n−ary operations on a set.

Universal algebras

Definition
Let A be an arbitrary set and n ∈ N. A function ω : An −→ A is called
n-ary operation on the set A. The number n is called the arity or the type
of the operation ω.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 1 / 21

n−ary operations on a set. Universal algebras

Definition
Let A be an arbitrary set and n ∈ N. A function ω : An −→ A is called
n-ary operation on the set A. The number n is called the arity or the type
of the operation ω.
If B ⊆ An , a function ω : B −→ A is called partial n-ary operation on the
set A, with the domain B.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 1 / 21

n−ary operations on a set. Universal algebras

Definition
Let A be an arbitrary set and n ∈ N. A function ω : An −→ A is called
n-ary operation on the set A. The number n is called the arity or the type
of the operation ω.
If B ⊆ An , a function ω : B −→ A is called partial n-ary operation on the
set A, with the domain B.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 1 / 21

Example
1) A binary operation on a set A is a function

ω : A × A −→ A : (a, b) 7−→ (a, b)ω ,

through which to any two elements of A one associates an element of A.

Generally, in the case of binary operations, in stead of writing (a, b)+
or (a, b)· , we write a + b and a · b.
2) A unary operation on a set A is a function ω : A −→ A.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 2 / 21

Example
1) A binary operation on a set A is a function

ω : A × A −→ A : (a, b) 7−→ (a, b)ω ,

through which to any two elements of A one associates an element of A.

Generally, in the case of binary operations, in stead of writing (a, b)+
or (a, b)· , we write a + b and a · b.
2) A unary operation on a set A is a function ω : A −→ A.
3) A nullary operation on a nonempty set A is a function ω : A0 −→ A.
Because A0 = A∅ = {∅ = (∅, A, ∅)} consists of a single element, ω is
completely determined by the element (∅)ω ∈ A. A nullary operation
may be identified for this reason with its corresponding image element.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 2 / 21

Example
1) A binary operation on a set A is a function

ω : A × A −→ A : (a, b) 7−→ (a, b)ω ,

through which to any two elements of A one associates an element of A.

Generally, in the case of binary operations, in stead of writing (a, b)+
or (a, b)· , we write a + b and a · b.
2) A unary operation on a set A is a function ω : A −→ A.
3) A nullary operation on a nonempty set A is a function ω : A0 −→ A.
Because A0 = A∅ = {∅ = (∅, A, ∅)} consists of a single element, ω is
completely determined by the element (∅)ω ∈ A. A nullary operation
may be identified for this reason with its corresponding image element.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 2 / 21

Remark
An n-ary operation ω defined on a set A determines an n + 1−ary
relation on A, with the graph

Gω = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an , (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )ω )| ai ∈ A, i = 1, n} .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 3 / 21

Definition
Let A be a set and Ω a set of operations defined on A. The pair (A, Ω)
is called universal algebra with the operations domain Ω, or Ω−algebra.
If Ω = {ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωk }, we write (A, ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωk ) in stead of (A, Ω).

Remark
Any set may be considered a universal algebra with the operations
domain Ω = ∅.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 4 / 21

Definition
Let A be a set and Ω a set of operations defined on A. The pair (A, Ω)
is called universal algebra with the operations domain Ω, or Ω−algebra.
If Ω = {ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωk }, we write (A, ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωk ) in stead of (A, Ω).

Remark
Any set may be considered a universal algebra with the operations
domain Ω = ∅.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 4 / 21

Definition
Let (A, Ω) be an universal algebra. The function τ : Ω −→ N, defined
by
(ω)τ = the arity of ω
is called the type of the algebra (A, Ω).

Example
Let M be a nonempty set. We can define on the set of parts of M the
universal algebra (P(M), ∩, ∪, CM , ∅, M), whose type is
 
∩ ∪ CM ∅ M
τ= .
2 2 1 0 0

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 5 / 21

Definition
Let (A, Ω) be an universal algebra. The function τ : Ω −→ N, defined
by
(ω)τ = the arity of ω
is called the type of the algebra (A, Ω).

Example
Let M be a nonempty set. We can define on the set of parts of M the
universal algebra (P(M), ∩, ∪, CM , ∅, M), whose type is
 
∩ ∪ CM ∅ M
τ= .
2 2 1 0 0

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 5 / 21

Definition
Let (A, Ω) be a universal algebra of type τ and B ⊆ A. If for any
operation ω ∈ Ω and any elements b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ ∈ B it follows that
(b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ )ω ∈ B, then B is called a subalgebra of (A, Ω). In this
case we write B ≤Ω A or B ≤ A,

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 6 / 21

Definition
Let (A, Ω) be a universal algebra of type τ and B ⊆ A. If for any
operation ω ∈ Ω and any elements b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ ∈ B it follows that
(b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ )ω ∈ B, then B is called a subalgebra of (A, Ω). In this
case we write B ≤Ω A or B ≤ A, and by S(A, Ω) we denote the set of
all subalgebras of the universal algebra (A, Ω).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 6 / 21

Definition
Let (A, Ω) be a universal algebra of type τ and B ⊆ A. If for any
operation ω ∈ Ω and any elements b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ ∈ B it follows that
(b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ )ω ∈ B, then B is called a subalgebra of (A, Ω). In this
case we write B ≤Ω A or B ≤ A, and by S(A, Ω) we denote the set of
all subalgebras of the universal algebra (A, Ω).

Remark
1) A ∈ S(A, Ω).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 6 / 21

Definition
Let (A, Ω) be a universal algebra of type τ and B ⊆ A. If for any
operation ω ∈ Ω and any elements b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ ∈ B it follows that
(b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ )ω ∈ B, then B is called a subalgebra of (A, Ω). In this
case we write B ≤Ω A or B ≤ A, and by S(A, Ω) we denote the set of
all subalgebras of the universal algebra (A, Ω).

Remark
1) A ∈ S(A, Ω).
2) If Ω contains nullary operations, and B ≤Ω A, then B 6= ∅.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 6 / 21

Definition
Let (A, Ω) be a universal algebra of type τ and B ⊆ A. If for any
operation ω ∈ Ω and any elements b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ ∈ B it follows that
(b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ )ω ∈ B, then B is called a subalgebra of (A, Ω). In this
case we write B ≤Ω A or B ≤ A, and by S(A, Ω) we denote the set of
all subalgebras of the universal algebra (A, Ω).

Remark
1) A ∈ S(A, Ω).
2) If Ω contains nullary operations, and B ≤Ω A, then B 6= ∅.
3) If Ω does not contain nullary operations, then ∅ ∈ S(A, Ω).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 6 / 21

Definition
Let (A, Ω) be a universal algebra of type τ and B ⊆ A. If for any
operation ω ∈ Ω and any elements b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ ∈ B it follows that
(b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ )ω ∈ B, then B is called a subalgebra of (A, Ω). In this
case we write B ≤Ω A or B ≤ A, and by S(A, Ω) we denote the set of
all subalgebras of the universal algebra (A, Ω).

Remark
1) A ∈ S(A, Ω).
2) If Ω contains nullary operations, and B ≤Ω A, then B 6= ∅.
3) If Ω does not contain nullary operations, then ∅ ∈ S(A, Ω).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 6 / 21

Example
Let M be a nonempty set and N ⊂ M. If Ω1 = {∩, ∪}, and
Ω2 = {∩, ∪, CM }, then P(N) ≤Ω1 P(M), but P(N) 6≤Ω2 P(M).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 7 / 21

Definition
Let (A1 , Ω1 ) be a universal algebra of type τ1 , (A1 , Ω1 ) a universal
algebra of type τ1 , and θ : Ω1 −→ Ω2 a surjective function. We call the
(A1 , Ω1 ) θ−similar to the algebra (A2 , Ω2 ) if the diagram
θ
Ω1 −→ Ω2
τ1 & . τ2
N

is commutative(i.e., θ · τ2 = τ1 ). The function θ is called similarity

application.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 8 / 21

Remark
1) The surjective function θ : Ω1 −→ Ω2 is a similarity application if
and only if for any ω ∈ Ω1 , the operations ω and (ω)θ have the same
arity.
2) If (A1 , Ω1 ), (A2 , Ω2 ) and (A3 , Ω3 ) are universal algebras, and the
functions θ : Ω1 −→ Ω2 and θ0 : Ω2 −→ Ω3 are similarity applications,
then the function θ · θ0 : Ω1 −→ Ω3 is a similarity application.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 9 / 21

Remark
1) The surjective function θ : Ω1 −→ Ω2 is a similarity application if
and only if for any ω ∈ Ω1 , the operations ω and (ω)θ have the same
arity.
2) If (A1 , Ω1 ), (A2 , Ω2 ) and (A3 , Ω3 ) are universal algebras, and the
functions θ : Ω1 −→ Ω2 and θ0 : Ω2 −→ Ω3 are similarity applications,
then the function θ · θ0 : Ω1 −→ Ω3 is a similarity application.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 9 / 21

Definition
Let (A1 , Ω1 ) and (A2 , Ω2 ) be two universal algebras of types τ1 and τ2 ,
such that there is a similarity function θ : Ω1 −→ Ω2 . A function
f : A1 −→ A2 is called a θ−homomorphism of universal algebras(or,
simply, θ−homomorphism) if for any operation ω ∈ Ω1 and any
elements a1 , a2 , . . . , a(ω)τ1 ∈ A1 the following equality holds
θ
((a1 , a2 , . . . , a(ω)τ1 )ω )f = ((a1 )f , (a2 )f , . . . , (a(ω)τ1 )f )(ω) .

The function f is called θ−isomorphism if θ and f are bijective

functions, f is a θ−homomorphism, and f −1 is a θ−1 −homomorphism.
If there is a θ−isomorphism from the universal algebra (A1 , Ω1 ) to
(A2 , Ω2 ), we say that (A1 , Ω1 ) is isomorphic to (A2 , Ω2 ), and we write
(A1 , Ω1 ) ∼
= (A2 , Ω2 ), or A1 ∼
= A2 .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 10 / 21

Definition
Let (A1 , Ω1 ) and (A2 , Ω2 ) be two universal algebras of types τ1 and τ2 ,
such that there is a similarity function θ : Ω1 −→ Ω2 . A function
f : A1 −→ A2 is called a θ−homomorphism of universal algebras(or,
simply, θ−homomorphism) if for any operation ω ∈ Ω1 and any
elements a1 , a2 , . . . , a(ω)τ1 ∈ A1 the following equality holds
θ
((a1 , a2 , . . . , a(ω)τ1 )ω )f = ((a1 )f , (a2 )f , . . . , (a(ω)τ1 )f )(ω) .

The function f is called θ−isomorphism if θ and f are bijective

functions, f is a θ−homomorphism, and f −1 is a θ−1 −homomorphism.
If there is a θ−isomorphism from the universal algebra (A1 , Ω1 ) to
(A2 , Ω2 ), we say that (A1 , Ω1 ) is isomorphic to (A2 , Ω2 ), and we write
(A1 , Ω1 ) ∼
= (A2 , Ω2 ), or A1 ∼
= A2 .
A θ−homomorphism from a universal algebra (A, Ω) into itself is called
θ−endomorphism of the algebra (A, Ω). A θ−isomorphism from (A, Ω)
to (A, Ω) is called θ−automorphism of the algebra (A, Ω).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 10 / 21

Definition
Let (A1 , Ω1 ) and (A2 , Ω2 ) be two universal algebras of types τ1 and τ2 ,
such that there is a similarity function θ : Ω1 −→ Ω2 . A function
f : A1 −→ A2 is called a θ−homomorphism of universal algebras(or,
simply, θ−homomorphism) if for any operation ω ∈ Ω1 and any
elements a1 , a2 , . . . , a(ω)τ1 ∈ A1 the following equality holds
θ
((a1 , a2 , . . . , a(ω)τ1 )ω )f = ((a1 )f , (a2 )f , . . . , (a(ω)τ1 )f )(ω) .

The function f is called θ−isomorphism if θ and f are bijective

functions, f is a θ−homomorphism, and f −1 is a θ−1 −homomorphism.
If there is a θ−isomorphism from the universal algebra (A1 , Ω1 ) to
(A2 , Ω2 ), we say that (A1 , Ω1 ) is isomorphic to (A2 , Ω2 ), and we write
(A1 , Ω1 ) ∼
= (A2 , Ω2 ), or A1 ∼
= A2 .
A θ−homomorphism from a universal algebra (A, Ω) into itself is called
θ−endomorphism of the algebra (A, Ω). A θ−isomorphism from (A, Ω)
to (A, Ω) is called θ−automorphism of the algebra (A, Ω).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 10 / 21

Remark
The function f : A1 −→ A2 is a θ−homomorphism of universal algebras
if and only if for any operation ω ∈ Ω1 the diagram
τ1
(ω)τ1 f (ω) (ω)τ1 (=((ω)θ )τ2 )
A1 −→ A2
ω↓ ↓ (ω)θ
f
A1 −→ A2

is commutative.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 11 / 21

Remark
All the notions defined above may be simplified by considering that Ω
is a common operations domain for the universal algebras which are
discussed. We call such algebras Ω−algebras. A idΩ −homomorphism
between two Ω−algebras is called then homomorphism of Ω−algebras.
f : A1 −→ A2 is a homomorphism of Ω−algebras if and only if

((a1 , a2 , . . . , a(ω)τ )ω )f = ((a1 )f , (a2 )f , . . . , (a(ω)τ )f )ω ,

for any a1 , a2 , . . . , a(ω)τ ∈ A1 and any ω ∈ Ω.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 12 / 21

Proposition
Let f : A −→ B and g : B −→ C be two homomorphisms of Ω−algebra.
Then f · g : A −→ C is a homomorphism of Ω−algebras.

Proposition
Let f : A −→ B be a bijective homomorphism of Ω−algebras. Then
f −1 : B −→ A is also a homomorphism of Ω−algebras.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 13 / 21

Proposition
Let f : A −→ B and g : B −→ C be two homomorphisms of Ω−algebra.
Then f · g : A −→ C is a homomorphism of Ω−algebras.

Proposition
Let f : A −→ B be a bijective homomorphism of Ω−algebras. Then
f −1 : B −→ A is also a homomorphism of Ω−algebras.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 13 / 21

Proposition
Let f : A −→ B be a homomorphism of Ω−algebras, A0 ⊆ A and B 0 ⊆ B.
Then
1) If A0 ≤Ω A, then A0f ≤Ω B.
−1
2) If B 0 ≤Ω B, then B 0f ≤Ω A.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 14 / 21

Definition
Let (A, Ω) be a universal algebra of type τ on the set A. An
equivalence relation ρ on A is called congruence pe (A, Ω) if for any
operation ω ∈ Ω and any elements a1 , a2 , . . . , a(ω)τ , b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ ∈ A
such that ai ρ bi , (∀)i = 1, (ω)τ , it follows that

(a1 , a2 , . . . , a(ω)τ )ω ρ (b1 , b2 , . . . , b(ω)τ )ω .

The equivalence classes [a]ρ are called in this case congruence classes.
We denote Cong (A, Ω) = {ρ ∈ Eq(A)| ρ − congruence on (A, Ω)}.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 15 / 21

Remark
For any universal algebra (A, Ω), we have

idA , TA2 ∈ Cong (A, Ω) .

Definition
A universal algebra (A, Ω) such that

Cong (A, Ω) = {idA , TA2 }

is called simple algebra.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 16 / 21

Remark
For any universal algebra (A, Ω), we have

idA , TA2 ∈ Cong (A, Ω) .

Definition
A universal algebra (A, Ω) such that

Cong (A, Ω) = {idA , TA2 }

is called simple algebra.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 16 / 21

Proposition
Let f : A −→ B be a homomorphism of Ω−algebras, and ρ ∈ Cong (B, Ω)
a congruence on (B, Ω). Then the relation ρf induced by ρ on A by means
of the function f is a congruence on (A, Ω).

Remark
If f : A −→ B is a homomorphism of Ω−algebras, since
idB ∈ Cong (B, Ω), from the proposition above we deduce that
ker (f ) ∈ Cong (A, Ω).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 17 / 21

Proposition
Let f : A −→ B be a homomorphism of Ω−algebras, and ρ ∈ Cong (B, Ω)
a congruence on (B, Ω). Then the relation ρf induced by ρ on A by means
of the function f is a congruence on (A, Ω).

Remark
If f : A −→ B is a homomorphism of Ω−algebras, since
idB ∈ Cong (B, Ω), from the proposition above we deduce that
ker (f ) ∈ Cong (A, Ω).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 17 / 21

Proposition
Let (A, Ω) be a Ω−algebra, ρ ∈ Cong (A, Ω), and A/ρ the factor set of the
congruence classes of A with respect to congruenţa ρ. Then, for any
ω ∈ Ω, the application ω : (A/ρ)(ω)τ −→ A/ρ, defined by

([a1 ]ρ , [a2 ]ρ , . . . , [a(ω)τ ]ρ )ω = [(a1 , a2 , . . . , a(ω)τ )ω ]ρ

is a correctly defined operation on A/ρ, and the canonical projection

πρ : A −→ A/ρ defined by (a)πρ = [a]ρ , is a homomorphism of Ω−algebras
such that ker (πρ ) = ρ.

Remark
In the proposition above we have identified the operation domains Ω
and Ω = {ω| ω ∈ Ω}.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 18 / 21

Proposition
Let (A, Ω) be a Ω−algebra, ρ ∈ Cong (A, Ω), and A/ρ the factor set of the
congruence classes of A with respect to congruenţa ρ. Then, for any
ω ∈ Ω, the application ω : (A/ρ)(ω)τ −→ A/ρ, defined by

([a1 ]ρ , [a2 ]ρ , . . . , [a(ω)τ ]ρ )ω = [(a1 , a2 , . . . , a(ω)τ )ω ]ρ

is a correctly defined operation on A/ρ, and the canonical projection

πρ : A −→ A/ρ defined by (a)πρ = [a]ρ , is a homomorphism of Ω−algebras
such that ker (πρ ) = ρ.

Remark
In the proposition above we have identified the operation domains Ω
and Ω = {ω| ω ∈ Ω}.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 18 / 21

Definition
The algebra (A/ρ, Ω) defined in the preceding proposition is called the
factor algebra(or quotient algebra) of the algebra (A, Ω) with respect to
the congruence ρ.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 19 / 21

Proposition
(The fundamental isomorphism theorem for Ω−algebras) Let (A, Ω)
and (B, Ω) be two Ω−algebras, and f : A −→ B a homomorphism of
Ω−algebras. Then there is an isomorphism of Ω−algebras
f : A/ker (f ) −→ Im(f ) such that the diagram
f
A −→ B
πker (f ) ↓ ↑ iIm(f )
f
A/ker (f ) −→ Im(f )

is commutative. Also, f is unique with this property.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 2 13.X.2008 20 / 21