developed tap root. It remains short and grows on hard ground or
rocks. The lateral roots are well developed. These roots spread over a large area. Young roots are
infested with a fungus to form mycorrhizae.
Internal Structure of the Stem
Stem is differentiated internally into epidermis, cortex, vascular tissue and central pith.
1 Fnidermis: The surface 18 covered by an epidermis. It consists of a single layer of cells. Outer
walls of these cells are highly cutinized. Below the epidermis is a hypodermis which is formed of
layers of lignified cells.
Cortex: The cortex is formed of parenchymatous cells. Cortex has a large number of resin
canals. Each resin canal is swrownded by a layer of resin secreting glandular epithelial cells.
Vascular bundler The vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and open. They form a ring around
the pith. In each vascular bundle the xylem 1s towards the inner side and phloem towards the outer

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side. A narrow strip of cambrum is present between xylem and phloem. Pericycle 1s present outer
to the ring of vascular bundles. A single layered thin walled endodermis is present outside the
pericycle. Secondary growth takes place by the activity of cambium ring. There are distinct annual
growth rings in the wood.
importance of Pinus as a major source of timber:
The genus Pinus (family Pinaceae) is one of the most widely distributed genera of trees in the
northern hemisphere. The species often dominate the natural vegetation types in which they occur
and provide some of the most important timber trees in the world. Also employed in paper and
rubber industries, furniture polishes, floor waxes, shoe creams, metal polishes, and printing inks.
Rosin 1s used principally in paper, soap, cosmetics, paint varnish, mbber, and polish industries;
also finds applications in linoleum and roofing cements, fireworks, match compositions,
explosives, insecticides, and disinfectants. Rosin on distillation yields spirit and rosin oil, used in
vamishes. Rosin oil finds application in printing ink and as an adulterant for boiled linseed, olive,
rape, and sperm oils. Young twigs, fresh needles, and cones yield Pine Needle Oil, used in soaps,
bath preparations, room sprays, deodorants etc. Exhausted needles converted into pine wool, used
for stuffing pillows, cushions and mattresses, also used for packing fruits. Wood used for
constructional purposes, cheap joinery and furniture, packing cases, truck and bus bodies, and
electric transmission poles. Also used for railway sleepers and for wagons and railway carriages.
A suitable raw material for paper- pulp. Seeds eaten. Bark contains tannin.
8. a) Discuss the mechanism of Crozier जाते clamp connection in Ascomycota ज्ञात
Basidiomycota.
ANS: Croziers resemble and function similarly to clamp connections on the dikaryotic hyphae
of Basidiomycota. During initial ascus formation in Ascomycota fruitbodies, the crozier helps to
maintain the dikaryotic state of both the ascus itself and of the side branch that will continue
propagation of the ascogenous hyphae. Clamp connection is a hook-like structure associated with
the conjugate division of the dikaryons in the secondary mycelium. It is a bypass for the nuclet, if
they cannot pass through the septal pore, as may happen due to the presence of a dolipore septum.
A small outgrowth called *clamp- connection’ arises between the two nuclei of a binucleate cell
and forms a curved hook. The two nuclei divide simultaneously. Their spindles are oriented in
such a way that the daughter nucleus of the upper nucleus lies in the clamp while that of the lower
nucleus comes close to the upper nucleus. The clamp bends and its tip touches the cell; the
intervening walls dissolve and the nucleus in the clamp migrates into the cell to lie close to the
lower nucleus.
Two septa are now laid down — one longitudinal at the place of the origin of the clamp connection,
so as to cut its original connection with the cell, and the other transversely at ght angles to the
first longitudinal septum. A new daughter cell is formed. The clamp remains permanently attached
to the hypha. Its presence indicates that the hypha is dikaryotic.
b) What are the symptoms and control measures of early blight of potato?
ANS; It 1s one of common and the most important anamorphic fungal disease in the potato growing
regions. A potato grower has to follow effective control measures against the early blight of potato
to avoid severe loss in total crop production. Early blight of potato is a very common disease in
India, the other important disease of potato is late blight of India. Identify the symptoms to control
or manage it. Although, the intensity of latter 1s comparatively less.

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Symptoms of early blight of potato
Presence of small spots
At first, we see small, pale brown, and scattered spots on the leaflets. There is a deep greenish-
blue growth of fimgus on these spots. First attack appears on the leaves near the soil surface, now
it progresses upward.
Formation of target spot
In the necrotic area of the spots, some concentric ridges develop which form a target board. This
is the most characteristic symptom of ealry blight of potato.
Control measures of early light of potato:
Agronomical measures
The intercropping induces significant reduction in early blight bin following ways:
(1), Allelopathic effect on conidia.
(2), Alteration of the microclimatic conditions around the canopy.
(3). Providing physical barrier against spread of conidia.
Biological control
Aureobasidium pullulans, Epicoccum nigrum, Penicillium aurantiogriseum, Rhizopuz stolonifer,
Trichoderma koningii, and Trichothecium roseum are the natural enemies of Alternaria solania.
Chemical control
Benzothiadiazole treatment of the potato foliage at 50 mg a.i. per liter induces agains this disease.
Important points about management practices
Timely spray of fungicide is very important. Start applying fungicide just after one month of
planting. Spray fungicide regularly at the intervals of 10 to 21 days, and continue it throughout the
growth of plant.
9. a) Describe the different forms of lichen?
ANS: 1. Crustose (Crustaceous) Lichens:
The thallus is of insignificant size. It is flat. thin usually without any distinct lobes. It is just like a
thin layer or crust closely attached by the whole of its lower surface to stones or rocks, bark and
similar hard substrata that the crustose lichen appears to be painted on.
Norinally it is impossible to dislodge it without breaking it. The surface of the thallus is usually
divided into more or less hexagonal areas called the areolae. In many species, the thallus is partly
buried in the substratum. Graphic scripta and Haematomma puniceum are the best examples of
crustaceous lichens.
2. Foliose (Foliaceous) Lichens:
The foliose thallus is more striking. It is flat, broad, much lobed and leaf-like. In form it often
resembles crinkled and twisted leaves. It grows more or less free of the substratum but close to it.
It has a distinct upper and a lower surface. The lower surface may be white or sooty.
The edges are usually curled up. The foliose thallus is attached to rocks and twigs by rhizoid-like
outgrowths called the rhizinae. The rhizinae arise from its lower surface. In some foliose lichens,
the rhizine consists of a single, simple to branched hypha.
3. Fruticose Lichens:
They are the most conspicuous and have a most complex thallus which 18 slender and freely
branched. The branches may be cylindrical or ribbon-like (flattened) and form thread-like or twig-
like tutts.

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In many species of Cladonia, the branches stand stiffy erect making the thallus resemble a tiny
bud. There are others (Usnea) in which the branches are pendant (hanging) and tassel-like. The
thallus is attached only at the base by a flattened disc.
4. Squamulose Lichens:
The thallus is scale-like and composed of small lobes.
_b) Give a elaborate account about the significance of lichens.
ANS:T hey have the ability to separate the minerals by eroding rocks. Therefore, they also grow
on empty rocks. Because of its death and dissolution, there becomes a fold of mineral and organic
matter on which other plants can grow. Thus, they produce suitable conditions for other plants to
sTow on rocks.
- In the Tundra regions, lichens are available in abundance.
- They also contribute in the formation of soil by enriching it by trapping water, dust and silt. Also,
when lichens die they contribute organic matter to the soil, which further improves the quality of
the soil so that more plants can grow.
- Lichen also plays an mmportant role in fixing nitrogen. Due to their cooperation with algae, lichens
are capable of converting nitrogen from the air into nitrate, which leads to their development. This
conversion of nitrogen impacts the ecosystem because when it rains, nitrates are leached from
lichens and is used by soil-based plants.
- Lichen needs clean air to grow. They are not able to tolerate pollution. Therefore, to grow they
absorb everything from the air including carbon dioxide and heavy metals. Scientists can
determine the level of air pollution in the area with the help of lichens and if lichens are dying in
one site due to harmful pollution, it can be considered as the initial warning or signal that the level
of pollution is increasing at that place.
10. Write notes on the following: i) Algal blooms
ANS: An algal bloom 1s a kind of algae who increases their population rapidly. They mainly live
in freshwater or marine water systems and they are mainly recognised by the discoloration in the
water with the help of their pigments. The term algae means a class which contains many types of
aquatic photosynthetic organisms both microscopic and macroscopic in nature. As algal bloom is
one of the rapid growing microscopic algae i.e they are unicellular in nature and one of the most
common macroscopic algae is Kelp forest.

When there is little or no food available in the water, the phytoplankton will die. But when an
abundance of food is present, the plankton cells can produce a large number of flagella and
multiply very rapidly, thereby exceeding the capacity of the surrounding water to absorb them. As
they grow, they eventually settle to the bottom and form visible concentrations of organisms called
‘red tides'. Algal blooms are formed due to various nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus which enters
from various fertilizers into the aquatic system and there they form algal blooms. They cause
various effects on ecosystems like blocking of sunlight, depletion of oxygen level in water,
secreting toxic material in water, etc. Due to all these harmful effects most of the time they lead to
depletion of aquatic organisms.
Endospore
ii)
ANS: Endospores, as the name suggests, are seed-like formations produced within the bacteria.
They are highly resistant, designed to ensure survival and preserve the genetic information under

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environmental stress. Endospores make survival possible for bacteria which would otherwise kill
them im extreme conditions such as high temperature, pressure, chemical damage, irradiation, etc.
Endospores of low gram-positive bacteria, in particular, survive through these conditions.
Endospores have a unique cellular structure. It 1s surrounded by an outer covering which is
proteinaceous. This coating provides enzymatic and chemical resistance to the spore. It is lined by
a thick inner layer consisting of specialized peptidoglycan which forms the cortex. It 1s essential
for the proper formation of the cortex as it brings about the dehydration of the spore, crucial to
resist high temperatures. Beneath the cortex lies the cell-wall of the germ. This layer is made up
of peptidoglycan which later develops to become cell wall of the bacteria post germination of
endospores. Under this cell-wall, there is an inner membrane which acts as a permeability barrier
protecting the bacteria against damage-causing chemicals. The core of the spore lies in the centre
and is in a state of dehydration
Petrifaction
iii)
ANS: In geology, petrifaction or petrification (from Ancient Greek zétpa (petra) 'rock, stone’) is
the process by which organic material becomes a fossil through the replacement of the original
material and the filling of the original pore spaces with minerals. Petrified wood typifies this
process, but all organisms, from bacteria to vertebrates, can become petrified (although harder,
more durable matter such as bone, beaks, and shells survive the process better than softer remains
such as muscle tissue, feathers, or skin). Petrifaction takes place through a combination of two
similar processes: permineralization and replacement. These processes create replicas of the
original specimen that are similar down to the microscopic level. One of the processes involved in
petrifaction is permineralization. The fossils created through this process tend to contain a large
amount ofthe original material of the specimen. This process occurs when groundwater containing
dissolved minerals (most commonly quartz, calcite, apatite (calc1um phosphate), siderite (iron
carbonate), and pyrite), fills pore spaces and cavities of specimens, particularly bone, shell or
wood. The pores of the organisms' tissues are filled when these minerals precipitate out of the
water. Two common types of permineralization are silicification and pyritization.
iv) Gemma cups
ANS: Gemmiae cups are cup-like structures containing gemmae. The gemmae are small discs of
haploid tissue and they directly give rise to new gametophytes. A gemma (plural gemmae) is a
single cell or a mass of cells, or a modified bud of tissue, that detaches from the parent and develops
into a new individual. It is a means of asexual propagation in plants. They are dispersed from
gemma cups by rainfall. These cups are located at the apex of the leafy moss and function in
reproduction. The moss makes little discs of plant tissue inside the cups called gemmae. These
gemmmae are moved away from the parental plant via a splash-cup dispersal mechanism. Gemimae
are green, multicellular, asexual buds, which develop m small receptacles called gemma cups
located on the thalli. The sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta, and capsule. After meiosis,
spores are produced within the capsule, the spores germinate to torm free-living gametophytes. In
liverworts such as Marchantia, the flattened plant body or thallus 1s a haploid gametophyte with
gemma cups scattered about its upper surface. The gemma cups are cup-like structures containing
gemmae. The gemmae are small discs of haploid tissue, and they directly give rise to new
gametophytes.

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