هندسه قدره

Ministry of Higher Education and
Scientific Research
Southern Technical University
Engineering Technical College/Basrah
Department of Elect. Power Eng.
Hassan Al-Ajwad
Power Engineering
Third Stage
All Thanks to:

Dr. Dhyaa Kamml
M.Sc. Hiba Abdulkareem
Power Engineering
Chapters:
Chapter One Chapter Two

Basic Structure of Power System Overhead Line Insulators
Chapter Three
Inductance of Transmission Line
Chapter Four Chapter Five

Capacitance of Transmission Line Underground Cables
References:
1. "A Text Book on Power System Engineering"
By:
A. Chakrabarti, M.L. Soni, P.V. Gupta and U.S. Bhatnagar
2. "A Course in Power Systems"

By:
J.B. Gupta
Chapter One
Basic Structure of Power System
1.1 Structure of Electrical Power Systems

Electrical energy is generated at the power stations, which are
usually situated far away from the load centers. Hence an extensive
network of conductors between the power stations and the consumers is
required. This network may be divided into two main components, called
the transmission system and the distribution system. The generation,
transmission and distribution system of electrical power is called the
electrical power supply system. So, the power system mainly consists of
three parts:
1. Generation stations
2. Transmission lines
3. Distribution system
All these parts are shown in Fig. 1 below:
Fig. 1: Basic structure of electrical power system.
1
Power Engineering Third Stage
Dr. Dhyaa Kamml M.Sc. Hiba Abdulkareem M.Sc. Hassan Al-Ajwad
1.2 High Voltage Direct Current( HVDC) Transmission

System
In the initial stages, dc used to be employed for generation,
transmission and distribution of electric power. With the introduction of
transformers and the 3 phase AC system, the situation changed in favour
of ac, especially where the electric energy used to be harnessed from
water power which is usually available far from the load centers.
HVDC transmission possesses many technical and economic
advantages over AC transmission. Some of these are given below:
1. No transmission distance limits.
2. No reactive problems.
3. No charging current (which contributes to continuous loss even on no
load).
4. Line regulation is decreased because of there is no inductance and
capacitance.
5. No stability problems.
6. No skin effect.
7. Less corona losses.
Although DC transmission has so many advantages over AC
transmission, yet it will never completely overtake AC transmission, at
the most it will work in conjunction with it. The problems associated with
and limitations of DC transmission are given below:
1. It is difficult to tap of power at point along the line.
2. Although the line costs are lower (2 conductors instead of 3 conductors
for AC system), but the station costs for DC system are higher.
2
1.3 Effect of System Voltage on Transmission Efficiency

Consider there is n phase system and E is the voltage to neutral. If I
is the current lagging V by an angle 𝜑 on each phase of the system.
Power transmitted by each phase (in Watts) is:
P
𝑃 = V I cos 𝜑 → I =
V cos 𝜑
If R is the resistance of each line conductor, the power loss (W) is:
2
𝑃2
𝑊=𝐼 𝑅= 2 𝑅
𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑
If ρ, l and a denote the resistivity of conductors, length of the line and the
area of cross -section of the conductor, respectively; then:
𝑅 = ρ 𝑙/𝑎
So:
𝑃2 𝜌 𝑙
𝑊= 2 … (1)
𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑 𝑎
Also, the cross-section area of conductor (a) is:
𝐼 𝑃
𝑎= =
𝛿 𝑉 cos 𝜑 𝛿
𝑃2 𝜌 𝑙 𝑉 cos ∅ 𝛿 𝑃𝜌𝑙𝛿 𝑊 𝑉 cos ∅
𝑊= 2 × = 𝑜𝑟 𝛿 =
𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 φ 𝑃 𝑉 cos ∅ 𝑃𝜌𝑙
Now, Efficiency:
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
ŋ= =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
P 𝜌𝑙𝛿
= = 1− … (2)
𝑃𝜌𝑙𝛿 𝑉 cos 𝜑 + 𝜌 𝑙 𝛿
𝑃+
𝑉 cos 𝜑
𝑊 𝑊
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 𝐼 = =𝜌𝑙𝛿 … (3)
𝐼2 𝐼
Volume of conductor required per phase is:
𝑃𝑙 𝑃2 𝜌 𝑙2
𝑉=𝑎𝑙= = … (4)
𝑉 cos 𝜑 𝛿 𝑊 𝑉 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 φ
3
Four points can be noted here:

1. With the increase in transmission voltage line losses are reduced since
line losses are inversely proportional to supply voltage (eq. 1).
2. The transmission efficiency increases with the increase in transmission
voltage (eq.2).
3. Resistance drop per line is constant. Hence percentage resistance drop
decreases with the increase in transmission voltage (eq. 3).
4. For constant values of W, P, l, ρ and cos 𝜑, the volume of conductor is
inversely proportional to the square of supply voltage (eq. 4).
As shown, with the increase in transmission voltage the size of the
conductor is reduced. This further reduces the cost of supporting structure
materials. Also, this increase reduces the line current, which results in
reduction of line losses and higher efficiency. Furthermore, due to low
current the voltage drop on the lines is low. This leads to better voltage
regulation. On the other hand, a higher voltage involves higher cost of the
system by a way of increased insulation switch gear and terminal
apparatus. Thus, a typical curve can be plotted for cost against
transmission voltage as shown in Fig. 2:
According to the modern
American practice (based on empirical
formula), the economical line-to-line
voltage (kV) is:
3𝑃
𝑉 = 5.5√𝑙 +
100
where:
P: is the estimated maximum kW per Fig. 2: The optimum voltage
from the economy point of
phase as to be delivered over a single view.
circuit.
4
l: is the distance of transmission in miles.

Another empirical formula can be used:
𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑉 = 5.5√𝑙 +
150
where:
kVA: is the total power.
l: is the distance of transmission in miles.
5
1.4 Conductor Size and Kelvin's Law

In case of transmission system carrying bulk power over a long
distance, the question of voltage regulation is unimportant; in some very
long lines a regulation of 40 per cent is considered satisfactory. The only
consideration is the economy (cost or charge). The charge under this item
comprises the annual interest and depreciation, supports and insulators
and the cost of their erection.
It is clear that insulator costs are constant (for particular voltage),
while conductors costs vary directly with the cross-section of the
conductor. The costs of supports may be represented partly constant and
partly proportional to the conductor cross-section. Thus, the total annual
charge can be represented as {P1 + P2a}; where P1 and P2 are constants
and a is the cross-section of the conductor.
The resistance of conductor being inversely proportional to its
cross-section area. The energy losses due to ohmic resistance may be
represented as {P3/a}; where P3 is a constant.
For the most economical working, the sum should be minimum.
i.e.:
𝜕 𝑃3
(𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑎 + ) = 0
𝜕𝑎 𝑎
𝑃3 𝑃3
𝑃2 − 2 = 0 → 𝑃2 𝑎 =
𝑎 𝑎
𝑃3
∴𝑎=√
𝑃2
It is found that (P2a = P3/a). In

other words, the variable part of Fig. 3: Illustration of Kelvin's law.
annual charge should be equal to the cost of annual losses due to energy
6
wasted in the conductor for most economical working (Kelvin's Law).

See Fig. 3.
Example 1: Find the most economical cross-section of a 3-core

distributer cable 250 m long supplying a load of 80 kW at 400 V and 0.8
pf lagging for 4000 hours per annum and open-circuited for the
remainder of the year. The cost of the cable including installation is (15a
+ 25) per meter where a is the area of each conductor in cm 2. Interest
and depreciation total 10 per cent and cost of energy wasted is 10 % per
unit. The resistance per km of conductor of 1 cm2 cross-section is 0.173
ohm.
Solution:
𝑃3
𝑎=√
𝑃2
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 (𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑎)

= 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 × 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∴ 𝑃2 𝑎 + 𝑃1 = (15𝑎 + 25) × 250 × 0.1 = (375𝑎 + 625)
𝑃 80 × 103
𝐼= = = 144.3 𝐴
√3𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ √3 × 400 × 0.8
𝑙 250 × 10−3 0.04325
𝑅 = 𝜌 = 0.173 × = Ω
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
3𝐼 2 𝑅 × 𝑡
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ (𝐸) =
1000
0.04325 10806.8
= [3(144.3)2 × × 4000] ÷ 1000 = 𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝑎 𝑎
𝑃3
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 ( ) = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 × 𝐸
𝑎
𝑃3 10806.8 1080.6
∴ = 0.1 × =
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
7
𝑃3 1080.6
𝑎=√ =√ = 1.69 𝑐𝑚2
𝑃2 375
Example 2: The daily load cycle of a 3-phase 110 kV transmission line

can be approximated as follows:
(i) 24 MW for 6 hours
(ii) 8 MW for 6 hours
(iii)4 MW for 12 hours.
The load pf is 0.8 lagging. Determine the most economical cross-section
if the cost of line including erection is (12000 + 8000a) per km where a is
the cross-section of each conductor in cm2. The line is in use throughout
the year. The resistance per km of each conductor is (0.19/a) ohm.
Energy cost 8% per unit. (Assume any additional data if required).
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡: (1) 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 10 %
(2) 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 1 𝑘𝑚
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑎 = (12000 + 8000a) × 1 × 0.1 = (1200 + 800𝑎)
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠:
𝑃 24 × 103 6 × 103
(𝑖) 𝐴𝑡 24 𝑀𝑊: 𝐼 = = = 𝐴
√3𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 √3 × 110 × 0.8 22√3
𝑃 8 × 103 2 × 103
(𝑖𝑖) 𝐴𝑡 8 𝑀𝑊: 𝐼 = = = 𝐴
√3𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 √3 × 110 × 0.8 22√3
𝑃 4 × 103 1 × 103
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝐴𝑡 4 𝑀𝑊: 𝐼 = = = 𝐴
√3𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 √3 × 110 × 0.8 22√3
3𝐼 2 𝑅 × 𝑡
𝐸=
1000
3 × 0.19 × 365 36 × 106 × 6 4 × 106 × 6 1 × 106 × 12
= [ + + ]
1000𝑎 484 × 3 484 × 3 484 × 3
8
36 × 103
= 𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝑎
𝑃3 36 × 103 2880
= 0.08 × =
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑃3 2880
∴𝑎=√ =√ = 1.9 𝑐𝑚2
𝑃2 800
H. W.: The cost of a 2-core feeder cable, including installation is (90 a +

20) per meter and the interest and depreciation charges are 10 per cent.
The cable is 2 km in length and cost of energy is 4% per unit. The
maximum current in the feeder is 250 A and the demand is such that the
copper loss is equivalent to what would be produced by the full current
flowing for 6 months. If the resistance of a conductor of 1 square cm and
1 km length is 0.173 Ω, calculate the most economical cross-sectional
area.
[Ans: a = 0.649 cm2]
9
1.5 Power Factor

The cosine of the angle between voltage and current in AC circuit
is known as power factor. In an AC circuit, there is generally a phase
difference between voltage and current. In an inductive circuit, the
current lags behind the applied voltage and the power factor of the circuit
is referred to as lagging. In a capacitive circuit, the current leads the
applied voltage and therefore, the power factor of the circuit is said to be
leading.
1.5.1 Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

1. Cost of station and distribution equipment is high for a given load at
low power factor.
2. Low power factor makes voltage regulation poor so that a trouble is
experienced in maintaining voltage within specific limits.
3. More energy losses for the same size of conductor, or for the same
energy losses a bigger size of conductor.
1.5.2 Causes of Low Power Factor

1. A transformer at light loads.
2. Extensive use of induction motor (which also works on the transformer
principle).
3. Arc lamps.
1.5.3 Avoidance of Low Power Factor

1. It is preferable to use synchronous motor rather than induction motor
wherever possible.
2. It is preferable to use high speed induction motors rather than low
speed machines.
10
3. If available, no induction motor should be operated at less than its rated

output.
4. In some cases, DC motor supplied from synchronous motor-generator
may be used.
5. If 3-phase induction motors operate for considerable periods at less
than half load and stator winding are normally in delta, they can be
switched into star. This arrangement improving the pf of motor
considerably.
1.5.4 Methods of Improving Power Factor

1. By use of static capacitors.
2. By use of synchronous capacitors (synchronous motor).
3. By use of phase advancers (a special machine which may be connected
to the rotor circuit of an induction motor to improve the pf of the latter).
1.5.5 Economics of Power Factor Improvement

1. kW demand constant (kW1 = kW2) using loss-free capacitors:
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2
= kVA1 sin 𝜑1 − kVA2 sin 𝜑2
P P
= sin 𝜑1 − sin 𝜑2
cos 𝜑1 cos 𝜑2
∴ kVAR = P tan 𝜑1 − P tan 𝜑2
= P(tan 𝜑1 − tan 𝜑2 )
11
2. kVA demand constant (kVA1 = kVA2) using:

A. Synchronous motor which operates at over excited (additional kW
capacity is met by the installation of new plant).
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2
Q1 = kVA1 sin 𝜑1
P1
= sin 𝜑1 = P1 tan 𝜑1
cos 𝜑1
Q 2 = kVA2 sin 𝜑2
P2
= sin 𝜑2 = P2 tan 𝜑2
cos 𝜑2
∴ 𝑄𝑠 = P1 tan 𝜑1 − P2 tan 𝜑2
B. Phase advancer
CD = additional of new plant
CD = kVA2 cos 𝜑2 − kVA1 cos 𝜑1
P2 − P1 = kVA(cos 𝜑2 − cos 𝜑1 )
BE = kVAR of necessary new plant
BE = OD(tan 𝜑1 − tan 𝜑2 )
Q 𝑠 = P2 (tan 𝜑1 − tan 𝜑2 )
For case 1:
Reduction in kVA = kVA1 − kVA2
𝑃 𝑃
= −
cos 𝜑1 cos 𝜑2
If the cost kVA equals to x (I. D.) then, the saving in demand:
1 1
𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑥 𝑃 ( − )
cos 𝜑1 cos 𝜑2
Against this saving, the kVAR has been provided by power factor
improvement plant (static capacitor) is:
12
Q = P (tan 𝜑1 − tan 𝜑2 )
If y (I. D.) is the cost per kVAR of improvement plant
∴ cost of condencer = y P (tan 𝜑1 − tan 𝜑2 )
1 1
Net Saving (S) = 𝑥 𝑃 ( − ) − y P(tan 𝜑1 − tan 𝜑2 )
cos 𝜑1 cos 𝜑2
For maximum saving:
𝑑𝑠 𝑦
= 0 → sin 𝜑2 =
𝑑𝜑2 𝑥
Example 3: A 3- phase synchronous motor is connected in parallel with a

load of 500 kW at 0.8 lagging pf and its excitation is adjusted until it
raises the total pf to 0.9 lagging. If the mechanical load on the motor
including losses takes 125 kW, calculate the kVAR input to the motor.
Solution:
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦:
𝑃1 500
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑆1 ) = = = 625 𝑘𝑉𝐴
cos 𝜑1 0.8
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑄1 ) = 𝑆1 sin 𝜑1 = 625 × 0.6 = 375 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟:
𝑃2 500 + 125
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑆2 ) = = = 694.4 𝑘𝑉𝐴
cos 𝜑2 0.9
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑄2 ) = 𝑆2 sin 𝜑2
= 694.4 × 0.4357 = 302.6 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠:
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 = 375 − 302.6 = 72.4 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑆𝑠 = √(𝑃𝑠 )2 + (𝑄𝑠 )2 = √(125)2 + (72.4)2 = 144.2 𝑘𝑉𝐴
13
Example 4: A synchronous motor improves the pf of a load from 0.7 to

0.9 lagging. The losses and other mechanical load on it amount to (250 +
200) kW, while the load for which pf is considered is 1500 kW. Find out
the input to the synchronous motor in kVA and its pf.
Solution:
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦:
𝑄1 = 𝑃1 tan 𝜑1 = 1500 × tan(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.7) = 1530.3 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟:
𝑄2 = 𝑃2 tan 𝜑2 = (1500 + 450) × tan(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.9) = 944.4 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠:
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 = 1530.3 − 944.4 = 585.9 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑆𝑠 = √(𝑃𝑠 )2 + (𝑄𝑠 )2 = √(450)2 + (585.9)2 = 738.8 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑃 450
𝑝𝑓𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ. = cos 𝜑𝑠 = = = 0.61 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑆 738.8
Example 5: A system is working at its maximum kVA capacity with a

lagging pf of 0.71. An anticipated increase of load could be met by:
(i) raising the pf of the system to 0.87 lagging by the installation of phase
advancers.
(ii) installing extra generating plant, cables etc. to meet the increased
power demand.
Estimate the limiting cost per kVAR of phase advancing plant which
would justify its use if the cost for generating plant is 60 per kVA. Interest
and depreciation charges may be assumed to be 10 % in each case. (* let
the original kVA be 1000).
Solution:
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟 = 𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
14
𝑆𝑜, 𝑤𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑:

𝑃2 − 𝑃1
1. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 =
cos 𝜑2
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑘𝑉𝐴(cos 𝜑2 − cos 𝜑1 )
= 1000(0.87 − 0.7) = 160 𝑘𝑊
160
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 = = 183.9 𝑘𝑉𝐴
0.87
2. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄𝑆 = 𝐵𝐸
𝑄𝑆 = 𝑃2 (tan 𝜑1 − tan 𝜑2 )
𝑃2 = (1000 × 0.71) + 160 = 870 𝑘𝑊
∴ 𝑄𝑆 = 870(0.4917 − 0.5669) = 369.6 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑁𝑜𝑤:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟
60 × 183.9 × 0.1 = 𝑦 × 369.6 → 𝑦 = 2.986
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 2.986 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
Example 6: The load on a certain installation may be considered

constant at 1200 kVA, 0.75 lagging pf for 3000 hours per annum. The
tariff is 65 per kVA plus 2 % per kWh.
a. Determine the annual charge for electrical energy.
b. Power factor improving apparatus is installed to improve the pf to 0.95
lagging. Determine the kVAR required and the new annual charge if the
power factor improving apparatus costs 60 per kVAR, annual interest
and depreciation charges are 10% of the capital cost, and the losses in
the apparatus are 5% of the kVAR rating.
Solution:
𝑎. 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = (65 × 𝑘𝑉𝐴1 ) + (0.02 × 𝑘𝑊ℎ1 )
𝑘𝑊1 = 𝑘𝑉𝐴1 cos 𝜑1 = 1200 × 0.75 = 900 𝑘𝑊
∴ 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = (65 × 1200) + (0.02 × 900 × 3000) = 132000
15
𝑏. 𝑄1 = 𝑘𝑉𝐴1 sin 𝜑1 = 1200 × 0.6613 = 793.56 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅

𝑄2 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄𝑠 = 793.56 − 𝑄𝑠
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑠 = 0.05 × 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑊
∴ 𝑘𝑊2 = 𝑘𝑊1 + 0.05𝑄𝑠 = 900 + 0.05𝑄𝑠
𝑄2 793.56 − 𝑄𝑠
tan 𝜑2 = → 0.3288 =
𝑃2 900 + 0.05𝑄𝑠
∴ 𝑄𝑠 = 489.6 ≅ 490 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠:
(65 × 𝑘𝑉𝐴2 ) + (0.02 × 𝑘𝑊ℎ2 ) + 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑘𝑊2 = 900 + 0.05𝑄𝑠 = 900 + (0.05 × 490) = 924.5 𝑘𝑊
𝑃2 924.5
𝑘𝑉𝐴2 = = = 973.1 𝑘𝑉𝐴
cos 𝜑2 0.95
∴ 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒:
= (65 × 973.1) + (0.02 × 924.5 × 3000) + (60 × 490 × 0.1)
= 121655
H. W.: A 35 kW induction motor has power factor 0.9 and efficiency 0.9
at full-load, power factor 0.6 and efficiency 0.7 at half full-load. At no
load the current is 25% of full-load current and power factor is 0.1.
Capacitors are supplied to make the line power factor 0.8 at half full-
load. With these capacitors in circuit, find the line power factor at: (i) full
load, and (ii) no load.
[Ans: (i) 0.994 lagging and (ii) 0.272 leading]
16
Chapter Two
Overhead Line Insulators
2.1 Introduction
Transmission line conductors are bare and do not have any
insulated coating over it. To maintain safety and necessary clearance
between live conductors and metal structure of the support, insulators are
mounted. These insulators provide insulation of high voltage wire with
the metal structure and also provide support to the conductor. Insulators
are also used in providing support to bus-bar conductors and other live
high voltage equipment terminals.
2.2 Types of Insulators

1. Pin Type Insulators: A typical pin type insulator is shown in Fig. 1.
This type of insulators is commonly employed for operating voltages up
to about 25 kV though two-piece, three-piece and four-piece insulators
can be constructed for working voltages of 45, 66 and beyond 66 kV. The
tendency is to use pin insulators for voltages up to 50 kV only because
they become uneconomical for higher voltages.
2. Suspension Type Insulators: A typical suspension insulator is shown
in Fig. 2. When these types of insulators are used, the line conductor is
hung below the point of support and at the end of a string of insulators.
Various insulators units are connected to each other by metal links (the
combination being known as a string). By using suspensions insulators,
large spacing will required to be provided than with pin type insulators
due to the larger amplitude of swing of the conductors.
17
Fig. 1: Pin type insulator.
Fig. 3: Suspension type insulator.
18
2.3 Voltage Distribution over A String of Suspension

Insulators
For overhead lines operating at high voltages (33 kV and above)
use of number of discs connected in series, through metal links, is made.
The whole unit formed by connecting a number of discs in series is
known as string of insulators. The line conductor is secured to the bottom
disc of the string and the top disc is connected to the cross-arm of the
pole or tower, as illustrated in Fig. 5. The number of discs depends on the
line operating voltage.
Fig. 5: String of insulators.

It is found that the voltage impressed on a string of suspension
insulators does not distribute itself uniformly across the individual discs.
The line unit (unit nearest the line conductor) has the maximum value
across it, the figure progressively decreasing as the unit nearest the cross-
arm is approached. This fact may be explained with the help of equivalent
circuit of an insulator string as shown in Fig. 6. Each string insulator unit
behaves like a capacitor having a dielectric medium between the two
metallic parts. The capacitance due to two metal fittings on either side of
an insulator is known as mutual capacitance. Further there is also a
19
capacitance between metal fitting of each unit and the earthed pole or
tower. The capacitance so formed is known as shunt capacitance.
Let the mutual capacitance between the links be C' and shunt capacitance
between links and earth be C, voltage across the first unit (nearest the
cross-arm) be E1, voltage across the second unit be E2, voltage across the
third unit be E3, voltage across the fourth unit (nearest the line conductor)
be E4, and voltage between conductor and earth be E volts.
𝐶′
𝐿𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝐶′ = 𝑚𝐶
𝐶
Applying Kirchhoff's first law

to point a, we get:
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼𝑎
𝑗𝜔 𝐶 ′ 𝐸2 = 𝑗𝜔 𝐶 ′ 𝐸1 + 𝑗𝜔 𝐶 𝐸1
𝑚 𝐶 𝐸2 = 𝑚 𝐶 𝐸1 + 𝐶 𝐸1
1
∴ 𝐸2 = (1 + ) 𝐸 … (1)
𝑚 1
to point b, we get:
𝐼3 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑏
𝑗𝜔 𝐶 ′ 𝐸3 = 𝑗𝜔 𝐶 ′ 𝐸2 + 𝑗𝜔 𝐶 (𝐸1 + 𝐸2 )
𝑚 𝐶 𝐸3 = 𝑚 𝐶 𝐸2 + 𝐶 (𝐸1 + 𝐸2 )
3 1 Fig. 6: Equivalent circuit of
∴ 𝐸3 = (1 + + 2 ) 𝐸1 … (2)
𝑚 𝑚 insulator string.
to point c, we get:
𝐼4 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼𝑐
𝑗𝜔 𝐶 ′ 𝐸4 = 𝑗𝜔 𝐶 ′ 𝐸3 + 𝑗𝜔 𝐶 (𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 )
𝑚 𝐶 𝐸4 = 𝑚 𝐶 𝐸3 + 𝐶 (𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 )
6 5 1
∴ 𝐸4 = (1 + + 2 + 3 ) 𝐸1 … (3)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
20
Finally, voltage between line conductor and earth (E):

10 6 1
𝐸 = (4 + + 2 + 3 ) 𝐸1 … (4)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
2.4 String Efficiency

The ratio of voltage across the whole string and the product of the
number of units and voltage across the unit nearest to the line conductor
is known as the string efficiency:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
ŋ=
𝑛 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
where ŋ is the string efficiency and n is the number of units in the string.
2.4.1 Methods of Increasing String Efficiency or Equalizing Voltage

over Units of String
1. Making ratio of capacity to earth / capacity per insulators as small
as possible: A long cross arm of tower can help to some extent, but the
limitations of cost and strength of tower makes 1/10 as the maximum
practical limit.
2. By correct grading of the various capacitance: Suppose the mutual
capacitance of the lowest unit is increased progressively decreasing this
figure as top unit is approached. This will result in reduction of voltage
across the line unit since the voltage for a given current is proportional
inversely to the capacitance. Grading is only suitable for very high
voltage systems, say 200 kV and above.
3. Static shielding which makes use of guard ring: Guard ring is a
large metal ring surrounding the bottom unit and connected to the metal
conductor at the bottom of this unit as shown in Fig. 7. This ring screens
the lower units (decreasing their earth capacitances) and introduces a
number of capacitances between the line and insulator caps. These
21
capacitances are greater for lower units thus voltages across them are
reduced.
Fig. 7: Guard ring.
Example 1: A string of 6 suspension insulators is to be graded to obtain

uniform distribution of voltage across the string. If the pin to earth
capacitances are all equal to C, and the mutual capacitance of the top
insulator 10C. Find the mutual capacitance of each unit in terms of C.
Solution:
𝐶 ′ = 𝑚𝐶 → 𝐶 ′ = 10𝐶 → 𝑚 = 10
𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎:
𝐶1 ′ = 10𝐶
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼𝑎
𝐶2′ 𝐸 = 𝐶1 ′𝐸1 + 𝐶 𝐸1
𝐶2′ = 𝐶1 ′ + 𝐶
22
𝐶2′ = 10𝐶 + 𝐶
∴ 𝐶2′ = 11𝐶
𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑏:
𝐶2 ′ = 10𝐶
𝐼3 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑏
𝐶3′ 𝐸 = 𝐶2 ′𝐸 + 𝐶(𝐸 + 𝐸 )
𝐶3′ = 11𝐶 + 2𝐶
∴ 𝐶3′ = 13𝐶
𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐:
𝐶3 ′ = 10𝐶
𝐼4 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼𝑐
𝐶4′ 𝐸 = 𝐶3 ′𝐸 + 𝐶(𝐸 + 𝐸 + 𝐸)
𝐶4′ = 13𝐶 + 3𝐶
∴ 𝐶4′ = 16𝐶
𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑:
𝐶4 ′ = 10𝐶
𝐼5 = 𝐼4 + 𝐼𝑑
𝐶5′ 𝐸 = 𝐶4 ′𝐸 + 𝐶(𝐸 + 𝐸 + 𝐸 + 𝐸)
𝐶5′ = 16𝐶 + 4𝐶
∴ 𝐶5′ = 20𝐶
𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑒:
𝐶5 ′ = 10𝐶
𝐼6 = 𝐼5 + 𝐼𝑒
𝐶6′ 𝐸 = 𝐶5 ′𝐸 + 𝐶(𝐸 + 𝐸 + 𝐸 + 𝐸 + 𝐸)
𝐶6′ = 20𝐶 + 5𝐶
∴ 𝐶6′ = 25𝐶
23
Example 2: A string of 8 suspension insulators is to be fitted with

grading ring. If the pin to earth capacitances are equal to C and mutual
capacitance for each unit equals to mC, find the values of line to pin
capacitances that would give a uniform distribution over the string.
Solution:
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒,
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 (𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , … , 𝐼8 ) 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙.
𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎:
𝐼1 + 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐴
∴ 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐴
𝐸𝐶 = (𝑛 − 1)𝐸𝐶1
𝐶 = (𝑛 − 1)𝐶1
𝐶
∴ 𝐶1 =
𝑛−1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝐴𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑏:
𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼𝐵
∴ 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼𝐵
2𝐸𝐶 = (𝑛 − 2)𝐸𝐶2
2𝐶
∴ 𝐶2 =
𝑛−2
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜:
3𝐶 4𝐶 5𝐶
𝐶3 = ; 𝐶4 = ; 𝐶5 = ;
𝑛−3 𝑛−4 𝑛−5
6𝐶 7𝐶
𝐶6 = ; 𝐶7 =
𝑛−6 𝑛−7
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙:
𝑝𝐶
𝐶𝑝 =
𝑛−𝑝
24
Example 3: A string of 5 suspension insulators used for 3-phase system

33 kV. If the pin to earth capacitance is 1/10 from the mutual
capacitance, find the voltage across each unit and string efficiency.
Solution:
33 × 103
𝑉𝑝ℎ = = 19.05 𝑘𝑉
√3
𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4 + 𝐸5
𝐸
ŋ=
5𝐸5
1 𝐶́
𝐶= 𝐶́ → 𝑚 = = 10
10 𝐶
1
𝐸2 = (1 + ) 𝐸1 = 1.1𝐸1
𝑚
𝐸3 = 1.31𝐸1 ;
𝐸4 = 1.651𝐸1 ;
𝐸5 = 2.157𝐸1
33 × 103
𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4 + 𝐸5 = 𝐸 =
√3
𝐸1 + 1.1𝐸1 + 1.31𝐸1 + 1.651𝐸1 + 2.157𝐸1 = 19.05
𝐸1 = 2.64 𝑘𝑉;
𝐸2 = 2.904 𝑘𝑉;
𝐸3 = 3.458 𝑘𝑉;
𝐸4 = 4.359 𝑘𝑉;
𝐸5 = 5.694 𝑘𝑉;
33 × 103
ŋ= √3 = 0.669 = 66.9%
5 × 5.694 × 103
25
H. W.: A 3-phase overhead transmission line is being supported by three

disc insulators. The potentials across top unit and middle unit are 9 kV
and 11 kV respectively. Calculate:
a. The ratio of capacitance between pin and earth to the self-capacitance
of each unit.
b. The line voltage.
c. String efficiency.
[Ans: a. 0.22 b. 61.35 kV c. 76%]
26
Chapter Three
Electrical Design of Overhead Lines
(Inductance of Transmission Lines)
3.1 Introduction
When a current is passed through electrical circuit, this current will
generate a flux. When this current changes with time in this circuit, the
flux will change and generate e.m.f. The absolute value of this e.m.f is
directly proportional to the rate of changes of flux, then:
𝑑∅ 𝑑∅ 𝑑𝜓
|𝑒| ∝ → |𝑒| = 𝑁 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
= × =𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜓
∴𝐿=
𝑑𝑖
ψ: flux linkage (Wb.T); i: current (A); L: inductance (H);
e: induced voltage (V); di/dt: rate of change of current (A/Second).
If the flux linkages of the circuit vary linearly with current, in other
words, this means that the magnetic circuit has constant permeability,
then:
𝜓
𝐿=
𝐼
Thus, the inductance of a circuit is defined as the flux linkage per
unit current.
27
3.2 Inductance of Conductor due to Internal Flux

Let us denote magnetic field intensity (A.T/m) at any point
distance x (meter) from the center of the conductor by Hx. According to
Amperes law which states that the m.m.f (A.T) around any closed path
equals to the current (A) enclosed by the path.
𝑚. 𝑚. 𝑓 = ∮ 𝐻𝑥 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐼𝑥
But, the integration of ds round the closed

circular path =2𝜋𝑥.
So that:
𝐼𝑥
2𝜋𝑥𝐻𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 → 𝐻𝑥 =
2𝜋𝑥
Assuming a uniform current density in the conductor, then:
𝐼𝑥 𝐼 𝑥2
= → 𝐼𝑥 = 2 𝐼
𝜋𝑥 2 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟
𝐼
∴ 𝐻𝑥 = 𝑥 (𝐴. 𝑇/𝑚)
2𝜋𝑟 2
𝜇𝐼 𝑊𝑏
𝐵𝑥 = 𝜇𝐻𝑥 → 𝐵𝑥 = 𝑥 ( 2)
2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑚
where: μ = μ0 μr is the permeability of the conductor;
Bx = flux density at distance x from the center of the conductor.
Flux enclosed in element of thickness dx per meter (axial) length of
conductor:
𝑑∅ = 𝐵𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥. (1)
𝜇𝐼 𝑊𝑏
𝑑∅ = 𝑥𝑑𝑥 ( )
2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑚
𝜋𝑥 2 𝜇𝑥 𝐴. 𝑇
𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑∅ 2 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑥 ( )
𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 4 𝑚
𝑟
𝜇𝐼𝑥 3 𝜇𝐼
𝜓𝑖𝑛𝑡 =∫ 4
𝑑𝑥 =
𝑋=0 2𝜋𝑟 8𝜋
28
𝜓𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝜇 𝐻
∴ 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑡 = = ( )
𝐼 8𝜋 𝑚
If the relative permeability (μr) of the conductor is taken "1";
𝐻
𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 ( )
𝑚
1 𝐻
∴ 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑡 = × 10−7 ( )
2 𝑚
3.3 Inductance of Conductor due to External Flux

𝑚. 𝑚. 𝑓 = ∮ 𝐻𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼
𝐼
2𝜋𝑥 𝐻𝑥 = 𝐼 → 𝐻𝑥 = (𝐴. 𝑇/𝑚)
2𝜋𝑥
𝜇𝐼 𝑊𝑏
𝐵𝑥 = 𝜇𝐻𝑥 → 𝐵𝑥 = ( 2)
2𝜋𝑥 𝑚
𝑑∅ = 𝐵𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥. (1𝑚)
𝜇𝐼 Wb
𝑑∅ = 𝑑𝑥 ( )
2𝜋𝑥 m
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜇𝐼 A. T
𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑∅ 2 = 𝑑𝑥 ( )
𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑥 m
𝐷2
𝜇𝐼 𝜇𝐼 𝐷2
𝜓12 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛
𝐷1 2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋 𝐷1
𝜓12 𝜇 𝐷2 𝐻
∴ 𝐿12 = = 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝐼 2𝜋 𝐷1 𝑚
For a relative permeability (μr =1), and substituting the value of (μ0);
then:
𝐷2 𝐻
𝐿12 = 2 × 10−7 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝐷1 𝑚
29
3.4 Inductance of A Single Phase Two-Wire Line

It has been already calculated the external inductance (L12) due to
current in a single conductor between two points situated at distances D1
and D2 from the center of the conductor.
In this case, we are interested in external flux between D and r 1 so
far as conductor 1 is concerned.
1 𝐻
𝐿1 𝑖𝑛𝑡 = × 10−7 ( )
2 𝑚
𝐷1 𝐻
𝐿1 𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 2 × 10−7 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑟1 𝑚
Total inductance of the circuit due to current in conductor 1 only is:
𝐿1 = 𝐿1 𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝐿1 𝑒𝑥𝑡
1 𝐷1
= ( + 2 𝑙𝑛 ) × 10−7
2 𝑟1
1 𝐷1
= 2 × 10−7 ( + 𝑙𝑛 )
4 𝑟1
1 𝐷1
= 2 × 10−7 (𝑙𝑛𝑒 4 + 𝑙𝑛 )
𝑟1
𝐷1
= 2 × 10−7 𝑙𝑛 −1
𝑟1 𝑒 4
𝐷1 𝐻
= 2 × 10−7 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑟1́ 𝑚
−1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑟1́ = 𝑟1 𝑒 4
𝐷2 𝐻
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜: 𝐿2 = 2 × 10−7 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑟2́ 𝑚
𝐷1 𝐷2
𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 = 2 × 10−7 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 )
𝑟1́ 𝑟2́
If 𝑟1́ = 𝑟2́ = 𝑟́ ; 𝐷1 = 𝐷2 = 𝐷
𝐷 𝐻
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦: 𝐿 = 4 × 10−7 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑟́ 𝑚
30
3.5 Flux Linkages of One Conductor in A Group of

Conductors
∑𝐼 = 0
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛 = 0
If 𝜓1𝑝1 denotes all the flux linkages of conductor 1 due to its own current
I1, then:
𝐷1𝑝 𝑇
𝜓1𝑝1 = 2 × 10−7 𝐼1 (𝑙𝑛 ) (𝑊𝑏. )
𝑟1́ 𝑚
Consider 𝜓1𝑝2 the flux linkages with conductor 1 due to current in
conductor 2:
𝐷2𝑝
𝜓1𝑝2 = 2 × 10−7 𝐼2 (𝑙𝑛 )
𝐷12
Also:
𝐷𝑛𝑝
𝜓1𝑝𝑛 = 2 × 10−7 𝐼𝑛 (𝑙𝑛 )
𝐷1𝑛
∴ 𝜓1𝑝 = 𝜓1𝑝1 + 𝜓1𝑝2 + 𝜓1𝑝3 + ⋯ + 𝜓1𝑝𝑛
𝐷1𝑝 𝐷2𝑝 𝐷3𝑝 𝐷𝑛𝑝
= 2 × 10−7 [𝐼1 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼2 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼3 𝑙𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑟1́ 𝐷12 𝐷13 𝐷1𝑛
So that:
1 1 1 1
𝜓1𝑝 = 2 × 10−7 [𝐼1 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼2 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼3 𝑙𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑟1́ 𝐷12 𝐷13 𝐷1𝑛
+ 2 × 10−7 [𝐼1 𝑙𝑛𝐷1𝑝 + 𝐼2 𝑙𝑛𝐷2𝑝 + 𝐼3 𝑙𝑛𝐷3𝑝 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛 𝑙𝑛𝐷𝑛𝑝 ]
To account for the total flux linkages to conductor 1, the point P must
approach infinity, and in this condition:
𝐷1𝑝 ≈ 𝐷2𝑝 ≈ 𝐷3𝑝 … 𝐷𝑛𝑝 = 𝐷𝑝 then:
1 1 1 1 𝑇
𝜓1𝑝 = 2 × 10−7 [𝐼1 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼2 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼3 𝑙𝑛 +. . +𝐼𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ] (𝑊𝑏. )
𝑟1́ 𝐷12 𝐷13 𝐷1𝑛 𝑚
31
3.6 Inductance of Composite Conductor Lines

Suppose a single phase 2-wire line is composed of two conductors
x and y, conductor x consists of n strands (segments) and conductor y of
m strands. Assume conductor x carries a current I and conductor y also
carries a current I in the opposite direction (-I).
Conductor x: Each Conductor y: Each

strand carries I/n strand carries -I/m
current. current.
1 1 1
𝜓𝑎 = 2 × 10−7 [𝐼𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼𝑏 𝑙𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑟𝑎́ 𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑛
1 1 1
− 2 × 10−7 [𝐼́𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼́𝑏 𝑙𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑚 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝐷𝑎𝑎́ 𝐷𝑎𝑏́ 𝐷𝑎𝑚
𝐼 1 1 1
= 2 × 10−7 [𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑛 𝑟𝑎́ 𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑛
𝐼 1 1 1
− 2 × 10−7 [𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑚 𝐷𝑎𝑎́ 𝐷𝑎𝑏́ 𝐷𝑎𝑚
𝑚
−7
√𝐷𝑎𝑎́ 𝐷𝑎𝑏́ 𝐷𝑎𝑐́ … 𝐷𝑎𝑚
= 2 × 10 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 { 𝑛 }
√𝑟́𝑎 𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑏𝑐 𝐷𝑎𝑐 … 𝐷𝑎𝑛
Since:
𝜓𝑎 𝜓𝑎
𝐿𝑎 = =
𝐼𝑎 𝐼/𝑛
𝑚
−7
√𝐷𝑎𝑎́ 𝐷𝑎𝑏́ 𝐷𝑎𝑐́ … 𝐷𝑎𝑚
∴ 𝐿𝑎 = 2 × 10 𝑛 𝑙𝑛 { 𝑛
}
√𝑟́𝑎 𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑐 … 𝐷𝑎𝑛
In a similar way:
32
𝑚
−7
√𝐷𝑏𝑎́ 𝐷𝑏𝑏́ 𝐷𝑏𝑐́ … 𝐷𝑏𝑚
𝐿𝑏 = 2 × 10 𝑛 𝑙𝑛 { }
𝑛
́
√𝐷𝑏𝑎 𝑟𝑏 𝐷𝑏𝑐 … 𝐷𝑏𝑛
Thus, average inductance of strands (segments) of conductor x is:
𝐿𝑎 + 𝐿𝑏 + 𝐿𝑐 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑛
𝐿𝑎𝑣 =
𝑛
For calculating inductance of conductor x, it is clear that n such strands
are electrically in parallel, so that:
𝐿𝑎𝑣 𝐿𝑎 + 𝐿𝑏 + 𝐿𝑐 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑛
𝐿𝑥 = =
𝑛 𝑛2
𝑚𝑛
−7 √(𝐷𝑎𝑎́ 𝐷𝑎𝑏́ . . 𝐷𝑎𝑚 )(𝐷𝑏𝑎́ 𝐷𝑏𝑏́ . . 𝐷𝑏𝑚 ). . (𝐷𝑛𝑎́ 𝐷𝑛𝑏́ . . 𝐷𝑛𝑚 )
= 2 × 10 𝑙𝑛 { 𝑛2
}
√(𝐷𝑎𝑎 𝐷𝑎𝑏 . . 𝐷𝑎𝑛 )(𝐷𝑏𝑎 𝐷𝑏𝑏 . . 𝐷𝑏𝑛 ). . (𝐷𝑛𝑎 𝐷𝑛𝑏 . . 𝐷𝑛𝑛 )
where 𝑟́𝑎 , 𝑟́𝑏 , … , 𝑟́𝑛 are replaced by 𝐷𝑎𝑎 , 𝐷𝑏𝑏 , 𝐷𝑛𝑛 respectively.
In this expression the numerator of argument of ln is called GMD
(Geometric Mean Distance) and often called (Mutual GMD) between
conductors x and y:
𝑚𝑛
𝐺𝑀𝐷 = 𝐷𝑚 = √(𝐷𝑎𝑎́ 𝐷𝑎𝑏́ . . 𝐷𝑎𝑚 )(𝐷𝑏𝑎́ 𝐷𝑏𝑏́ . . 𝐷𝑏𝑚 ). . (𝐷𝑛𝑎́ 𝐷𝑛𝑏́ . . 𝐷𝑛𝑚 )
Also, the denominator of argument of ln is called GMR (Geometric Mean
Radius)and often called (Self GMR):
𝑛2
𝐺𝑀𝑅 = 𝐷𝑠 = √(𝐷𝑎𝑎 𝐷𝑎𝑏 . . 𝐷𝑎𝑛 )(𝐷𝑏𝑎 𝐷𝑏𝑏 . . 𝐷𝑏𝑛 ). . (𝐷𝑛𝑎 𝐷𝑛𝑏 . . 𝐷𝑛𝑛 )
𝐷𝑚 𝐻
∴ 𝐿𝑥 = 2 × 10−7 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝐷𝑠 𝑚
In a similar way, we can find Ly. Then, the total inductance is:
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑥 + 𝐿𝑦
If conductors x and y are identical, then:
𝐿𝑥 = 𝐿𝑦 = 𝐿́
𝐷𝑚 𝐻
∴ 𝐿 = 2𝐿́ = 4 × 10−7 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝐷𝑠 𝑚
33
Example 1: Calculate the loop inductance per km of a single phase

transmission line comprising of two parallel conductors one meter apart
and 1.25 cm in dia. Also calculate the reactance of the transmission line.
Frequency is 50 Hz.
Solution:
𝐷 𝐻
𝐿 = 4 × 10−7 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑟́ 𝑚
𝐷 𝐻
𝐿 = 4 × 10−4 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑟́ 𝑘𝑚
1.25
𝑟́ = 0.7788 × = 0.4875 𝑐𝑚
2
100 𝐻
𝐿 = 4 × 10−4 𝑙𝑛 = 21.3 × 10−4
0.4875 𝑘𝑚
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋 × 50 × 21.3 × 10−4 = 0.67 Ω
Example 2: In a single phase line as shown in figure below, conductors 𝑎

and 𝑎́ in parallel from one conductor while conductors 𝑏 and 𝑏́ in
parallel from the return path. Calculate the total inductance of the line
per km assuming that current is equally shared by the two parallel
conductors. Conductor dia. is 2 cm.
Solution:
𝐷𝑚 𝐻
𝐿 = 4 × 10−4 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝐷𝑠 𝑘𝑚
𝐷𝑚 = 4√𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑏́ 𝐷𝑎́ 𝑏 𝐷𝑎́ 𝑏́
4
= √120 × 140 × 100 × 120 = 119 𝑐𝑚
𝐷𝑠 = 4√𝐷𝑎𝑎 𝐷𝑎𝑎́ 𝐷𝑎́ 𝑎 𝐷𝑎́ 𝑎́
2
𝐷𝑎𝑎 = 𝐷𝑎́ 𝑎́ = 0.7788 × = 0.7788 𝑐𝑚
2
𝐷𝑎𝑎́ = 𝐷𝑎́ 𝑎 = 20 𝑐𝑚
4
𝐷𝑠 = √(0.7788 × 20)2 = 3.94 𝑐𝑚
34
119 𝑚𝐻
𝐿 = 4 × 10−4 𝑙𝑛 = 1.36 ( )
3.94 𝑘𝑚
H.W.: The Fig. below shows the arrangement of a double circuit single
phase line. Conductors 𝑎, 𝑎́ from one connection and conductors 𝑏, 𝑏́
from return connection. The distance between 𝑎 and 𝑎́ is 90 cm and
between a and b is 175 cm as shown. Calculate the inductance per km of
the line (lead and return). The diameter of each conductor is 2.5 cm.
[Ans: 1.2×10-3 H/km]
35
3.7 Inductance of Three Phase Line

A. Equilateral Spacing
Flux linkages of conductor a due to currents Ia, Ib and Ic is:
1 1 1
𝜓𝑎 = 2 × 10−7 [𝐼𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼𝑏 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑟́ 𝐷 𝐷
𝐴𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 = 0
∴ (𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 ) = −𝐼𝑎
1 1 𝐷 𝑇
𝜓𝑎 = 2 × 10−7 𝐼𝑎 [𝑙𝑛 − 𝑙𝑛 ] = 2 × 10−7 𝐼𝑎 𝑙𝑛 (𝑊𝑏. )
𝑟́ 𝐷 𝑟́ 𝑚
−1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑟́ = 𝑟𝑒 4
Thus, the inductance of conductor a is:

𝜓𝑎 𝐷
𝐿𝑎 = = 2 × 10−7 𝑙𝑛 𝐻/𝑚
𝐼𝑎 𝑟́
𝐿𝑎 = 𝐿𝑏 = 𝐿𝑐 (Inductance per phase)
B. Unsymmetrical Spacing but Transposed
At position 1: (Flux linkages of conductor a at position 1)

1 1 1
𝜓𝑎1 = 2 × 10−7 [𝐼𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼𝑏 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑟́ 𝐷12 𝐷13
1 1 1
𝜓𝑎2 = 2 × 10−7 [𝐼𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼𝑏 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑟́ 𝐷23 𝐷12
36
1 1 1
𝜓𝑎3 = 2 × 10−7 [𝐼𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼𝑏 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑟́ 𝐷13 𝐷23
The average flux linkages of conductor a is:
𝜓𝑎1 + 𝜓𝑎2 + 𝜓𝑎3
𝜓𝑎 =
3
1 1 1 1
𝜓𝑎 = × 2 × 10−7 [3𝐼𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼𝑏 𝑙𝑛 + 𝐼𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ]
3 𝑟́ 𝐷12 𝐷23 𝐷13 𝐷13 𝐷12 𝐷23
𝐴𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒: (𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 ) = −𝐼𝑎
3
−7 √𝐷12 𝐷23 𝐷13
𝜓𝑎 = 2 × 10 𝐼𝑎 𝑙𝑛 ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 3√𝐷12 𝐷23 𝐷13
𝑟́
𝐷𝑒𝑞
∴ 𝜓𝑎 = 2 × 10−7 𝐼𝑎 𝑙𝑛
𝑟́
𝜓𝑎 𝐷𝑒𝑞 𝐻
𝐿𝑎 = = 2 × 10−7 𝑙𝑛 ( ⁄𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒)
𝐼𝑎 𝑟́ 𝑚
C. Inductance of Parallel 3-Phase Double Circuit Lines with

Unsymmetrical Spacing (Transposed Lines)
Consider a 3 phase double circuit connected in parallel. Conductors
a, b and c forming one circuit and conductors 𝑎́ , 𝑏́ and 𝑐́ forming the other
one, as illustrated below:
4
𝐷𝑎𝑏 = 4√𝑑𝑎𝑏 𝑑𝑎𝑏́ 𝑑𝑎́ 𝑏 𝑑𝑎́ 𝑏́ = √𝑑 2 𝑔2 = √𝑑𝑔
𝐷𝑏𝑐 = 4√𝑑𝑏𝑐 𝑑𝑏𝑐́ 𝑑𝑏𝑐́ 𝑑𝑏́𝑐́ = √𝑑𝑔
𝐷𝑐𝑎 = 4√𝑑𝑐𝑎 𝑑𝑐́ 𝑎 𝑑𝑐𝑎́ 𝑑𝑐́ 𝑎́ = √2ℎ𝑑
37
6
1 1 1
𝐷𝑚 𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 3√𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑏𝑐 𝐷𝑐𝑎 = √2ℎ𝑑 3 𝑔2 = (2ℎ)6 (𝑑)2 (𝑔)3
The self GMR for the phase which consists of 𝑎𝑎́ is:
At position 1:
4
𝐷𝑠1 = 4√𝑑𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑎́ 𝑑𝑎́ 𝑎 𝑑𝑎́ 𝑎́ = √(𝑟́ 𝑓)2 = √𝑟́ 𝑓
At position 2:
4
𝐷𝑠2 = √(𝑟́ ℎ)2 = √𝑟́ ℎ
At position 3:
4
𝐷𝑠3 = √(𝑟́ 𝑓)2 = √𝑟́ 𝑓
1 1 1
3
𝐷𝑠 𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = √𝐷𝑠1 𝐷𝑠2 𝐷𝑠3 = (𝑟́ )2 (𝑓)3 (ℎ)6
1 1
−7
𝐷𝑚 𝑒𝑞 −7
1 𝑑 2 𝑔 3 𝐻
𝐿𝑎 = 2 × 10 𝑙𝑛 = 2 × 10 ln[26 ( ) ( ) ] ( ⁄𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒)
𝐷𝑠 𝑒𝑞 𝑟́ 𝑓 𝑚
Example 3: A three phase transmission line 100 km long has its

conductors of 0.5 cm dia. spaced at the corners of an equilateral triangle
of 120 cm side. Find the inductance per phase of the system.
Solution:
𝐷 𝐻
𝐿 = 2 × 10−4 𝑙𝑛 /𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑟́ 𝑘𝑚
𝑟́ = 0.7788 × 0.25 = 0.194 𝑐𝑚
120
𝐿 = 2 × 10−4 𝑙𝑛 = 0.001285 𝐻/𝑘𝑚
0.194
𝐹𝑜𝑟 100 𝑘𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔:
𝐿 = 0.001285 × 100 = 0.1285 𝐻
Example 4: A three phase transmission line has conductor dia. of 1.8 cm

each, the conductors being spaced as shown in the following Fig. The
38
loads are balanced and the line is transposed. Find the inductance of the
line per km per phase.
Solution:
𝐷𝑒𝑞 𝐻
𝐿 = 2 × 10−4 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑟́ 𝑘𝑚
3
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = √4 × 6 × 9 = 6 𝑚
1.8
𝑟́ = 0.7788 × = 0.701 𝑐𝑚
2
6 × 100 𝑚𝐻
∴ 𝐿 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 = 2 × 10−4 𝑙𝑛 = 1.35
0.701 𝑘𝑚
Example 5: Three phase multi-conductors has the same current density.

Find the inductance per phase per km length of the system of conductors
shown in Fig. below. Self G.M.D of one conductor is 0.9 cm.
Solution:
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝐺. 𝑀. 𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐷𝑎𝑎 = 0.9 𝑐𝑚
4
𝐷𝑠1 = 4√𝐷𝑎𝑎 𝐷𝑎𝑎́ 𝐷𝑎́ 𝑎 𝐷𝑎́ 𝑎́ = √(0.9)2 (40)2 = 6 𝑐𝑚
𝐷𝑠2 = 𝐷𝑠3 = 𝐷𝑠1 = 6 𝑐𝑚
𝐷𝑠 = 3√𝐷𝑠1 𝐷𝑠2 𝐷𝑠3 = 6 𝑐𝑚
39
𝐷𝑚 = 3√𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶𝐴 , where:

4
𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 4√𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑏́ 𝐷𝑎́ 𝑏 𝐷𝑎́ 𝑏́ = √(10)2 (10.4)(9.6) = 10 𝑚
𝐷𝐵𝐶 = 𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 10 𝑚
4
𝐷𝐶𝐴 = 4√𝐷𝑐𝑎 𝐷𝑐𝑎́ 𝐷𝑐́ 𝑎 𝐷𝑐́ 𝑎́ = √(20)2 (20.4)(19.6) = 20 𝑚
3
𝐷𝑚 = √(10)(10)(20) = 12.6 𝑚
𝐷𝑚 𝐻
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 2 × 10−4 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝐷𝑠 𝑘𝑚
12.6 × 100
= 2 × 10−4 𝑙𝑛 = 1.068 𝑚𝐻/𝑘𝑚
6
H. W:. Find the inductance per phase per km of double circuit 3 phase
line which is shown in Fig. below. The line is completely transposed and
operates at a frequency of 50 Hz. Take the conductors dia. 6 mm.
[Ans: 0.65 mH/km]
40
Chapter Four
Electrical Design of Overhead Lines
(Capacitance of Transmission Lines)
4.1 Introduction
We know that any two conductors separated by an insulating
medium constitute a condenser or a capacitor. In case of an overhead line,
two conductors form the two plates of a capacitor and the air between the
conductors behaves as the dielectric medium. When an alternating p.d. is
applied across a transmission line, it draws a leading current, even when
supplying no load. This leading current is termed as the charging current.
It must be noted that the charging current is due to the capacitive effect
between the conductors of the line and is not in any way dependent on the
load. The strength of the charging current depends upon the voltage of
transmission, the capacitance of the line and the frequency of the ac
supply and is given by:
𝐼𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑉
If the capacitance of an overhead line is high, the line draws more
charging current, which compensates or cancels the lagging component of
load current (under the normal load conditions, the load is inductive one).
Hence the resultant current flowing in the line is reduced. The reduction
in resultant current results in:
a. Reduction of line losses and so increase of transmission efficiency.
b. Improvement of voltage regulation.
c. Improvement of power factor.
However, capacitance is defined as charge per unit of p.d., thus
capacitance per unit length of the line is:
41
𝑞
𝐶=
𝑉
where C is the capacitance (F/m), V is the p.d. between the conductors
(V) and q is thr charge on the line (Coulombs/m).
4.2 Potential Difference between Two Points due to A

Charge
According to Gauss's law:
𝑞 𝐶
𝐷= ( )
2𝜋𝑥 𝑚2
where:
D: Electric flux density; x: Point distance from the conductor; q: Charge.
The electric field intensity at the point:
𝐷 𝑞 𝑉
𝐸= = ( )
∈ 2𝜋 ∈ 𝑥 𝑚
where ∈: permittivity of medium=∈0 ∈𝑟 ;
𝐹
∈0 = 8.85 × 10−12 ( )
𝑚
The p.d. between two points p1 and p2 situated at distances D1 and D2
from the charge:
𝑞
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑𝑥 → 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑥
𝐷2
𝑞
𝑉12 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐷1 2𝜋 ∈ 𝑥
𝑞 𝐷2
𝑉12 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
2𝜋 ∈ 𝐷1
𝐷1
𝑞
𝑉21 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝐷2 2𝜋 ∈ 𝑥
𝑞 𝐷1
𝑉21 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
2𝜋 ∈ 𝐷2
42
4.3 Capacitance of Two-Wire Lines:

Vab due to qa:
𝑞𝑎 𝐷 𝑞 𝐷
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑟𝑎 2𝜋 ∈ 𝑟𝑎
Vab due to qb:
𝑞𝑏 𝑟𝑏 −𝑞 𝑟𝑏
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋 ∈ 𝐷 2𝜋 ∈ 𝐷
Vab due to qa and qb:
𝑞 𝐷 𝑞 𝐷 𝑞 𝐷2
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑟𝑎 2𝜋 ∈ 𝑟𝑏 2𝜋 ∈ 𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑏
The capacitance between conductors:
𝑞 2𝜋 ∈ 𝐹
𝐶𝑎𝑏 = = ( )
𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝐷2 𝑚
𝑙𝑛
𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑏
2𝜋 ∈0 𝐹
𝑖𝑓 ∈𝑟 = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: 𝐶𝑎𝑏 = ( )
𝐷2 𝑚
𝑙𝑛
𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑏
If the two conductors are identical (ra=rb=r), then:
𝑞 𝐷
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑙𝑛
𝜋∈ 𝑟
𝑞 𝜋∈ 𝐹
𝐶𝑎𝑏 = = ( )
𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑙𝑛 𝐷 𝑚
𝑟
𝜋 ∈0 𝐹
𝑖𝑓 ∈𝑟 = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: 𝐶𝑎𝑏 = ( )
𝐷 𝑚
𝑙𝑛
𝑟
The capacitance to neutral (Cn) is twice the line-to-line capacitance:
2𝜋 ∈0 𝐹
𝐶𝑛 = 2𝐶𝑎𝑏 = ( )
𝐷 𝑚
𝑙𝑛
𝑟
43
4.4 Capacitance of Three Phase Lines

a. Equilateral Spacing:
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = √3𝑉𝑎𝑛 ∟30°
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑐 = √3𝑉𝑎𝑛 ∟ − 30°
𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 3𝑉𝑎𝑛
1 𝐷 𝑟 𝐷
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = [𝑞𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑏 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 𝐷 𝐷
1 𝐷 𝐷 𝑟
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = [𝑞𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑏 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 𝐷 𝐷
1 𝐷 𝑟
𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = [2𝑞𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + (𝑞𝑏 + 𝑞𝑐 )𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 𝐷
𝑞𝑎 + 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑞𝑐 = 0 → −𝑞𝑎 = 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑞𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 3𝑉𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛:
3𝑞𝑎 𝐷 𝑞𝑎 𝐷
3𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 → 𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟
𝑞𝑎 2𝜋 ∈0 𝐹
∴ 𝐶𝑛 = = ( ) (𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙)
𝑉𝑎𝑛 𝐷 𝑚
𝑙𝑛
𝑟
b. Unsymmetrical Spacing but Transposed:
At position 1:
1 𝐷12 𝑟 𝐷23
𝑉𝑎𝑏1 = [𝑞𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑏 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 𝐷12 𝐷31
At position 2:
1 𝐷23 𝑟 𝐷31
2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 𝐷23 𝐷12
44
At position 3:
1 𝐷31 𝑟 𝐷12
2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 𝐷31 𝐷23
Assume (qa, qb, qc) are the same in spite of transposed during one
transposition cycle. Then, the average voltage between conductors a and
b is:
𝑉𝑎𝑏1 + 𝑉𝑎𝑏2 + 𝑉𝑎𝑏3
𝑉𝑎𝑏 =
3
1 𝐷12 𝐷23 𝐷31 𝑟3 𝐷12 𝐷23 𝐷31
= [𝑞𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑏 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟3 𝐷12 𝐷23 𝐷31 𝐷12 𝐷23 𝐷31
1 𝐷𝑒𝑞 𝑟
= [𝑞𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑏 𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑞
where: 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 3√𝐷12 𝐷23 𝐷31

Similarly:
1 𝐷𝑒𝑞 𝑟
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = [𝑞𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑞
1 𝐷𝑒𝑞 𝑟 𝑟
3𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = [2𝑞𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑏 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑐 𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑞 𝐷𝑒𝑞
𝑞𝑎 2𝜋 ∈0 𝐹
∴ 𝐶𝑛 = = ( ) (𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙)
𝑉𝑎𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑞 𝑚
𝑙𝑛
𝑟
4.5 Charging Current due to Capacitance

a. For a 1-ph line:
𝑉
𝐼𝑐ℎ = = 𝑗𝑉𝑤𝐶 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
−𝑗⁄
𝑤𝐶
where: w = 2ᴨf (f in Hz), C is capacitance between lines (farads) and V =

line-to-line voltage (volts).
45
b. For a 3-ph line:

𝑉
𝐼𝑐ℎ = = 𝑗𝑉𝑤𝐶 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠
−𝑗⁄
𝑤𝐶
where: w = 2ᴨf (f in Hz), C is capacitance to neutral (farads) and V =

voltage to neutral (volts).
4.6 Effect of Earth on The Capacitance of Overhead Lines

The presence of earth alters the electric field of the line and so
affects its capacitance. Earth may be assumed to be a perfect conductor in
the form of horizontal plane of infinite extent. Therefore, the electric field
of charged conductors is forced to conform to a presence of this
equipotential surface. Such problems may be solved by method of images
as in the following example:
We will consider the simple case of a single-phase line. The Fig.
below shows a two-wire line having both conductors a and b (radius of
each conductor r) at height h above ground. In this case for finding out
Vab, we will take into account charges qa, qb due to conductors a and b
and charges –qa, -qb due to their images.
Proceeding as in the case of capacitance of a two-wire line, we can write:
46
1 𝐷 𝑟
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = [𝑞𝑎 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑞𝑏 𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑟 𝐷
1 √𝐷2 + 4ℎ2 2ℎ
+ [−𝑞𝑎 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑞𝑏 𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋 ∈ 2ℎ √𝐷2 + 4ℎ2
1 2ℎ𝐷 𝑟√𝐷2 + 4ℎ2
= [𝑞 𝑙𝑛 ( ) + 𝑞 𝑙𝑛 ( )]
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑎 𝑟√𝐷2 + 4ℎ2 𝑏
2ℎ𝐷
But, since 𝑞𝑎 = −𝑞𝑏
1 2ℎ𝐷 1 2ℎ𝐷
∴ 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = [𝑞𝑎 (𝑙𝑛 )2 ] = [𝑞𝑎 𝑙𝑛( )]
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑟√𝐷2 + 4ℎ2 𝜋∈ 𝑟√𝐷2 + 4ℎ2
𝑞𝑎 𝜋∈ 𝐹
𝐶𝑎𝑏 = = ( )
𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑙𝑛( 𝐷 𝑚
)
𝑟√1 + 𝐷2 ⁄4ℎ2
𝐷
Comparison with expression (𝐶𝑎𝑏 = 𝜋 ∈⁄𝑙𝑛 ) shows that earth
𝑟
effect is to increase the capacitance by a small amount. However, the

effect is almost negligible if the conductors are high above ground
compared with the distance between them (as will be seen from the above
equation).
A similar treatment can be adopted for 3-phase lines. (H.W.)
47
4.7 Capacitance of Three Phase Lines with More Than One

Circuit
A. Capacitance of Three Phase Double Circuit Line with
Symmetrical Spacing (Double Circuit with Hexagonal Spacing):
1 𝐷 √3𝐷 𝑟 2𝐷
∴ 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = [𝑞𝑎 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 ) + 𝑞𝑏 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 )
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑟 2𝐷 𝐷 √3𝐷
𝐷 √3𝐷
+ 𝑞𝑐 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 )]
√3𝐷 𝐷
1 √3𝐷
= (𝑞𝑎 − 𝑞𝑏 )𝑙𝑛
2𝜋 ∈ 2𝑟
Similarly:
1 √3𝐷
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = (𝑞𝑎 − 𝑞𝑐 )𝑙𝑛
2𝜋 ∈ 2𝑟
1 √3𝐷
𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 3𝑉𝑎𝑛 = (2𝑞𝑎 − 𝑞𝑏 − 𝑞𝑐 )𝑙𝑛
2𝜋 ∈ 2𝑟
3𝑞𝑎 √3𝐷
𝑞𝑎 + 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑞𝑐 = 0 → 𝑞𝑎 = −(𝑞𝑏 + 𝑞𝑐 ), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛: 3𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋 ∈ 2𝑟
𝑞𝑎 2𝜋 ∈ 𝐹
∴ 𝐶𝑎𝑛 = = ( ) (𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙)
𝑉𝑎𝑛 √3𝐷 𝑚
𝑙𝑛 2𝑟
2𝜋 ∈ 𝐹
𝐶𝑛 = 2𝐶𝑎𝑛 = 2 × ( ) (𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙)
√3𝐷 𝑚
𝑙𝑛 2𝑟
48
B. Capacitance of a Three Phase Double Circuit Line with

Unsymmetrical Spacing (Transposed):
Assume that charge per length remain constant in all positions.

At position 1:
1 𝑑 𝑔 𝑟 ℎ 𝑑 𝑔
𝑉𝑎𝑏1 = [𝑞𝑎 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 ) + 𝑞𝑏 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 ) + 𝑞𝑐 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 )]
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑟 𝑓 𝑑 𝑔 2𝑑 ℎ
At position 2:
1 𝑑 𝑔 𝑟 𝑓 2𝑑 ℎ
𝑉𝑎𝑏2 = [𝑞𝑎 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 ) + 𝑞𝑏 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 ) + 𝑞𝑐 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 )]
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑟 ℎ 𝑑 𝑔 𝑑 𝑔
At position 3:
1 2𝑑 ℎ 𝑟 𝑓
𝑉𝑎𝑏3 = [𝑞𝑎 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 ) + 𝑞𝑏 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 )
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑟 𝑓 2𝑑 ℎ
𝑑 𝑔
+ 𝑞𝑐 (𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 )]
𝑑 𝑔
𝑉𝑎𝑏1 + 𝑉𝑎𝑏2 + 𝑉𝑎𝑏3
𝑉𝑎𝑏 =
3
1 2𝑑 3 𝑔2 2𝑑 3 𝑔2
= [𝑞 (𝑙𝑛 3 + 𝑙𝑛 2 ) − 𝑞𝑏 (𝑙𝑛 3 + 𝑙𝑛 2 ]
6𝜋 ∈ 𝑎 𝑟 𝑓 𝑟 𝑓
Similarly:
1 2𝑑 3 𝑔2 2𝑑 3 𝑔2
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = [𝑞 (𝑙𝑛 3 + 𝑙𝑛 2 ) − 𝑞𝑐 (𝑙𝑛 3 + 𝑙𝑛 2 ]
6𝜋 ∈ 𝑎 𝑟 𝑓 𝑟 𝑓
𝑞𝑎 + 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑞𝑐 = 0 → 𝑞𝑎 = −(𝑞𝑏 + 𝑞𝑐 )
Then:
49
3𝑞𝑎 2𝑑 3 𝑔2
𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 3𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 3 2
6𝜋 ∈ 𝑟 𝑓
𝑞𝑎 2𝑑 3 𝑔2 𝑞𝑎 3 𝑑 𝑔 2⁄3
∴ 𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 3 2 = 𝑙𝑛[√2 ( ) ( ) ]
6𝜋 ∈ 𝑟 𝑓 2𝜋 ∈ 𝑟 𝑓
𝑞𝑎
∴ 𝐶𝑎𝑛 =
𝑉𝑎𝑛
2𝜋 ∈ 𝐹
= (𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 )
3 𝑑 𝑔 2⁄3 𝑚
𝑙𝑛[√2 ( ) ( ) ]
𝑟 𝑓
𝐶𝑛 = 2𝐶𝑎𝑛
2𝜋 ∈ 𝐹
=2× (𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 )
3 𝑑 𝑔 2⁄3 𝑚
𝑙𝑛[√2 ( ) ( ) ]
𝑟 𝑓
Example 1: Find the capacitance of a single phase line 40 km long

consisting of 2 parallel wires each 5 mm in diameter and 1.5 m apart.
Determine the capacitance of the same line taking into account the effect
of ground. The height of the conductors above ground is 7 m.
Solution:
a. without ground:
𝜋∈ 𝜋 × 10−9 −12
𝐹
𝐶𝑎𝑏 = = = 4.34 × 10
𝐷 36𝜋𝑙𝑛(1.5⁄2.5 × 10−3 ) 𝑚
𝑙𝑛
𝑟
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 40 𝑘𝑚 = 4.34 × 10−12 × 40 × 103 = 0.174 𝜇𝐹
50
b. with ground:
𝜋∈ 10−9
𝐶𝑎𝑏 = =
𝐷 1.5
𝑙𝑛( ) 36 𝑙𝑛( )
√ 𝐷2 2.25
𝑟 1+ 2 2.5 × 10−3 √1 + 196
4ℎ
𝐹
= 4.4 × 10−12
𝑚
𝐶𝑎𝑏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 40 𝑘𝑚 = 4.4 × 10−12 × 40 × 103 = 0.176 𝜇𝐹
Example 2: If the double circuit 3-phase line in Fig. below has

conductors of dia. 2.5 cm and distance of separation D is 2 m in the
hexagonal spacing arrangement, calculate the phase-to-neutral
capacitance in microfarads per 100 km of the line.
51
Solution:
2𝜋 ∈ 𝐹
𝐶𝑎𝑛 = ( ) (𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙)
√3𝐷 𝑚
𝑙𝑛 2𝑟
2𝜋 ∈ 𝐹
𝐶𝑛 = 2𝐶𝑎𝑛 = 2 × ( ) (𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙)
√3𝐷 𝑚
𝑙𝑛 2𝑟
2𝜋 ∈ 2𝜋 ∈
= = = 2.26 𝜇𝐹
√3𝐷 1 √3 × 200 12
ln( 2𝑟 )2 ln( )
2.5
Example 3: A 3-phase double circuit line is shown in Fig. below. Find he

capacitance per phase to neutral. Dia. of each conductor is 2.5 cm.
Solution:
2𝜋 ∈
𝐶𝑎𝑛 = 3
𝑙𝑛[√2(𝑑⁄𝑟)(𝑔⁄𝑓)2⁄3 ]
2𝜋 ∈
𝐶𝑛 = 2 × 3
𝑙𝑛[√2(𝑑⁄𝑟)(𝑔⁄𝑓)2⁄3 ]
𝑔 = √52 + 22 = √29
𝑓 = √52 + 42 = √41
4𝜋 ∈
∴ 𝐶𝑛 = 3 = 0.02 𝜇𝐹/𝑘𝑚
𝑙𝑛[√2(200⁄1.25)(29⁄41)2⁄6 ]
52
H.W.: Find the capacitance per km per phase to neutral of a 3-phase line
arranged as shown in Fig. The outside dia. of conductors is 2.60 cm. The
line is transposed. Take the effect of ground into account.
[Ans: 8.5×10-9 F/km]
53
Chapter Five
Underground Cables
5.1 Introduction
Insulated conductors those are usually laid underground are called
“Cables”. External protection against mechanical injury, moisture and
chemical reaction is provided on the cable. Cable is more expensive than
overhead lines, particularly at high voltages. Also, temperature rise is
high in cables. There is limitation of raising the operating voltage. In low
and medium voltage distribution in urban areas, cables are more
widespread.
5.2 Types of Cables

The type of cable to be used at a particular location is determined
by the mechanical considerations and the voltage at which it is required to
operate. Some of the more important types of cables are shown below:
a. Low Tension Cables: These are used for voltages below 1000 volts.
b. High Tension Cables Up to 11 kV.
c. High Tension Cables for 22 - 33 kV.
d. Extra High Tension Cables.
5.3 Insulation Resistance

Let the core have a diameter
d=2r. Considering an elementary
cylindrical section of the insulation
having a radius x and thickness dx as
shown in Fig.
54
The resistance of this cylindrical shell for length l of the cable is:
𝑙
𝑅𝑖 = 𝜌 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑅𝑖 = 𝜌
2𝜋𝑥𝑙
𝐷 ⁄2
𝜌 𝑑𝑥 𝜌 𝐷
𝑅𝑖 = ∫ ∙ → 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠
𝑑 ⁄2 2𝜋𝑙 𝑥 2𝜋𝑙 𝑑
5.4 Stress and Capacitance of A Single Core Cable

Let us consider a single core cable
with the conductor diameter d and
sheath diameter D. Let the charge per
meter axial length be q. Then, total
electric flux passing through a
cylindrical of radius x meter concentric
with the conductor according to Gauss's
theorem is q lines.
The electric flux density (D) due to this flux is:
𝑞
𝐷=
2𝜋𝑥
The electric stress (g) at a distance x is
𝐷 𝐷 𝑞
𝑔= = = 𝑉/𝑚
∈ ∈0 ∈𝑟 2𝜋 ∈ 𝑥
The work done in moving a unit charge through a distance dx in the
direction of the electric field is gdx. Therefore, the work done in moving
a unit charge from the conductor to the sheath which is the potential
difference between the conductor and sheath is:
𝐷 ⁄2 𝐷 ⁄2
𝑞 𝑞 𝐷
𝑉= ∫ 𝑔𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑 ⁄2 𝑑 ⁄2 2𝜋 ∈ 𝑥 2𝜋 ∈ 𝑑
55
Therefore, capacitance:
𝑞 2𝜋 ∈ 𝐹
𝐶= = ( )
𝑉 𝑙𝑛 𝐷 𝑚
𝑑
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑉
𝑞= ;
𝐷
𝑙𝑛
𝑑
𝐷
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑉⁄𝑙𝑛 𝑉
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 = 𝑑=
2𝜋 ∈ 𝑥 𝐷
𝑥𝑙𝑛
𝑑
The stress is maximum at the surface of the conductor, i.e. when x = r
𝑉 2𝑉 𝑘𝑉
𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = ( )
𝐷 𝐷 𝑚
𝑟𝑙𝑛 𝑑𝑙𝑛
𝑑 𝑑
The stress is minimum at the sheath of cable.
2𝑉 𝑘𝑉
𝑔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ( )
𝐷 𝑚
𝐷𝑙𝑛
𝑑
Therefore, the stress is a maximum at the conductor and a minimum at
the sheath. In order to avoid breakdown of the insulation it would be
advisable to have a more uniform stress distribution. This may be done by
“Capacitance Grading”.
Example 1: A single core cable has a core diameter of 2.5 cm, insulation
thickness of 1,25 cm and resistivity of the insulation is 4.5 × 1014 Ω.cm.
Calculate the insulation resistance per km.
Solution:
𝜌 𝐷
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑙𝑛
2𝜋𝑙 𝑑
𝜌 = 4.5 × 1014 Ω. 𝑐𝑚; 𝐷 = 2.5 + (2 × 1.25) = 5 𝑐𝑚
𝑙 = 1 𝑘𝑚 = 105 𝑐𝑚; 𝑑 = 2.5 𝑐𝑚
56
4.5 × 1014 5
∴ 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑙𝑛 = 495 𝑀Ω
2𝜋 × 105 2.5
Example 2: Calculate the capacitance and charging current for a single-

core cable used on a 3 phase 66 kV system. The cable is one km long
having a core diameter 15 cm and sheath diameter 60 cm. The relative
permittivity of the insulation may be taken as 3.6 and the supply
frequency 50 Hz.
Solution:
Capacitance is given by the expression:
∈𝑟 3.6
𝐶= = = 0.145 𝜇𝐹
𝐷 18 𝑙𝑛4
18 𝑙𝑛
𝑑
66
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑘𝑉.
√3
𝐼𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑉𝑤𝐶 = 𝑉2𝜋𝑓𝐶
66 × 103
= × 2𝜋 × 50 × 0.145 × 10−6 = 1.74 𝐴
√3
H.W.: Find the most economical value of the diameter of a single core
cable to be used on a 132 kV, 3 phase system. Find also the overall
diameter of the insulation if the peak permissible stress is not to exceed
60 kV per cm.
[Ans: 3.6 cm, 9.786 cm]
57
5.5 Capacitance Grading

The insulation may be made of dielectrics with different
permittivity values. Such a cable is known as graded cable and the
arrangement results in a more uniform stress in the dielectric. Let d 1 be
the diameter of the dielectric having permittivity ∈1 and D the diameter
of the dielectric having permittivity ∈2 as shown below:
𝑞
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑥 𝑖𝑠: 𝑔1 =
2𝜋 ∈1 𝑥
𝑞
𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑠: 𝑔2 =
2𝜋 ∈2 𝑥
𝑑1 ⁄2 𝐷 ⁄2
𝑞 1 𝑑1 1 𝐷
𝑉=∫ 𝑔1 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔2 𝑑𝑥 = [ 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑑 ⁄2 𝑑1 ⁄2 2𝜋 ∈1 𝑑 ∈2 𝑑1
𝑞 2𝜋
𝐶= =
𝑉 [ 1 𝑙𝑛 𝑑1 + 1 𝑙𝑛 𝐷 ]
∈1 𝑑 ∈2 𝑑1
𝑑 𝑑1
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = :
2 2
𝑞 𝑞
𝑔1𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
2𝜋 ∈1 𝑑/2 𝜋 ∈1 𝑑
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑞 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑉:
58
2𝑉
𝑔1𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑑 ∈ 𝐷
𝑑[𝑙𝑛 1 + 1 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑑 ∈2 𝑑1
2𝑉
𝑔2𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
∈ 𝑑 𝐷
𝑑1 [ 2 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝑙𝑛 ]
∈1 𝑑 𝑑1
5.6 Capacitance in Three-Core Cables

The three-core cable has capacitance between the cores and each
core has capacitance with sheath as shown below:
Capacitances Cc to the core are in delta and can be replaced by an

equivalent star arrangement:
The impedance between core 1 and the star point must be equal to (1/3)
times the impedance of each branch of the delta. This gives:
59
1 1
= 𝑜𝑟 𝐶1 = 3𝐶𝑐
𝜔𝐶1 3𝜔𝐶𝑐
The star may be assumed to be at zero potential and if the sheath is also at
zero potential, the capacitance of each conductor to neutral is:
𝐶0 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶𝑠 = 3𝐶𝑐 + 𝐶𝑠
The values of Cc and Cs may be found by actual measurement as
explained:
1. Connect conductors 2 and 3 to the sheath. Capacitances Cc between
conductors 2 and 3 and Cs of conductors 2 and 3 with respect to the
sheath are eliminated.
Capacitances Cc and Cs are now in parallel across core 1 and the sheath
and they add up. Measure the capacitance between core 1 and the sheath.
Let this be Ca, then:
𝐶𝑎 = 2𝐶𝑐 + 𝐶𝑠
2. Next, join all cores and measure the capacitance with respect to the
sheath. Let this be Cb, then:
1
𝐶𝑏 = 3𝐶𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑠 = 𝐶𝑏
3
1
𝐶𝑎 = 2𝐶𝑐 + 𝐶𝑏
3
1 1
𝐶𝑐 = 𝐶𝑎 − 𝐶𝑏
2 6
60
3 1 1
𝐶0 = 𝐶𝑎 − 𝐶𝑏 + 𝐶𝑏
2 2 3
3 1
∴ 𝐶0 = 𝐶𝑎 − 𝐶𝑏
2 6
Example 3: A single core lead sheathed cable is graded by using two

dielectrics of relative permittivity 3.6 (inner) and 2.5 (outer), the
thickness of each being 1 cm. The core diameter is 1 cm. System voltage
is 66 kV, 3 phase. Determine the maximum stress in the two dielectrics.
Solution:
𝑑 = 1 𝑐𝑚, 𝑑1 = 3 𝑐𝑚, 𝐷 = 5 𝑐𝑚, ∈𝑟1 = 3.6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∈𝑟2 = 2.5
√2
𝑉 = 66 × = 53.8 𝑘𝑉
√3
2𝑉 2 × 53.8 𝑘𝑉
𝑔1𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 58.76
𝑑 ∈ 𝐷 3 3.6 5 𝑐𝑚
𝑑[𝑙𝑛 1 + 1 𝑙𝑛 ] 1[𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 ]
𝑑 ∈2 𝑑1 1 2.5 3
2𝑉 2 × 53.8
𝑔2𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 28.21 𝑘𝑉/𝑐𝑚
∈2 𝑑1 𝐷 2.5 3 5
𝑑1 [ 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 ] 3[ 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 ]
∈1 𝑑 𝑑1 3.6 1 3
Example 4: Estimate the charging current drawn by a cable with three

cores and protected by a metal sheath when switched on to an 11 kV, 50
Hz supply. The capacitance between two cores with the third core
connected to the sheath is measured to be 3.7 μF.
Solution:
61
Capacitance between conductors 2 and 3 is:

1 1 3 1 1
𝐶𝑐 + 𝐶𝑐 + 𝐶𝑠 = 𝐶𝑐 + 𝐶𝑠 = (3𝐶𝑐 + 𝐶𝑠 )
2 2 2 2 2
But,
3𝐶𝑐 + 𝐶𝑠 = 𝐶0
1
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝐶0 = 2 × 3.7
2
= 7.4 𝜇𝐹
11000
𝐼𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝜔𝐶0 𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶0 𝑉 = 314 × 7.4 × 10−6 × = 14.77 𝐴
√3
H.W.: For the graded cable with permittivity ∈1 and ∈2 , obtain the
condition under which the maximum values of the electric fields in the
two regions are equal. [Ans: ∈𝟏 𝒅 =∈𝟐 𝒅𝟏 ]
62

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Ministry of Higher Education and

All Thanks to:

Chapter One Chapter Two

Chapter Four Chapter Five

2. "A Course in Power Systems"

1.1 Structure of Electrical Power Systems

Fig. 1: Basic structure of electrical power system.

1.2 High Voltage Direct Current( HVDC) Transmission

1.3 Effect of System Voltage on Transmission Efficiency

Four points can be noted here:

l: is the distance of transmission in miles.

1.4 Conductor Size and Kelvin's Law

It is found that (P2a = P3/a). In

wasted in the conductor for most economical working (Kelvin's Law).

Example 1: Find the most economical cross-section of a 3-core

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 (𝑃1 + 𝑃2 𝑎)

Example 2: The daily load cycle of a 3-phase 110 kV transmission line

H. W.: The cost of a 2-core feeder cable, including installation is (90 a +

1.5 Power Factor

1.5.1 Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

1.5.2 Causes of Low Power Factor

1.5.3 Avoidance of Low Power Factor

3. If available, no induction motor should be operated at less than its rated

1.5.4 Methods of Improving Power Factor

1.5.5 Economics of Power Factor Improvement

2. kVA demand constant (kVA1 = kVA2) using:

Example 3: A 3- phase synchronous motor is connected in parallel with a

Example 4: A synchronous motor improves the pf of a load from 0.7 to

Example 5: A system is working at its maximum kVA capacity with a

𝑆𝑜, 𝑤𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑:

Example 6: The load on a certain installation may be considered

𝑏. 𝑄1 = 𝑘𝑉𝐴1 sin 𝜑1 = 1200 × 0.6613 = 793.56 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅

2.2 Types of Insulators

Fig. 1: Pin type insulator.

Fig. 3: Suspension type insulator.

2.3 Voltage Distribution over A String of Suspension

Fig. 5: String of insulators.

Applying Kirchhoff's first law

Finally, voltage between line conductor and earth (E):

2.4 String Efficiency

2.4.1 Methods of Increasing String Efficiency or Equalizing Voltage

Fig. 7: Guard ring.

Example 1: A string of 6 suspension insulators is to be graded to obtain

Example 2: A string of 8 suspension insulators is to be fitted with

Example 3: A string of 5 suspension insulators used for 3-phase system

H. W.: A 3-phase overhead transmission line is being supported by three

3.2 Inductance of Conductor due to Internal Flux

But, the integration of ds round the closed

3.3 Inductance of Conductor due to External Flux

3.4 Inductance of A Single Phase Two-Wire Line

3.5 Flux Linkages of One Conductor in A Group of

3.6 Inductance of Composite Conductor Lines

Conductor x: Each Conductor y: Each

Example 1: Calculate the loop inductance per km of a single phase

Example 2: In a single phase line as shown in figure below, conductors 𝑎

[Ans: 1.2×10-3 H/km]

3.7 Inductance of Three Phase Line

Thus, the inductance of conductor a is:

B. Unsymmetrical Spacing but Transposed

At position 1: (Flux linkages of conductor a at position 1)

C. Inductance of Parallel 3-Phase Double Circuit Lines with

𝐷𝑏𝑐 = 4√𝑑𝑏𝑐 𝑑𝑏𝑐́ 𝑑𝑏𝑐́ 𝑑𝑏́𝑐́ = √𝑑𝑔

𝐷𝑐𝑎 = 4√𝑑𝑐𝑎 𝑑𝑐́ 𝑎 𝑑𝑐𝑎́ 𝑑𝑐́ 𝑎́ = √2ℎ𝑑