MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

MC 3 NURSING

● Various disciplines of study within

● The science that studies very small living microbiology:
things ○ Bacteriology
● Usually requires a magnification tool – the ○ Mycology
microscope ○ Parasitology
● Some organisms are large though – ○ Immunology,
Helminths – worms ○ Epidemiology,
● Subgroups of Microbes: ○ Biotechnology
○ Bacteria ○ Virology
○ Archaea ○ Environmental Microbiology
○ Fungi ○ Bioremediation
○ Protozoans
○ Algae
○ Viruses
○ Multicellular animal parasites –
Helminths

● Englishman, used a primitive compound

(two magnifying lenses) microscope,
reported that life’s smallest units were little

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boxes – Cells, his work started the process
of the development of the Cell theory of life
● the first person to observe living cells with a
simple microscope, amateur scientist,
ground his own lenses and described what
we know today as bacteria – rod shaped ,
spiral shaped, etc. “animalcules”
● opposed the prevailing theory of
Spontaneous Generation, maggots in meat,
● He used covered jars to show that maggots
came from flies –strong evidence against
spontaneous generation
● Now we teach the theory of Biogenesis –
Life comes from Life
○ But the issue of Spontaneous
Generation was actively believed for
many more years
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● credited with the first vaccine
○ in epidemics of smallpox during the
late 1700’s he observed that
milkmaids didn’t get the disease,
cattle had a similar disease –
cowpox, milkmaids had cowpox
lesions, but not smallpox, he
purposefully took scrapings from
cowpox blister and scraped a 8 year
old volunteer. With the material –
child got mild illness but not
smallpox,
● Vaccination comes from Latin word “vacca”
meaning cow.
● Jenner laid the foundation for Pasteur’s later
work with other vaccinations.
● (Vaccinia virus similar to Variola smallpox
virus, today a possible bioterror weapon –
genetically engineered variola?)
● French scientist that dealt the death blow to
the spontaneous generation theory.
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● He devised the ingenious curved necked bacteria in live cattle and they died,
flasks that prevented contaminated air from then again cultured the bacteria in
reaching boiled beef broth pure culture. This led to the
○ the broth remained uncontaminated establishment of a procedure for
even though exposed to the air determining microbial cause of
● He was very lucky – no endopores present, disease (modern application o
or it would have failed (resitant to boiling) Koch’s postulates)
● He developed process we call
Pasteurization
○ he heated wine to kill contaminating
microbes
○ cured sick wine (today use heat
treatment to kill pathogens in milk
also)
● He proved that fermentation was caused by
a microbe – yeast
● He developed vaccines for rabies and
anthrax.
○ Vaccines led to immunity to diseases
that routinely killed many people,
and used to help people long before
they understood how they even ● Koch’s and Pasteur’s work helped
worked (Science of Immunology) establish the “Germ Theory of Disease”
● He began the revolution in science that led ○ that microorganisms cause disease
to Golden Age of Microbiology (from (in people, animals, and even plants)
1857-1914)

● Discovered that plant disease can be

● Developed Koch’s postulates
○ An important technique for
determining the actual microbial
cause agent of a disease
● He discovered the tuberculosis bug
(tubercle bacillus, Mycobacterium
tuberculosis)
● He discovered the cause of anthrax
(Bacillus anthracis)
○ from blood of dead cattle, cultured
bacteria in pure culture, injected
caused by small organisms that were so
small they passed through filters, Tobacco
mosaic virus (TMV) was later identified as
the cause - beginning of virology
● German doctor, wanted to find a “magic
bullet” an agent that would kill the disease
agent without hurting the patient

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● Developed Salvarsan, “salvation from
syphilis” agent
● This was an arsenical–arsenic compound,
that was effective against syphilis
● Antimicrobial agent, medicine to treat a
microbial disease, it was chemical –
chemotherapy
● Syphilis spirochete: T. pallidum
● English surgeon that applied ideas of the
germ theory to surgery,
○ remembered the work of
Semmelweis in Hungary in the
1840’s, if a Dr. would wash their
hands' childbed fever was
prevented. He knew that phenol
would kill bacteria; put 2 and 2
together and treated wounds with
phenol - and no infection (phenol is
the basic agent of today’s – Lysol)
● First antiseptic use in surgery, chemicals
used as agents on tissue before surgery
○ (tissue treated with an antimicrobial
agent – antiseptic, betadine)
disinfectants are chemicals, used on
a surface
● Also proved that microbes cause surgical
infections (today’s scourge –MRSA)
● Scottish physician and bacteriologist
● Observed mold growing on a bacteria
culture, there was a ring of clearing around
the mold where the bacteria didn’t grow, the
mold was later found to be a Penicillium
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species and the naturally secreted chemical
was called penicillin, an antibiotic
○ Antibiotics are natural agents
○ Synthetic drugs are chemicals
produced in labs (sulfas)
○ Problems with them - toxicity,
resistance, allergic reactions
○ Fleming’s work - shelved until early
WWII, sulfas were failing, needed
penicillin to cure battle field wounds
○ Now have thousands of antibiotics
and synthetics (and a significant
problem – resistance)
● Polio vaccine, 1950’s polio was a scary
epidemic
● Salk developed a vaccine by treating the
virus with formalin (IPV) inactivated polio
virus
● live Polio virus vaccine, attenuated –altered
virus, OPV-oral polio vaccine
● The work done on polio revolutionized the
science of virology and we are seeing the
results today in advances with Hepatitis and
HIV viral infections - tissue culture and other
techniques
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● DNA DOUBLE HELIX
● Did research on RNA and protein synthesis
in bacteria
○ Last necessary step in
understanding how genetics works
on a cellular level
(Replication,Transcription,
Translation – protein synthesis –
expression of traits)
● Modern science thrives today only on the
laid foundation of thousands of men and
women who did mundane routine and often
boring lab science.
● Living organisms are assigned to groups
based upon their similarities.
● Systematics is the discipline of identifying
and classifying organisms.
● The highest – largest category, recent
addition
● 3 Domains
○ Archaea – ancient “bacteria”,
unicellular like bacteria, also simple
cell structure (prokaryote – no
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nucleus) but have distinct
metabolism (chemistry) allowing
them to exist in “extreme”
environments
○ Bacteria – unicellular, prokaryote,
found everywhere (Old kingdom
name – Monera)
○ Eukarya – unicellular to
multicellular, complex and organized
cells with nuclei and organelles
(mitochondria)
● Archaea are single-celled organisms that
lack a membrane-bound nucleus,
Prokaryote
● can be found in environments that are too
hostile for other life forms.
● Bacteria are single- celled organisms that
lack a membrane-bound nucleus.
(Prokaryote also)
● Bacteria are found almost everywhere on
the planet Earth.
● The cells of all eukaryotes have a
membrane-bound nucleus.
● Members of the Domain Eukarya are further
categorized into one of four Kingdoms.
○ Protista - protozoans like ameba and
paramecium (producers and
consumers)
○ Fungi - yeast, molds, mushrooms
(consumers)
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○ Plantae - complex producers, trees,

grasses
○ Animalia - complex consumers
● Older 5 kingdom scheme is still widely used:
○ Monera – bacteria (Prokaryotic)
○ Protista – Protozoans (Eukaryotic)
○ Fungi - yeast, molds, etc.
(Eukaryotic)
○ Plant – photosynthetic producers
(Eukaryotic)
○ Animals – heterotrophic consumers
(Eukaryotic)

● Binomial (two name) Genus first and first

letter capitalized, then species not
capitalized. If written or typed – either
underline or italicize
○ Genus name, species name
○ Homo sapiens - italicized
○ Homo troglodytis
○ Canis familiaris –
○ Felis domesticus –
● Domain
● Kingdom
● Phylum
● Class
● Somewhat different: a clinical rapid ID is
● Order
often important when trying to find causative
● Family
agent of a disease
● Genus
● Bergey’s manual: Manual is in lab for a
● Species
reference when doing unknown
● Developed on 1940’s for grouping bacteria
according to standard diagnostic lab
techniques available at the time (such as
Grams stain)

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● The manual divides bacteria into 4 groups
or divisions on the basis of their Cell Wall
1. Gram + (stain violet)
2. Gram - (destain, and are counterstained
pink or reddish color)
3. Bacteria that lack a cell wall
(mycoplasma)
4. organisms that have a cell wall lacking
“peptidoglycan” (archaeobacteria – Now
called “Archaea”
● More modern methods now used:
1. DNA studies, genomics, gene probes
2. using Bacterial viruses “bacteriophages”
3. Serology – antibody – antigen reactions
(like blood typing)
● Examples: Salmonella typhi
○ Salmonella typhimurium
○ Azotobacter vinelandii 12837
○ E. coli 0157H7 nasty strain of E. coli
● NORMAL FLORA
● Opportunistic Pathogens
● Pathogens
● Mutualism * Commensalism * Parasitism
● MUTUALISM:
● What are the benefits of normal flora?
○ Benefit to the bacteria = They have a
place to eat, survive and multiply.
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○ Benefits to the human = Bacteria
may produce vitamins (such as B
and K), and break down food that
host cant normally digest.
● Normal flora protect host against infection
by pathogenic organisms:
○ take up space, so pathogen has
nowhere to set up shop
○ may out-compete the invader for
available nutrients
○ may produce anti-bacterial
chemicals (bacteriocins)
○ long-term relationship with the
human immune system
● COMMENSALISM
○ One partner in the relationship
benefits. The other neither benefits
nor is harmed.
● PARASITISM
○ Pathogens that harm their host.
○ Cost to the host can vary from slight
to fatal.
○ External parasites (ectoparasite)
cause infestation.
○ Internal parasites (endoparasite)
cause infection.
● AVERAGE LIFE SPAN:
○ Bronze age 26 yrs
○ Medieval Europe (400 – 1500 ad)
30 yrs
○ Early 20th century 50 – 64 yrs
○ Now world average 71 years (USA.,
78.7)
● Bubonic Plague
○ a.k.a. Black Plague & Black Death
○ Caused by bacteria Yersenia pestis.
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○ Several pandemics of plague have ○ Spanish flu pandemic 1918; more

occurred throughout history. than 50 million deaths.
○ 50 million deaths between years ○ In the U.S. seasonal flu kills
1346 – 50. thousands of people every year
○ Nearly 1/2 of Europe perished in this (mainly very young and old).
plague
○ The Sedlec Ossuary, small Roman
Catholic chapel, located in the
Czech Republic.
■ Contains ~ 40,000-70,000
human skeletons which have
been artistically arranged to
form decorations and
furnishings for the chapel.
■ Many of these bones were
from bubonic plague victims.
■ “Bring out your dead!”
plague scene from Monty
Python & Holy Grail.

● Smallpox
○ Caused two airborne virus variants,
Variola major and Variola minor.
○ Deadly disease that, in survivors,
can cause disfigurement and
blindness.
○ Killed Queen Mary II of England,
Emperor Joseph I of Austria, King
Luis I of Spain, Tsar Peter II and
King Louis XV of France.
○ Approx 300 million deaths worldwide
just in the 20th century.
○ Eradicated in 1980 though
widespread vaccination.
○ Now still a possible weapon of
bioterrorism.
● Influenza
○ Infectious disease caused by RNA
viruses in the family
Orthomyxoviridae.
● AIDS
○ Acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS).
○ Caused by HIV (human
immunodeficiency) virus, a retrovirus
that infects T-cells of the immune
system.
○ AIDS fatalities typically die of
opportunistic infections and tumors.
○ More than 39 million people have
died from HIV since it was
recognized in 1981.
○ With anti-retroviral drug therapy,
more, and more people are living
with aids.
○ New breakthroughs in anti-retroviral
drugs can reduce contagiousness
and transmission of HIV.

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● HBV
○ Hepatitis B = infectious inflammatory
illness of the liver caused by
hepatitis B virus (HBV).
○ Virus transmitted by exposure to
infectious blood or body fluids.
○ Risk of HBV transmission from
carrier 10 – 35%. Health care
workers high risk group.
○ Images HBV virions, PHIL #5631;
HBV prevalence 2005,
○ From the Virtual Microbiology
Classroom on
ScienceProfOnline.com
○ The hepatitis B virus is 50 to 100
times more infectious than HIV.
○ HBV infection may be either acute
(self-limiting) or chronic
(long-standing). Persons with
self-limiting infection clear the
infection spontaneously within
weeks to months.
● SARS
○ Severe acute respiratory syndrome
caused by the SARS coronavirus, an
enveloped RNA virus.
○ One near pandemic to date, with
8,096 known infected cases and 774
deaths (fatality rate of 9.6%).
○ Within a matter of weeks in early
2003, SARS spread from a province
of China to infect individuals in 37
countries.
○ Majority of those who became sick
were household contacts and health
care workers.
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● Ebola Virus Disease
○ (a.k.a. Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever)
○ Caused by ssRNA animal viruses, a
filovirus
○ Ebola viruses, and their relative
Marburg viruses cause severe and
often fatal hemorrhagic fever in
humans and other mammals.
○ EVD first appeared in 1976 in 2
simultaneous African outbreaks, one
in Sudan, and the other in
Democratic Republic of Congo.
○ The 2014 Ebola epidemic is the
largest in history, affecting multiple
countries in West Africa, causing
more than 8,000 deaths.
○ Transmission
■ Transmitted from wild
animals and spreads in the
human population through
human-to-human
transmission.
■ Spreads through direct
contact with bodily fluids of
infected people and animals,
as well as from contaminated
surfaces.
■ Health-care workers
frequently infected when
infection control precautions
not strictly practiced.
■ Burial ceremonies where
mourners have direct contact
with body of deceased Ebola
victim can also play a role in
transmission.
■ People remain infectious as
long as their body fluids
contain the virus. Recovered
males can transmit through
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semen for up to 7 weeks ● Eukaryote comes from the Greek word for
after recovery. true nucleus.
○ Where does the Ebola virus hide?
■ May be present in more
animals than previously
thought, including
chimpanzees, gorillas, fruit
bats, monkeys, antelopes,
porcupines, rodents, dogs,
pigs and humans.

● NOSOCOMIAL INFECTION
○ There are many different types of
microbes that cause HAIs. Many are
bacteria resistant to antibiotics.
○ A majority of HAIs include:
■ Urinary tract infections
■ Surgical site infections
■ Bloodstream infections ● Average size: 0.2 -1.0 µm × 2 -8 µm
■ Pneumonia ● Pairs:
○ 2011 HAI Prevalence Survey found ○ Diplococci, diplobacilli
that on any given day, about 1 in 25 ● Clusters:
hospital patients has at least one ○ staphylococci
healthcare-associated infection. ● Chains:
○ There were an estimated 722,000 ○ Streptococci, streptobacilli
HAIs in U.S acute care hospitals in
2011.
○ About 75,000 hospital patients with
HAIs died during their
hospitalizations.
○ Most of these HAI infections are
preventable.

● Prokaryote comes from the Greek word for

pre-nucleus

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● Outside cell wall

● Usually sticky
● A capsule is neatly organized
● A slime layer is unorganized & loose
● Extracellular polysaccharide allows cell to
attach
● Capsules prevent phagocytosis
● Association with diseases
○ B. anthracis
○ S. pneumoniae

● Outside cell wall

● Filament made of chains of flagellin
● Attached to a protein hook
● Unusual shapes ● Anchored to the wall and membrane by the
○ Star-shaped Stella basal body
○ Square Haloarcula
● Most bacteria are monomorphic
○ A few are pleomorphic

● Structures external to cell wall

● Cell wall itself
● Structures internal to cell wall

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● Rotate flagella to run or tumble ● Prevents osmotic lysis

● Move toward or away from stimuli (taxis) ● Made of peptidoglycan (in bacteria)
● Flagella proteins are H antigens (e.g., E.
coli O157:H7)

● Polymer of disaccharide
● N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) &
N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
● Linked by polypeptides

● Teichoic acids:
○ Lipoteichoic acid links to plasma
membrane
○ Wall teichoic acid links to
peptidoglycan
● May regulate movement of cations
● Endoflagella
● Polysaccharides provide antigenic variation
● In spirochetes
● Anchored at one end of a cell
● Rotation causes cell to move

● Lipopolysaccharides, lipoproteins,
phospholipids.
● Forms the periplasm between the outer
● Fimbriae may be several hundred in number
membrane and the plasma membrane.
● Distributed on poles or entire surface
● Protection from phagocytes, complement,
● Allow attachment
antibiotics.
● O polysaccharide antigen, e.g., E. coli
O157:H7
● Lipid A is an endotoxin.
● Porins (proteins) form channels through
● Longer than Fimbriae
membrane
● Only 1 or 2 per cell
● Transfer genetic material

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● Mycoplasmas
○ Lack cell walls
● Crystal violet-iodine crystals form in cell ○ Sterols in plasma membrane
● Gram-positive ● Archaea
○ Alcohol dehydrates peptidoglycan ○ Wall-less, or
○ CV-I crystals do not leave ○ Walls of pseudomurein (lack NAM
● Gram-negative and D amino acids)
○ Alcohol dissolves outer membrane ○ N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid
and leaves holes in peptidoglycan
○ CV-I washes out

● Lysosome digests disaccharide in

peptidoglycan.
● Penicillin inhibits peptide bridges in
peptidoglycan.
● Protoplast is a wall-less gram positive cell.
● Spheroplast is a wall-less gram-negative
cell.
● L forms are wall-less cells that swell into
irregular shapes.
● Protoplasts and spheroplasts are
susceptible to osmotic lysis.

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● Phospholipid bilayer
● Peripheral proteins
● Integral proteins
● Transmembrane proteins
● Selective permeability allows passage of
some molecules
● Enzymes for ATP production
● Photosynthetic pigments on foldings called
chromatophores or thylakoids
● Damage to the membrane by alcohols,
quaternary ammonium (detergents) and
polymyxin antibiotics causes leakage of cell
contents
● Endocytosis
○ Phagocytosis: Pseudopods extend
and engulf particles
○ Pinocytosis: Membrane folds inward
bringing in fluid and dissolved
substances
● Membrane is as viscous as olive oil.
● Proteins move to function
● Phospholipids rotate and move laterally
● OSMOSIS
○ Movement of water across a
selectively permeable membrane
from an area of high water
concentration to an area of lower
water.
● OSMOTIC PRESSURE
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○ The pressure needed to stop the
movement of water across the
membrane.
● Active transport of substances requires a
transporter protein and ATP.
● Group translocation of substances
requires a transporter protein and the
structure of protein is altered
● Energy supplied by phosphoenolpyruvic
acid
● Addition of phosphate to internalized
glucose to form phosphorylated glucose
● Simple diffusion: Movement of a solute
from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration.
● Facilitative diffusion: Solute combines
with a transporter protein in the membrane.
● Cytoplasm is the substance inside the
plasma membrane
● Thick, aqueous, semitransparent, and
elastic
● 80 % water
● Contain proteins, CHO, lipids, inorganic ions
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carboxylase for CO2

fixation

● Single, long, continuous, circular Gas vacuoles Protein covered

● 20 % volume of the bacteria cylinders
● Plasmids
Sulfur granules Energy reserves
○ Replicate independently
○ Not crucial for survival Magnetosomes Iron oxide (destroys
○ Carry antibiotics resistance genes H2O2)
○ Can be transferred from one to other
bacterium

● Resting cells
● Resistant to desiccation, heat, chemicals
● Bacillus, Clostridium
● Sporulation: Endospore formation
● Germination: Return to vegetative state

● 80S
○ Membrane-bound
○ Free
● 70S
○ Attached to ER In cytoplasm
○ In chloroplasts and mitochondria

Metachromatic Phosphate reserves

granules (volutin)

Polysaccharide Energy reserves ● Microtubules

granules ● Tubulin
Lipid inclusions Energy reserves ● 9 pairs + 2 arrangements

Carboxysomes Ribulose
1,5-diphosphate

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Cytoplasm membrane Substance inside the

plasma and outside
nucleus

Cytosol Fluid portion of

cytoplasm

Cytoskeleton Microfilaments,
intermediate filaments,
microtubules

Cytoplasmic streaming Movement of

cytoplasm throughout
cells

● MEMBRANE BOUND STRUCTURES:

Nucleus Contains chromosomes

ER Transport network

Golgi complex Membrane formation

and secretion

Lysosome Digestive enzymes

Vacuole Bring food into cells

and provides support

Mitochondria Cellular respiration

Chloroplast Photosynthesis

Peroxisome Oxidation of fatty acids,

destroys H2O2

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● The grouping of objects or information
based on similarities
● There are more than 1 million described
species of plants and animals
○ Many millions still left undescribed
● Science of classification (grouping things)
○ Process of classifying biodiversity
based on evolutionary relationships
○ Means to organize biological
diversity
○ Groups and name organisms based
on different characteristics
● Latin was the language used (no longer
● ARISTOTLE (350 B.C.)
○ Developed the 1st widely accepted
system of biological classification
○ Everything grouped as plant or
animal
○ Plants = herbs, shrubs, trees
○ Animals = land, sea, air
● Scientific names help scientists to
● CAROLUS LINNAEUS (1753)
○ Use of species name
○ Based on looking at physical and
structural similarities
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■ Revealed relationships of
organisms
○ Binomial nomenclature
■ Gave each species 2 names
(scientific name)
■ Genus and species
■ Genus is a group of similar
species
○ Developed the modern system of
taxonomy
○ A genus includes one or more
physically similar species.
■ Species in the same genus
are thought to be closely
related.
■ Genus name is always
capitalized.
○ A species descriptor is the second
part of a scientific name.
■ always lowercase
■ always follows genus name;
never written alone
used and is not being changed)
○ Genus name🡪 always capitalized
○ species name🡪 always lowercase
○ both names MUST be underlined or
italicized
○ Ex: Canis lupus (wolf)
○ Ex: Homo sapiens (human)
communicate.
○ Some species have very similar
common names.
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○ Some species have many common
names.
● Ex: Felis domesticus (housecat)
○ Felis domesticus var.
■ Indicates more than one
variety
● Scientific names are often:
○ Descriptive (Acer rubrum🡪 red
maple)
○ Named after someone (genus🡪
Linnea)
○ Descriptive of where an organism
lives (D. californica)
○ Named after person who first
described the organism (D.
californica Torr)
● Many organisms have common names
○ Can be misleading
○ Can have more than 1 common
name, depending on the area it is
found in
● Now based on evolutionary relationships
● Taxonomists study:
○ Structural similarities
○ Chromosomal structure (karyotypes)
○ Reproductive potential
○ Biochemical similarities
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■ Comparing DNA and amino
acids
○ Embryology/development
○ Breeding behavior
○ Geographic distribution
● 7 taxonomic categories:
○ Kingdom 🡪 largest, most general
group
○ Phylum 🡪 called a division with
plants
○ Class
○ Order
○ Family
○ Genus
○ Species 🡪 smallest, most specific
group
● Grouped genera into families, families into
orders, orders into classes, classes into
phyla, and phyla into kingdoms
● Species can interbreed with each other
● Classification is always a work in progress
○ The tree of life shows our most
current understanding.
○ New discoveries can lead to
changes in classification.
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■ Until 1866: only two ○ Broader taxons have more general

kingdoms, Animalia and characteristics and more species
Plantae within it
■ 1866: all single-celled ○ Smallest taxon🡪 Species
organisms moved to kingdom ○ Largest taxon🡪 Kingdom
Protista
■ 1938: prokaryotes moved to
kingdom Monera
■ 1959: fungi moved to own
kingdom ● a family tree for the evolutionary history of a
■ 1977: kingdom Monera split species
into kingdoms Bacteria and ○ The root of the tree represents the
Archaea ancestral lineage
○ Tips of the branches represent
descendents of the ancestor
○ Movement upward shows forward
motion through time
● Monera, Protista, and Fungi kingdoms ○ Speciation: split in the lineage
added to the 2 established kingdoms ■ Shown as a branching of the
● Kingdoms defined based on 2 main tree
characteristics
○ Possession of a true nucleus
(prokaryote or eukaryote)
○ How it gets food
○ Heterotroph
○ Autotroph
○ Decomposer

● Bacteria have distinct differences

● All eukaryotic kingdoms grouped into one
domain (Eukarya)
● Monera kingdom split into 2 domains
(Archaea and Eubacteria)

● Groups of organisms called taxa or taxons

● Organisms arranged in groups ranging from
very broad to very specific characteristics

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● System of classification based on phylogeny
● Derived characteristics/traits: appear in
recent parts of a lineage but not in older
members
● A branching diagram to show the
evolutionary history of a species
● Helps scientists understand how one
lineage branched from another in the course
of evolution
● Way of identifying organisms by looking at
the physical characteristics
● Uses a series of questions to group into a
hierarchy classification
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● PROKARYOTES:
○ Microscopic
○ Prokaryotic (Lack a nucleus)
○ Can be autotrophs (photosynthetic
or chemosynthetic) or heterotrophs
○ Unicellular
● 2 kingdoms (Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria)
● Archaebacteria live in extreme
environments like swamps, deep-ocean
hydrothermal vents (oxygen-free
environments)
○ Cell walls not made of peptidoglycan
○ Ex: Methanogens, Halophiles
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MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY
MC 3 NURSING

○ Eubacteria live in most habitats ○ Heterotrophs

■ Cell walls made of ○ Multicellular
peptidoglycan ○ Ex: sponges, worms, insects, fish,
■ Ex: E. coli, Streptococcus, mammals (nurseyoung)
cyanobacteria ○ Mobile
● PROTISTA:
○ Eukaryotic (has a nucleus)
○ Some have cell walls of cellulose
■ Some have chloroplasts
○ Can be autotrophs or heterotrophs
(some can be fungus-like)
○ Most are unicellular; some are
multicellular or colonial
○ Ex: amoeba, paramecium, slime
molds, euglena, kelp
○ Lacks complex organ systems
○ Lives in moist environments
● FUNGI:
○ Eukaryotes
○ Cell walls of chitin
○ Heterotrophs
○ Most multicellular; some unicellular
○ Ex: mushrooms, yeast
○ Absorbs nutrients from organic
materials in the environment
○ Stationary
● PLANTS:
○ Eukaryotes
○ Cell walls of cellulose
○ Autotrophs
○ Multicellular
○ Photosynthetic🡪 contains
chloroplasts
○ Ex: mosses, ferns, trees, flowering
plants
○ Cannot move
○ Tissues and organ systems
● ANIMALIA:
○ Eukaryotes
○ Do not have a cell wall or
chloroplasts

21 / CATHRYNA