COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIALS

SECTOR: METALS AND ENGINEERING

QUALIFICATION: SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING NC II

UNIT OF COMPETENCY: REPAIR WELDS

MODULE TITLE: REPAIRING WELDS

JOSE MARIA COLLEGE FONDATION, INC.

SASA, DAVAO CIT

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HOW TO USE THIS COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIALS

Welcome to the Module: Repairing weld. This module contains

training materials for you to complete.

The unit of competency Repair weld materials contains the

knowledge, skills and attitudes require for Shielded Metal Arc Welding NC II.

This learning material is designed to guide you in learning at your

own pace. To start with your trainer and agree on how you will both
organize the training for this module. Most probably your trainer will also be
your supervisor or manager. He/she is there to support you and guide you
the correct way to do things. From time to time you will be required to
practice and demonstrate the skills that you have learned from the module
and you will be require some assistance from your trainer (as instructed
from the learning material).

To proceed with the learning session, you just have to go through

the learning activity sheets where in you will follow series of learning
instructions towards attaining the learning outcome.

At the end of this module is a learner’s diary. Use this diary to record
important dates, jobs undertaken and other workplace events that may
provide further details to your trainer or assessor. A Record of Achievement
will be provided to you by your trainer for you to accomplish once you
complete the module. Upon completion of this module, study the evidence
plan at the end of the last learning element of this module then ask your
instructor to assess you. You will be given a certificate of completion as
proof that you met the standard requirements (knowledge, skills and
attitude) for this module. The assessment could be made in different
methods, as prescribe in the competency standards.

RECOGNITION OF PRIOR LEARNING:

You may already have some or most of the knowledge and skill covered in
this module because:

 You have been working

 Already completed training in this area
If you can demonstrate to your trainer that you are competent in a
skill talk to him/her about having them formally recognized so you won’t
have to do same training again. If you have qualifications or certificates of

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competency from previous trainings, show them to your trainer. If the skills,
you required are still relevant to this module they may become part of the
evidence you can present for RPL.

The learning material was prepared to help you achieved the required
competency in Using hand tools. This will be the source of information for to
acquire knowledge and skills in this particular trade independently and at
your own pace with minimum supervision or help from your instructor.

Contents of this Competency – Based Learning Material

Inside the competency-based learning materials are several learning

activities. Each learning activities guides the learner to achieve one learning
outcome. You must follow the learning activity sheet. The learning activity
sheet will guide you through different learning activities towards the
attainment of the learning outcome.

 Information sheet – This will provide you with the information

(concepts, principles and other relevant information) needed in
performing certain activities.
 Operation sheet – This will guide you in performing single task,
operation or process in a job.
 Job sheet – This is designed to guide you on how to do the job
that will contribute the attainment of the learning outcome.
 Assignment sheet/Self-check – this assignment sheet/self-
check test is a guide to use to enhance (follow up) what you
have in the information sheet, operation sheet or job sheet.
 Work sheet – are different forms that you need to fill up in
certain activities that you performed.

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COMPETENCY-BASED LEARNING MATERIALS

List of Common Competencies

No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

APPLY SAFETY Applying Safety MEE721201

1.
PRACTICES Practices

INTERPRET DRAWING Interpreting drawing MEE721202

2.
AND SKETCHES and sketches

PERFORM INDUSTRY Performing Industry MEE721203

3.
CALCULATION calculation

CONTRIBUTE TO Contributing to quality MEE721204

4.
QUALITY SYSTEM system

5. USE HAND TOOLS Using hand tools MEE721205

PREPARE WELD Preparing Weld MEE721206

6.
MATERIALS materials

SET UP WELDING Setting up welding MEE721207

7.
EQUIPMENT Equipment

FIT-UP WELD MEE721208

8. Fitting up materials
MATERIALS

9. REPAIR WELDS Repairing Welds MEE721209

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 MODULE CONTENT

Qualification: Shielded Metal Arc Welding NC

II Unit of Competency (COMMON): Repair weld

Module Title: Repairing weld

Introduction:

Learning outcomes:

Upon completion of this module the trainee must be able to:

 Mark/locate weld defects

 Prepare tools and equipment
 Remove defects
 Perform re-welding

Assessment Criteria:

LO1: Mark/locate weld defects

1. Location of weld defects identified/determined in accordance with

industry standard.
2. Weld defects marked for repair in accordance with
industry standard.
3. Procedures in locating weld defects performed as per approved
procedures.

LO2: Prepare tools and Equipment

1. Tools and equipment are prepared appropriate to the job
requirements
2. Tools and equipment are properly checked to the job requirements

LO3: Remove Weld

1. Weld defects removed/excavated in accordance with welding
procedures.
2. Removal of non-defective welds is minimized and cleaned.
3. Visual and dye-penetrant test are performed to verify the extent of
removal of defects

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LEARNING OUTCOME 1: MARK/LOCATE WELD DEFECT

Contents
1. Types of welding defects
2. Procedures in locating weld defects
3. Proper uses of NDT equipment or tools

Assessment Criteria:
1. Location of weld defects identified/determined in
accordance with industry standard.
2. Weld defects marked for repair in accordance with industry
standard.
3. Procedures in locating weld defects performed as per approved
procedures.

Condition/Resources
The students/ trainee should be provided with:
1. Equipment and accessories
2. Tools
- Chipping hammer
- Steel brush

3. Supplies/materials
- Carbon steel plates
- Pipe; alloy pipe

4. Instructional materials
- Reference book/ modules/ learning guides/ video CDs,
- Welding charts,
- Work plans
- Drawing and specifications relevant to the task

Methodologies:
 Lecture/demonstrations
 Self-pace learning
 Group discussion

Assessment Methods:
 Written/oral
 Direct observation
 Interview
 Demonstration

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LEARNING EXPERIENCE

LEARNING OUTCOME 1: Mark/locate weld defects

Learning Activities Special Instructions/Resources

Read information sheet 9.1.1- Information sheet
Mark/locate weld defects 9.1.1/reference book
SELF CHECK 9.1.1
Do self-check 9.1.1 of learning SELF CHECK QUESTIONAIRE
Outcome 1
Check your answer in the answers key Answer key LO1

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 INFORMATION SHEET 9.1.1

“Weld defects”

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading information sheet, the trainee should be able to:

1. Location of weld defects identified/determined in accordance with

industry standard.
2. Weld defects marked for repair in accordance with industry
standard.
3. Procedures in locating weld defects performed as per approved
procedure.

II. IN TRODUCTION

This information sheet will give you an idea and knowledge on

how to locate and mark weld defects in accordance with the ISO
process.

III. BODY

A welding defect is any flaw that compromises the usefulness of

a weldment. There is a great variety of welding defects. Welding
imperfections are classified according to ISO 6520while their acceptable
limits are specified in ISO 5817 and ISO 10042.
Major Causes of weld defect
According to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), welding
defect causes are broken down as follows:
1. 45 percent poor process conditions,
2. 32 percent operator error,
3. and 12 percent wrong technique,
4. 10 percent incorrect consumables,
5. 5 percent bad weld grooves.
With the correct welding conditions, techniques and material quality
standards. However, as with any other welding process, weld defects can
occur. Most defects encountered in welding are due to an improper welding
procedure. Once the causes are determined, the operator can easily correct
the problem. Defects usually encountered include incomplete penetration,
incomplete fusion, undercutting, porosity, and longitudinal cracking. This
section deals with the corrective action that should be taken.
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Common weld defects

1. Spatter

 It is made up of little bits of metal that are sent flying away from your
welding area by your welding arc. Excessive spatter can result in low-
quality stick and MIG welds, make your welding area messy, and cause
visibility problems (especially when sparks and smoke are involved).

 You can't really avoid spatter completely, and it's much more common in
stick and MIG welding than it is in TIG welding. The causes of excessive
spatter occurring during stick welding are different from the causes that
are part of the MIG welding process.

Common cause Causes:

• Welding current too high.
• Arc too long.
• Incorrect polarity – arc blow.
• Insufficient gas shielding

Remedies:
• Reduce welding current.
• Reduce arc length.
• Check use of correct polarity forthe consumable in question.
• Check shielding gas type and flow rate. Clean gas nozzle. Increase torch to
plate angle.
2. Deformation

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 Distortion/Deformation in a weld results from the expansion and
contraction of the weld metal and adjacent base metal during the heating
and cooling cycle of the welding process. Doing all welding on one side of
a part will cause much more distortion than if the welds are alternated
from one side to the other.

 During this heating and cooling cycle, many factors affect shrinkage of
the metal and lead to distortion, such as physical and mechanical
properties that change as heat is applied. For example, as the
temperature of the weld area increases, yield strength, elasticity, and
thermal conductivity of the steel plate decrease, while thermal expansion
and specific heat increase
Causes:
• Unsuitable welding sequence.
• Too many and too thin beads, usually because the electrode is too small.
• Poor plate fit-up before welding.
• Plates clamped insufficiently.
Remedies:
 Weld from both sides of the joint.
 Weld from the centre out, inopposite directions.
 Use a larger electrode. Ifpossible, a high recovery type.
 Compensate for shrinkage byfixing the work pieces with acounter-angle.
 Clamp.

3. Arc blow

Arc blow is the, usually unwanted, deflection of the arc during arc welding.

There are two types of arc blow commonly known in the electric welding
industry: magnetic and thermal.

Magnetic arc blow

Magnetic arc blow or "arc wander" is the deflection of welding filler

material within an electric arc deposit by a buildup of magnetic force
surrounding the weld pool. Magnetic arc blow can occur because of:
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  Workpiece connection
 Joint design
 Poor fit-up
 Improper settings
 Atmospheric conditions

Arc blow tends to occur if the material being welded has residual
magnetism at a certain level, particularly when the weld root is being made,
and the welding current is direct current (DC positive or negative).

Magnetic arc blow - is popularly attributed to a change in the direction

of current as it flows into and through the workpiece.

Magnetic arc blow is known to begin at field densities as low as

10 gauss and becomes severe at densities of, equal to or greater than,
40 gauss; it is directional and can be classified
as forward or backward moving along the joint, but can occasionally occur
to the sides depending on the orientation of the poles to the workpiece.
Magnetic arc blow is more common in DC welding than in AC welding.

Thermal arc blow

Thermal arc blow - is widely attributed to variations in resistance within

the base metal created by the weld pool as it is moved across the workpiece.
Thermal arc blow can occur because of:
 Improper surface preparation
 Improper travel speed
Thermal arc blow is not as severe as magnetic arc blow, but can still leave
undesirable defects in the weld deposit.

Causes:
• Arc deflection as a result of magnetic effects into the opposite direction of
the earth lead clamp.
• Arc deflection as a result of magnetic effects in the direction of heavy parts
of the work piece (with magnetic materials) – especially at corners and
edges.
Remedies:
• Use an AC electrode where possible.
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• Try welding away from the earth clamp connection. Try splitting the earth
clamp and connect to both sides of the joint.
• Use an AC electrode where possible. Position earth lead clamp such that it
counteracts the influence of heavy work piece parts. Keep arc as short as
possible.

4. Longitudinal cracks in the heat affected zone

Longitudinal cracks run along the length of a weld bead.

There are three types:

 check cracks
 root cracks
 full centerline cracks

Check cracks are visible from the surface and extend partially into weld.
They are usually caused by high shrinkage stresses, especially on final
passes, or by a hot cracking mechanism.

Root cracks start at the root and extent part way into the weld. They are
the most common type of longitudinal crack because of the small size of the
first weld bead. If this type of crack is not addressed then it will usually
propagate into subsequent weld passes, which is how full cracks (a crack
from the root to the surface) usually form.

Causes:
• The base material is prone to hardening (because of a high Carbon content
or other alloying elements).
• Weld cools down too rapidly.
• Hydrogen in the weld e.g. because of wet weld edges, wrong or damp
electrodes or shielding gases.
Remedies:
• If possible, choose a material with a better weldability. If not, apply and
maintain preheat and inter-pass temperature and delayed cooling.
• Apply a higher preheat temperature.
• Remove moisture from welding zone. Use low-hydrogen welding
consumables from moisture protective packaging or re-bake welding
consumables.

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5. Arc striking difficulties

The problem comes about when the arc is established outside of the area to
be welded and this strike leaves a very hard area (due to the momentary
strike that creates a hard node) that with any stress can become the start
point for a crack or small fracture that with continued stress will grow until
complete failure of the part.
Arc strike occurs most commonly due to an accidental strike by a welder
outside of the weld area where it will not be consumed by the weld process
and if left will expose the part to potential failure at some time in the future.
"Arc strike" is commonly used to describe a mark left on the metal caused
by the misplaced arc being started outside the weld area.
Welder competence will play a big part in the ability to strike an arc in the
weld zone where intended but regardless of the reason for the "arc strike"
the answer is to remove the arc strike to prevent possible part failure at
some time in the future.
Causes:
• Welding current too low.
• Arc voltage too low.
• Earth lead is not connected properly.
• Striking end of electrode covered by coating.
Remedies:
• Increase welding current.
• Use power source with a higher open circuit voltage.
• Ensure proper earth lead connection.
• Uncover striking end and touch-strike.

6. Solidification cracks

Hot cracking, also known as solidification cracking, can occur with all
metals, and happens in the fusion zone of a weld. To diminish the
probability of this type of cracking, excess material restraint should be
avoided, and a proper filler material should be utilized. Other causes include
too high welding current, poor joint design that does not diffuse heat,
impurities (such as sulfur and phosphorus), preheating, speed is too fast,
and long arcs.
Causes:
• Formation of phases with a low melting point in the weld, due to
P, S, Cu – mostly from the parent metal).
• Unfavorable joint geometry – width/depth ratio <1.
• Weld pool too large.
• Travel speed too high (weld solidifies in an arrow shape).
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• Tack welds or root passes not sufficiently strong for shrinkage forces, in
case of restrained joints.
Remedies:
• Select cleaner parent material or buffer plate edges.
• Increase joint angle, use lower welding current.
• Use smaller electrode, use lower welding current. Apply stringer bead
technique.
• Lower the travel speed until weld solidifies in an elliptical form.
• Apply stronger tacks and bottom passes.

7. Lack of fusion defects

In welds, incompletely fused spots, called lack of fusion, persist. A weld

can lack union with the parent metal or with a previous weld bead. An
adhesion joint forms, which can be rather strong in certain cases. It is much
like a brazed joint or joint formed in metallization. The purer lack of fusion
is, the more difficult it is to detect it.
With regard to the position of the lack-of-fusion defects in a weld, three
types of lack of fusion are distinguished:
 Lack of side-wall fusion.
 Lack of inter-run fusion.
 Lack of fusion at the root of the weld.
Causes
• Heat input too low.
• Weld pool too large and running ahead of the arc.
• Joint included angle too small
• Electrode or torch angle is incorrect.
• Unfavorable bead positioning

Remedies
• Increase welding current and lower travel speed.
• Reduce deposition rate and/or increase travel speed.
• Increase joint included angle.
• Position electrode or torch in such a way that the plate edges are melted.
• Position beads in such a way that sharp angles with other beads or plate
edges are avoided.

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8. Crater cracks

Crater cracks

Crater cracks occur when a crater is not filled before the arc is broken. This
causes the outer edges of the crater to cool more quickly than the crater,
which creates enough stresses to form a crack. Longitudinal, transverse
and/or multiple radial cracks may form.
Cause:
• The welding ended far too abruptly. The crack begins at a void in the
welding crater, caused by the solidification shrinkage.
Remedies:
• When finishing, move back the electrode to fill-up the crater.
• With root pass welding, quickly move the arc from the weld pool to the
plate edge.
• Increase crater fill time on power source.

9. Undercut

Undercutting is when the weld reduces the cross-sectional thickness of the

base metal, which reduces the
strength of the weld and work
pieces. One reason for this
type of defect is excessive
current, causing the edges of
the joint to melt and drain
into the weld; this leaves a
drain-like impression along the length of the weld. Another reason is if a
poor technique is used that does not deposit enough filler metal along the
edges of the weld. A third reason is using an incorrect filler metal, because it
will create greater temperature gradients between the center of the weld and
the edges. Other causes include too small of an electrode angle, a dampened
electrode, excessive arc length, and slow speed.
Causes:
• Arc voltage too high.
• Arc too long.
• Incorrect electrode uses or electrode angle.
• The electrode is too large for the plate thickness in question.
• Travel speed too high

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Remedies:
• Lower arc voltage.
• Reduce arc length.
• Apply electrode angle of 30° to
45° with the standing leg. Weld lightly trailing.
• Use a smaller diameter electrode.
• Reduce travel speed.
10. Porosity

Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the solidifying weld metal.
These gases are generated from the flux or coating constituents of the
electrode or shielding gases used during welding or from absorbed moisture
in the coating. Rust, dust, oil and grease present on the surface of work
pieces or on electrodes are also source of gases during welding. Porosity
may be easily prevented if work pieces are properly cleaned from rust, dust,
oil and grease. Further, porosity can also be controlled if excessively high
welding currents, faster welding speeds and long arc lengths are avoided
flux and coated electrodes are properly baked.

Causes:
• Moisture, for example from incorrectly stored electrodes or
fluxes, humid shielding gas or leaks in water-cooled welding torches.
• Moisture, rust, grease or paint on the plate edges.
• Insufficient gas shielding.
• Welding onto small gaps filled with air.
Remedies:
• Re-bake or use fresh welding consumables, connect new gas bottle,
check welding torch for leaks.
• Dry or clean plate edges.
• Check shielding gas type and flow-rate. Clean gas nozzle. Ensure torch to
plate angle is not too small.
• Increase welding gap. When possible, apply butt joints instead of fillet or
overlap welds.
11. Slag inclusions

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Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other nonmetallic
material entrapped in the weld metal as these may not able to float on the
surface of the solidifying weld metal. During arc welding flux either in the
form of granules or coating after melting, reacts with the molten weld metal
removing oxides and other impurities in the form of slag and it floats on the
surface of weld metal due to its low density. However, if the molten weld
metal has high viscosity or too low temperature or cools rapidly then the
slag may not be released from the weld pool and may cause inclusion.
Causes:
• Slag runs ahead of the weld
• Insufficient de-slagging between passes
• Convex passes which produce slag pockets.
• Unfavourable bead sequence.
Remedies:
• Increase the travel speed or electrode angle.
• Remove slag carefully, grind if necessary.
• Avoid sharp angles or grooves between beads and layers.
Increase arc voltage.
• Plan bead sequence such that sharp corners are avoided. Apply stringer
bead technique.
12. Lack of root penetration

Lack of fusion
is the failure to
fuse together
either the base
metal and weld
metal or subsequent beads in multipass welding because of failure to raise
the temperature of base metal or previously deposited weld layer to melting
point during welding. Lack of fusion can be avoided by properly cleaning of
surfaces to be welded, selecting proper current, proper welding technique
and correct size of electrode.

Causes:
• Root gap too small.
• Electrode size to big.
• Travel speed too high.
• Incorrect use of electrode.
Remedies:
• User wider root gap.
• Use electrodes with a diameter of approximately the gap width.
• Apply lower travel speed.
• Weave between plate edges. Weld on ceramic weld metal support at high
currents.
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 SELF CHECK 9.1.1-1

Direction: Give the correct answer that describes each item below. Write the
correct answer on your answer sheet provided

1. It is a form of slag or any other nonmetallic

material entrapped in the weld metal.

2. It is a result when the gases are entrapped in the

solidifying weld metal.

3. It is the reduced of weld in the cross-sectional

thickness of the base metal in which also reduces the strength of
the weld and workpieces.

4. It is a weld defects that can occur in all metals and

happens in the fusion zone of a weld.

5. A form of weld defects that causes the outer

edges of the crater to cool more quickly than the crater which
creates sufficient stresses to form a crack.
6. It is an incompletely fused spot.
7. It is usually unwanted deflection of the arc during arc welding.
8. A weld results from the expansion and contraction of the weld
metal and adjacent base metal during the heating and cooling cycle
of the welding process.
9. It is made up of little bits of metal that are sent flying away from
your welding area by your welding arc.

Arc Strike Arc Blow Spatter Undercuts

Crater Cracks Distortion Solidification Cracks

Lack of fusion Deformation Porosity Slag Inclusion

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 INFORMATION SHEET 9.1.1-2

“The use of NDT (Non-Destructive Testing)”

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading information sheet, the trainee should be able to:

1. Location of weld defects identified/determined in accordance

with industry standard.
2. Weld defects marked for repair in accordance with industry
standard.
3. Procedures in locating weld defects performed as per approved
procedure.
4. Use Non-Destructive Testing for marking weld defects

II. IN TRODUCTION

This information sheet will give you an idea and knowledge on

how to locate/mark weld defects using NDT or Non-Destructive
Testing in accordance with the ISO process.

III. BODY

Nondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide

group of analysis techniques used in science and industry to evaluate the
properties of a material, component or system without causing damage.
The terms Nondestructive examination (NDE), Nondestructive inspection
(NDI), and Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to
describe this technology. Because NDT does not permanently alter the
article being inspected, it is a highly valuable technique that can save both
money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research.
Common NDT methods include ultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid
penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection (RVI), eddy-current
testing, and low coherence interferometry.
NDT is commonly used in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering,
electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, aeronautical
engineering, medicine, and art.

NDT Application - NDT is used in a variety of settings that covers a wide

range of industrial activity, with new NDT methods and applications, being
continuously developed. Non-destructive testing methods are routinely
applied in industries where a failure of a component would cause significant

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hazard or economic loss, such as in transportation, pressure vessels,
building structures, piping, and hoisting equipment.

NDT (Non Destructive Testing) Methods

1. Ultra Sonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is family of non-destructive testing

techniques based in the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or
material tested. In most common UT applications, very short ultrasonic
pulse-waves with center frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and
occasionally up to 50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to detect internal
flaws or to characterize materials.

A common example is ultrasonic thickness measurement, which

tests the thickness of the test object, for example, to monitor pipework
corrosion.

Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and

alloys, though it can also be used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit
with less resolution. It is used in many industries including steel and
aluminum construction, metallurgy, manufacturing, aerospace, automotive
and other transportation sectors.

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a

diagnostic machine is passed over the object being inspected. The
transducer is typically separated from the test object by a coolant (such as
oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. However, when ultrasonic testing
is conducted with an Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) the use
of coolant is not required.

Advantages

1. High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in

the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.
3. Only one surface needs to be accessible.

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 4. Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining
the depth of internal flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel
surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature
of defects.
6. Non-hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect
on equipment and materials in the vicinity.
7. Capable of portable or highly automated operation.

Disadvantages

1. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced

technicians. The transducers alert to both normal structure of some
materials, tolerable anomalies of other specimens (both termed
“noise”) and to faults therein severe enough to compromise specimen
integrity. These signals must be distinguished by a skilled technician,
possibly, after following up with other nondestructive testing methods
2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of
inspection procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
4. Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint,
etc., although paint that is properly bonded to a surface need not be
removed.
5. Coolants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave
energy between transducers and parts being inspected unless a non-
contact technique is used. Non-contact techniques include Laser and
Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMAT).
6. Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water based
coolants that do not contain rust inhibitors.

2. Magnetic-particle

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) is used on cut and beveled pipe

ends before welding to make sure there are no parent material flaws. MPI is
also used by STANLEY Inspection to detect surface cracks after grinding or
machining operations.

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 Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing
(NDT) process for detecting surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities
in ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt, and some of their
alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the part.

The piece can be magnetized by direct or indirect magnetization.

Direct magnetization occurs when the electric current is passed through the
test object and a magnetic field is formed in the material.

Indirect magnetization occurs when no electric current is passed

through the test object, but a magnetic field is applied from an outside
source.

The magnetic lines of force are perpendicular to the direction of the

electric current which may be either alternating current (AC) or some form of
direct current (DC) (rectified AC).

The presence of a surface or

subsurface discontinuity in the
material allows the magnetic flux to
leak, since air cannot support as much
magnetic field per unit volume as
metals.

Ferrous iron particles are then applied to the part. The particles may be dry
or in a wet suspension. If an area of flux leakage is present, the particles
will be attracted to this area. The particles will build up at the area of
leakage and form what is known as an indication.
The indication can then be evaluated to determine what it is, what may
have caused it, and what action should be taken, if any.
A popular name for magnetic particle inspection is or used to be
magnafluxing; The Company of the same name was one of the early
manufacturers of equipment and materials for the process.

3. Liquid penetrant

Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid penetrant

inspection (LPI) or penetrant testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost
inspection method used to locate surface-breaking defects in all non-porous
materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics).
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 The penetrant may be applied to all non-ferrous materials and ferrous
materials, although for ferrous components magnetic-particle inspection is
often used instead for its subsurface detection capability. LPI is used to
detect casting, forging and welding surface defects such as hairline cracks,
surface porosity, leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks on in-service
components.

Inspection steps
1. Pre-cleaning: The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil,
grease or any loose scale that could either keep penetrant out of a defect or
cause irrelevant or false indications. Cleaning methods may include
solvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapor degreasing, or media blasting. The
end goal of this step is a clean surface where any defects present are open to
the surface, dry, and free of contamination. Note that if media blasting is
used, it may "work over" small discontinuities in the part, and an etching
bath is recommended as a post-blasting treatment.

Application of the penetrant to a part in a ventilated test area.

2. Application of Penetrant: The penetrant is then applied to the surface of

the item being tested. The penetrant is allowed "dwell time" to soak into any
flaws (generally 5 to 30 minutes). The dwell time mainly depends upon the
penetrant being used, material being tested, and the size of flaws sought. As
expected, smaller flaws require a longer penetration time. Due to their
incompatible nature one must be careful not to apply solvent-based
penetrant to a surface which is to be inspected with a water-washable
penetrant.

3. Excess Penetrant Removal: The excess penetrant is then removed from

the surface. The removal method is controlled by the type of penetrant used.
Water-washable, solvent-removable, lipophilic post-emulsifiable, or
hydrophilic post-emulsifiable are the common choices. Emulsifiers
represent the highest sensitivity level, and chemically interact with the oily
penetrant to make it removable with a water spray. When using solvent
remover and lint-free cloth it is important to not spray the solvent on the
test surface directly, because this can remove the penetrant from the flaws.
If excess penetrant is not properly removed, once the developer is applied, it
may leave a background in the developed area that can mask indications or
defects. In addition, this may also produce false indications severely
hindering your ability to do a proper inspection.

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4. Application of Developer: The developer draws penetrant from defects
out onto the surface to form a visible indication, commonly known as bleed-
out. Any areas that bleed-out can indicate the location, orientation and
possible types of defects on the surface. Interpreting the results and
characterizing defects from the indications found may require some training
and/or experience the indication size is not the actual size of the defect.

5. Inspection: The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity
(100 foot-candles or 1100 lux is typical) for visible dye penetrant.
Ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation of adequate intensity (1,000 micro-watts per
centimeter squared is common), along with low ambient light levels (less
than 2 foot- candles) for fluorescent penetrant examinations. Inspection of
the test surface should take place after 10 to 30-minute development time,
depends of product kind. This time delay allows the blotting action to occur.
The inspector may observe the sample for indication formation when using
visible dye. It is also good practice to observe indications as they form
because the characteristics of the bleed out are a significant part of
interpretation characterization of flaws.

6. Post Cleaning: The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and
recording of defects, especially if post-inspection coating processes are
scheduled.

Advantages and disadvantages. The main advantages of DPI are the

speed of the test and the low cost. Disadvantages include the detection of
only surface flaws, skin irritation, and the inspection should be on a smooth
clean surface where excessive penetrant can be removed prior to being
developed. Conducting the test on rough surfaces, such-as "as-welded"
welds, will make it difficult to remove any excessive penetrant and could
result in false indications. Water-washable penetrant should be considered
here if no other option is available.

Also, on certain surfaces a great enough color contrast cannot be

achieved, or the dye will stain the workpiece.
Limited training is required for the operator — although experience is quite
valuable. Proper cleaning is necessary to assure that surface contaminants
have been removed and any defects present are clean and dry. Some
cleaning methods have been shown to be detrimental to test sensitivity, so
acid etching to remove metal smearing and re-open the defect may be
necessary.
4. Eddy Current Inspection

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It uses electromagnetic induction to detect flaws in conductive materials.
There are several limitations, among them: only conductive materials can be
tested, the surface of the material must be accessible, the finish of the
material may cause bad readings, the depth of penetration into the material
is limited by the materials' conductivity, and flaws that lie parallel to the
probe may be undetectable.

In a standard eddy current testing a circular coil carrying current is placed

in proximity to the test specimen (which must be electrically conductive).The
alternating current in the coil generates changing magnetic field which
interacts with test specimen and generates eddy current. Variations in the
phase and magnitude of these eddy currents can be monitored using a
second 'receiver' coil, or by measuring changes to the current flowing in the
primary 'excitation' coil. Variations in the electrical conductivity or magnetic
permeability of the test object, or the presence of any flaws, will cause a
change in eddy current and a corresponding change in the phase and
amplitude of the measured current.

5. Remote Visual Inspection

Remote Visual Inspection or Remote Digital Video Inspection, also

known as RVI or RDVI, refers to a specialty branch of nondestructive
testing (NDT). RVI/RDVI is an enhanced visual examination method that
facilitates acquisition of visual data by means of visual aids including but
not limited to video borescopes, push cameras, pan/tilt/zoom cameras and
robotic crawlers. It is commonly used where distance, angle of view and
limited lighting may impair direct visual examination or where access is
limited by time, financial constraints or atmospheric hazards.

Common tools used for RVI are as follows:

1. Video bore scopes

2. Rigid borescopes
3. Flexible fiberscopes
4. Pan-Tilt-Zoom cameras
5. Push cameras

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