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REVIEW FOR THE LICENSURE EXAMINATIONS FOR TEACHERS

SUBJECT: GENERAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the science which deals with the study of matter - its composition, structure,
properties, changes and the energy accompanying the changes in matter.
Branches of Chemistry: Chemistry is generally divided into five branches:
1. Organic chemistry is the study of organic compounds (compounds of carbon).
Example of organic compounds:
Acetic acid or CH3COOH Benzene or C6H6
Methane or CH4 Ethyl alcohol or C2H5OH
Carbon tetrachloride or CCl4 etc.
2. Inorganic chemistry is the study of all elements and compounds other than organic
compounds.
Inorganic compounds includes all compounds not containing carbon and the
following carbon
compounds:
a. carbon monoxide, CO
b. carbon dioxide,CO2
c. carbonates (CO3-2) such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), potassium
carbonate (K2CO3), etc.
d. bicarbonates (HCO3-1) such as sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3),
magnesium
bicarbonate, Mg(HCO3)2, etc.
e. cyanides ( CN-1 ) such as sodium cyanide (NaCN)
3. Physical chemistry is the study of the theoretical aspects of the structure and changes
of
matter such as how and why bonds are formed and energy changes take place.
4. Analytical chemistry is the study of what is present (qualitative analysis) and how
much is
present (quantitative analysis)
5. Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of biologically important elements and
compounds.
MATTER: ITS COMPOSITION AND ITS PROPERTIES
Matter is anything that occupy space and has mass. It comes in many forms. It can be as
simple as an element or as complex as a mixture. The two general classes of matter are pure
substances and mixtures. To each class belong more specific kinds of matter as shown in the
diagram below.
Classification of Matter:

Matter
(Composed of atoms: can exist as gas, liquid or solid)

Pure substances Mixtures

(Any sample taken for a given (Combination of substances
substance will have the same in
composition). variable proportions)

Elements Compound Homogeneous

Heterogeneous
(A pure substance (Two or more elements (ex. Solutions–homogeneous (ex. Two or
more
composed of only chemically combined in mixtures of substances in
substances that
one type of atom) definite and variable proportions) retain their identity
constant proportions.) when mixed.)
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Solutions
Metals Nonmetals
Colloids
Suspensions
Metalloids

Organic Inorganic

Salts Salts
Acids Bases Acids Bases

Pure Substance (Substance

A pure substance (usually referred to simply as a substance) is matter that has a fixed
composition and distinct properties. For example, water and ordinary table salt (sodium
chloride), the primary components of seawater, are pure substances. A substance may be an
element or a compound.
Elements are substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances. Each
element is composed of only one kind of atom. The element carbon for example is composed of
carbon atoms. Each element has a chemical symbol which is an abbreviation for the name. This
symbol consists of the first letter of the name, which is capitalized, and in some cases one other
letter, which is not capitalized.
Example: Chemical Symbol Name of Element

C carbon
Co cobalt
Cl chlorine
Cr chromium
Cu copper
Some of these symbols come from the Latin name. Elements whose symbol came from
their Latin name are as follows:
Name of Element Chemical Symbol Latin Name

Copper Cu cuprum
Sodium Na natrium
Mercury Hg hydrargyrum
Lead Pb plumbum
Silver Ag argentum
Tin Sn stannum
Gold Au aurum
Tungsten W wolfram
Iron Fe ferrum
Potassium K kalium
Antimony Sb stibium
The symbols and names for all the elements are listed in the periodic table.
An element may exist as individual atoms or as molecules made up of only one kind of
atom.
A molecule can be composed of a single atom, such as He (helium), Al (aluminum), and Fe
(iron) or two or more atoms (diatomic molecules) held together by a force called a covalent bond
(to be discussed later), as follows: O2 (oxygen), H2 (hydrogen), N2 (nitrogen), Cl2 (chlorine), Br2
(bromine), I2 (iodine) and F2 (fluorine).
Compounds are composed of two or more elements (and thus contain two or more kinds
of atoms), chemically combined, in definite and constant proportions. The chemical formula of
a compound gives the elements (or atoms) that it compose and the relative proportions of these
atoms.
Example: Name of Compound Number of Atoms Chemical
Formula
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of each Element present

in a Formula Unit

Water 2 atoms H, 1 atom O H2O

Carbon dioxide 1 atom C, 2 atoms O
CO2

The Law of Definite Proportions or Constant Composition states that any pure
compound always contains the same elements in exactly the same proportions by mass (weight).
A compound may consist of either molecules or ions. The formula of the compound
always gives the relative number of atoms in a formula unit that represent either a molecule or a
group of ions.
Mixtures
Mixtures are combination of two or more substances in which each substance retains its
own chemical identity and hence its own properties. Composition of mixtures can vary. For
example, a cup of sweetened coffee can contain either little sugar or a lot. The substances
making up a mixture (such as sugar and water) are called components of the mixture. These
components can be separated from one another by physical means such as evaporation,
distillation, filtration, chromatography, etc. . For example, sugar can be separated from water in
the sugar solution by evaporation.
Heterogeneous mixtures. Mixtures( such as the mixture of the sand and gravel) do not have the
same composition, properties, and appearance throughout the mixture.
Suspensions – Heterogeneous mixtures where the particles are about 10 cm in diameter and
float in a medium, such as fine silt in a body of water, the mixtures. Milk looks homogeneous
with the naked eye but appears heterogeneous when rays of light are passed through it. This
phenomenon exhibited by milk is called Tyndall Effect. Heterogeneous mixtures that exhibit
Tyndall Effect are called colloids. Tyndall Effect is the scattering of light when it is focused on a
colloid
Homogeneous mixtures are uniform throughout are. Air is a homogeneous s mixture of
gaseous substances nitrogen, oxygen, and smaller amounts of other substances. The nitrogen in
air has all the properties that pure nitrogen does because both the pure substance and the mixture
contain the same nitrogen molecules. Salt, sugar, and many other substances dissolve in water to
form homogeneous mixtures.

Homogeneous mixtures are also called solutions. Air is a gaseous solution; gasoline is a liquid
solution; brass is a solid solution.
Summary of the differences between mixtures and compounds:
Compound Mixture
Definite and constant composition Variable composition.
Elements that make up the compound Elements or compounds that are
mixed retain
lose their identity, due to their identity since they are not
chemical change taking place. chemically combined.
Cannot be broken down into simpler Can be separated by simple, physical
substances by ordinary operations.
physical means.
Classification of elements according to characteristic properties:
1. metals - exhibit metallic luster
- good conductors of heat and electricity
- malleable (ability to be shaped/or hammered into thin sheets)
- ductile (ability to be drawn out to a thin wire)
- hard
- high density
- low volatility
- solids at room temperature except mercury which is liquid.
- most of them combine with nonmetals; they usually occur in nature
combined
with such nonmetals as oxygen or sulfur.
- can lose electrons to form positive ions
Examples: gold, copper, silver, sodium, etc.
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2. nonmetals - dull
- poor conductors of heat and electricity
- brittle
- soft (if they exist as solids at ordinary temperatures)
- often have low melting and boiling points; thus several exist as gases at
ordinary temperatures, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
fluorine and
chlorine.
- they combine with metals and some of them combine with each other
such as
in compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, hydrogen and sulfur, or
carbon
and chlorine, etc.
- can accept electrons to form negative ions.
1. metalloids (or semimetals) – are intermediate between metals and nonmetals. They
have
characteristics of both metals and nonmetals.
Examples: silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, etc.
Distribution of Elements in the Earth’s Crust and their Percent by Weight:

Oxygen 49.1% Potassium 2.4%

Silicon 26.1% Magnesium 1.9%
Aluminum 7.5% hydrogen 0.9%
Iron 4.7% titanium 0.6%
Calcium 3.4% all others 0.8%
Sodium 2.6%
Distribution of the Elements in the Human Body and their Percent by Weight:

Oxygen 64.6% Calcium 1.9%

Carbon 18.0% Phosphorus 1.1%
Hydrogen 10.0% Chlorine 0.9%
Nitrogen 3.1% all others 0.9%
Important Elements and Compounds:
a. Oxygen - is the vital element which supports plants and animals.
- used in torches for welding(the torch yields a very high temperature
about
2,300 oC
b. Hydrogen - is the lightest element.
- used to extract and purify metals like copper, tin, lead, zinc and iron.
- a good fuel for the oxy-hydrogen torch
- liquids like oil from peanuts and coconut are hardened by adding
hydrogen to
make margarine or butter substitute.
- used in making ammonia (the greatest use of hydrogen today)
c. Nitrogen - the most abundant element in the atmosphere.
- used with argon in filling electric lamps.
- large amount of this element are taken from the air to be used in making
ammonia, nitric acid and othr nitrogen compounds.
d. Carbon - is an element which is present in all living things.
- it is also prestn in the tissues of our bodies as well as in food.
- it is widely used in industry as a purifier (removes odor and color from
certain
gases and liquids.
- it is also used as fuel in industrial plants.
e. Iron - it is the most important metallic element in industry (buildings,
ships, motor
vehicles, machines, tools, weapons and many other things are made up
of iron.
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- a right amount of carbon is mixed with iron to make it tough and very
hard
(iron combined with 0.2 to 2% carbon is called steel)
f. Ammonia - is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen.
- it is a raw material in making fertilizers.
- it is used as a refrigerant and is a component of commercial glass and
porcelain cleaners.
g. Nitric Acid - is a compound of hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.
- it is used to react with coal tar to form nitrogen compounds that are used
in
making dyes.
- with sulfuric acid, it is added to cotton to make plastics for photographic
films.
h. Calcium carbonate - it is a compound which is widely distributed over the earth’s
surface as
marble, limestone, gypsum and other minerals
- it is used in making glass.
- it serves as fusing agent in making steel.
- it is a source of carbon dioxide for dry ice and is a major component of
cement.
j. Sodium hydroxide - is a compound of sodium, hydrogen and oxygen.
- it is the major raw material fro soap making.
- it is used in production of rayon and cellulose film, in petroleum
refining,
And in the production of paper.
Classification of Compounds:
1. acids - produce hydrogen ion (H+) in solution.
- sour taste.
- turns litmus paper blue to red (litmus paper is an indicator whose color is
changed by acids and bases).
- neutralize bases. Example of acids: HCl, H2SO4, etc.
2. bases (or alkalies)
- bitter taste.
- soapy or slick feeling.
- turn litmus paper red to blue.
- neutralize acids
- contain hydroxide ion (OH-) Example of bases: NaOH, Mg(OH) 2,
etc.
3. salts - neutral substances Example of salts: NaCl, CaCl2, etc.
States of Matter
Matter exists in three states or forms as follows:

1. solids - have definite volumes. They have definite volumes

because their molecules are so close together that they cannot
be compressed.
- have definite shapes because the attraction between molecules is
strong. Examples: stone, ice, paper, wood, etc.
2. liquids - have definite volumes because their molecules are still close
together
that they cannot be easily compressed.
- have no definite shapes because the attraction between their
molecules
is not strong enough. Examples: water, vinegar, juice, etc.
3. gases - have no definite shapes and volumes because their molecules are
too far apart and can be compressed under pressure.
Examples: oxygen, hydrogen, air, etc.
Changes of Matter
1. Physical change – a change in the substance that only alters the form but not the
composition. No new substance is formed.
Examples: phase change (like melting of ice and evaporation of water)
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cutting of a piece of paper to pieces, breaking of a glass, drying of the

fish
pond, hardening of asphalt mix, etc.

Phase Changes:

A phase change is a physical change where a substance changes from one form
to another.

SOLID heat LIQUID(Melting)

Ex. A solid wax when heated melts and turns into fluid-like substance

SOLID cool LIQUID ( Solidification or

freezing)

Ex. Freezing of water in the refrigerator

LIQUID heat GAS (Evaporation)

Ex. Boiling water causes some water molecules to escape from the liquid.

LIQUID cool GAS (Condensation)

Ex. Formation of water droplets outside the glass with cold water

SOLID heat GAS (Sublimation)

Ex. Disappearance of mothballs inside the cabinet

SOLID cool GAS (Deposition)

Ex. Cooling of carbon dioxide to form dry ice (high pressure)

2. Chemical change - also known as chemical reaction. There is a formation of new
substance with a new set of properties. In a chemical change, there is a chemical
reaction taking place to form new substances or materials. It is usually
accompanied by evolution of heat and light, formation of precipitate, production
of mechanical energy, production of electrical energy and evolution of a gas.
Examples: rusting of iron, fermentation of rice washings, digestion of food,
ripening of
a mango fruit, burning of wood, baking a cake, tarnishing of silver
spoons,
dissolving antacid in water, formation of water when hydrogen
combines with
oxygen, etc.
Processes that involves chemical change:
a. Fermentation is a chemical change produced by the action of an enzyme.
Through
the fermentation process of sugar, ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide are
produced.
These products have different properties than sugar.
b. When vinegar is added to fresh milk, there is a formation of curdles. Curdling
results in
the formation of cheese and water.
c. Corrosion is the destructive reaction of a material with its environment. When
iron
nails are exposed to moisture (water) and oxygen, it will corrode. Corrosion
takes
place such that iron nails becomes rusty.
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d. When calcium hydroxide is heated, it produces calcium oxide and water.

Calcium
hydroxide and water have different properties than the calcium hydroxide.
A chemical change or reaction is represented with a chemical equation. In a chemical
reaction one or more elements or compounds react to form one or more different elements or
compounds. No atoms disappear or are changed to different kinds of atoms. It is simply a
rearrangement of atoms.
The law of conservation of mass (matter) states that, in a chemical reaction, mass
(matter) is neither created nor destroyed.
A chemical equation shows what elements or compounds are reacting (reactants) and
what new elements or compounds are being formed (products). In order to obey the law of
conservation of mass, there must be exactly the same number of each atom on each side of a
correct chemical equation or the equation must be balanced.
Example: H2 + O2 → H2O (not balanced)
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (balanced)

3. Nuclear change – change in the composition of the nucleus of radioactive substance

to form
Isotopes. Example: Uranium to thorium during radioactive decay.

Laws Governing Changes in Matter:

1. Law of Mass Conservation - it states that matter is neither created nor destroyed
during an
ordinary chemical change.
Ex. Carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide
12 g 32 g 44 g
44 g = 44 g
Conservation of Mass and Energy: At times in a chemical change, like a bomb
explosion,
tremendous amount of energy is released. Albert Einstein, in 1905, suggested that
matter and
energy are related. He explained that this tremendous amount of energy released is
coming
from the loss in mass in a chemical change or reaction. He used mathematical
calculations to
show through the famous equation:

E = mc2

Where E = energy, m = mass and c = speed of light

4.4 x 10 g lost from a chemical reaction is equivalent to 94,450 calories released.
Carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + heat
12 g + 32 g = 43.9999999956 g + 94,450
calories

In an ordinary chemical reaction, this change in mass caused by an energy change is

not
detectable. Only in nuclear reactions where tremendous amounts of energy, as in the
explosion of a hydrogen bomb, does the amount of matter transformed into energy
become
significant.

2. Law of Definite Composition - it states that elements combine to form a compound

in
ratios of small whole numbers. It is also known as the Law of Definite
Proportion.
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3. Law of Multiple Proportions - it states that when two elements combine to from two
or more
different compounds, if the amount of one element is constant, the
masses of
the other element in the different compounds are in the ratios of small
whole
numbers.

Ex. The ratio of oxygen in sulfur dioxide (SO2) and in sulfur

trioxide
(SO3) is 2:3.
The ration of nitrogen in nitrous oxide (N O) and in nitric
oxide(NO)
Is 2:1.
4. Properties of Matter:

1. Physical properties - are those properties that can be observed without changing the
composition of the substance. A physical property may be intensive (intrinsic) or
extensive (extrinsic).
a. Intensive physical properties (or intrinsic properties) are those that do not
depend
on the amount of the substance.
Examples: color, odor, density, specific heat, melting point, solubility,
etc.
b. Extensive physical properties (or extrinsic properties)are those that depend
on the
amount of the substance.
Examples: volume, mass, area, length, etc
2. Chemical properties are those that can only be observed when the substance
undergoes a
chemical change. All chemical properties do not depend on the amount of the
substance and therefore are intrinsic.
Examples: iron rusts, wood decays, formation of a compound between
two or
more elements
ATOMS, MOLECULES AND ISOTOPES

Relative Atomic Masses – Atomic Mass Units

An atom is a very tiny particle – much too small to be weighed on even the most
sensitive balance. Therefore, a relative scale has been set up, comparing the masses of atoms. On
this scale the lightest atom, hydrogen which was also the first standard proposed has a relative
mass of about 1. masses of other atoms was compared to it. Oxygen which was later used as the
standard, has a relative mass of about 16. Finally it was agreed to use one isotope of carbon,
called carbon-12 as the standard. This carbon-12 is assigned a value of exactly 12 and
everything is compared to it. The relative units in this scale are called atomic mass units (amu).
Thus, the relative masses of some atoms are as follows:

atom relative atomic mass

hydrogen almost 1 amu

oxygen almost 16 amu
carbon-12 exactly 12 amu

The relative mass of an atom with a mass twice as great as carbon-12 atom is 24 amu,
and an atom with a mass one-half that of a carbon-12 atom is 6 amu.
Subatomic Particles
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Although according to Dalton’s atomic theory that atoms are indivisible, it is now known
that the atom is composed of three smaller subatomic particles namely: electrons, protons, and
neutrons.

Subatomic Charge Location in Mass Discoverer

Particles an
atom
Negative Outside the 9.1 x 10-28 g or
nucleus, in 9.1 x 10 -31 kg
-1.6 x 10-19 C the energy (0.00055 amu)
1. electron levels moving Electron has a Joseph John
(e-) (each in circular negligible mass Thomson
electron paths called compared to
Carries a orbits protons and
charge of - electrons.
1
Positive Eugene
Inside the 1.673 x 10-24 g Goldstein
2. proton (p+ +1.6 x 10-19 nucleus or
) C 1.673 x 10-27kg Ernest
Rutherford
(each proton (1.0073amu)
Carries a
charge of +1

Neutral Inside the 1.675 x 10-24 g James

3. neutron nucleus or Chadwick
(n) (the charge is 1.675 x10-27 kg
zero)
(1.0087 amu)

protons
neutrons

electrons

Basic Structure of the Atom

1. The protons and the neutrons are found in the center of the atom, called the nucleus.
The electrons are found outside the nucleus in the shells or energy levels.
2. The nucleus is only a very small part of the atom, in terms of size, but it contains
most of the
mass of the atom. Its density is very high 1 x 1014 g/cm. One cubic centimeter of
nuclear matter would have a mass of 1.1 x 108 tons. Since the proton has a relative
charge of +1, the relative charge of the nucleus is positive and equal to the number of
protons.
3. The number of protons in the nucleus is defined as the atomic number. Thus all
atoms of the same element have the same number of protons.

Example: Element Atomic No. No. of Protons in the Atom

Carbon 6 6
Sodium 11 11
Sulfur 16 16
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4. An atom is electrically neutral. Therefore, there are the same number of electrons
outside the nucleus as there are protons in the nucleus. In forming compounds, atoms
sometimes gain or lose electrons to form charged particles called ions.
5. The shells or energy levels of electrons are dispersed at a relatively great distance
from the
nucleus. The nucleus has a diameter of about 10-5 angstrom (10-6 nm). Therefore these
electrons are dispersed at distances that extend up to 100,000 times the diameter of the
nucleus.
5. The number of protons in an atom plus the number of neutrons is called the mass
number,
which is essentially equal to the atomic mass in amu, since the mass of the electron is
negligible.

number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number

Atomic Number, atomic mass, mass number, number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the
atoms of carbon, sodium and sulfur:

Atomic Atomic Mass No. of No. of No. of

Atom mass(amu electron neutron
Number ) Number protons s s
Carbo 6 12.011 12 6 6 6
n
Sodiu 11 22.9997 23 11 11 12
m
Sulfur 16 32.066 32 16 16 16

Complete the table below without looking at the Periodic Table of Elements:

Atom Atomic Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

Number Mass Number Protons Electrons Neutrons
Boron 5 10.811
Magnesium 24.3050 12
Nickel 58.6934 28
Bromine 79.904 45
Tin 50 118.710 119

Isotopes

Atoms having different atomic masses or mass numbers, but the same atomic number are
called isotopes. Isotopes are atoms of the same element and hence have the same number of
protons, and the same number of electrons, but different number of neutrons. Isotopes of the
same element have the same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties.

Isotopes of Number of Protons Number of Electrons Number of Neutrons

Chlorine:
Chlorine - 35 (35Cl) 17 17 18
Chlorine - 37 (35Cl) 17 17 20

Isotopes of Number of Protons Number of Electrons Number of Neutrons

Hydrogen:
Hydrogen (1H) 1 1 0
Deuterium (2H) 1 1 1
Tritium (3H) 1 2
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The atomic weight for the element is found by multiplying the exact atomic
weight of each isotope by its percent abundance in nature and then taking the sum of the values
obtained.

Example:
Isotopes of Carbon Exact Atomic Mass % Abundance in Nature
C-12 12.00000 98.89
C-13 13.00335 1.110

Relative atomic mass or atomic weight of C = 12.00000 amu (0.9889) + 13.00335 amu (
0.0110)
= 11.87 amu + 0.143 amu
= 12.01 amu

Exercise Problem: Chlorine is found in nature as two isotopes: Cl-35 (34.969 amu) and
Cl-37 (36.966 amu). These are found in the ration of 75.53% Cl-35
and
24.47% Cl-37. Calculate the relative atomic mass of Cl.

Formula and Molecular Weight

A molecule is the smallest particle of a compound which has the property of that
compound.

The formula or molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of all atoms in a
formula unit. Since atomic weights are expressed in atomic mass unit or amu, the formula
weight, therefore is also expressed in atomic mass unit or amu. The term formula weight is the
more general term since it can be used for atoms, ions, and compounds that exist as molecules or
compounds that exist as formula units. The formula weights are sometimes expressed in grams
and called gram-atomic weight (for atoms) or gram-molecular weight (for molecules) or gram-
formula weight (for formula unit).

Example: Calculate the formula weight of each of the following:

(a) H2O (b) Ca(OH)2 (c) Mg(NO3) 2

Solution: (a) H2O: 2 atoms H x 1 amu = 2.0 amu

1 atom H
1 atom O x 16.0 amu = 16.0 amu
1 atom O _________
Formula mass of H2O = 18.0 amu

(b) Ca(OH)2 : Ca = 1 x 40 amu = 40 amu

O = 1 x 2 x 16 amu = 32 amu
H = 1 x 2 x 1 amu = 2 amu
________
Formula mass of Ca(OH)2 = 74 amu

(c) Mg(NO3) 2 : Mg = 1 x 24 amu = 24 amu

N = 1 x 2 x 14 amu = 28 amu
O = 3 x 2 x 16 amu = 96 amu
________
Formula mass of Mg(NO3) 2 = 148 amu
Exercise Problems:

1. Calculate the formula (molecular) weight of each of the following:

(a) CaCl2 (d) Fe2(SO4)3 (g) CH4

(b) NH3 (e) KClO3 (h) Al(OH)3
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(c) Ba(OH)2 (f) MgBr2 (i) Ca3(PO4)2

The Mole

A mole (mol) is a number of particles, just as a dozen is. The mole is sometimes referred
to as the “chemists dozen”. One mole of a substance has a mass in grams equal to its formula
mass.
Examples: 1 mole H atoms = 1.0 g
1 mole H2 molecules = 2.0 g
1 mole H2O molecules = 18.0 g
1 mole Carbon-12 = 12.0 g
The mass of 1 mole of a substance is sometimes referred to as molar mass. That is the
molar mass is the mass in grams of any substance that contains 6.02 x 1023 number of units.
These units can be atoms, molecules, formula units, individual ions, and so on. The molar mass
of a substance is equal to its formula mass but the unit is gram.

Problem Example 1. Calculate the number of moles of NaOH in 85.0 g of NaOH.

Solution: Formula mass of NaOH = 1 (23 amu) + 1 (16 amu) + 1 (1 amu) = 40 amu

Molar mass or mass of 1 mole NaOH = 40 grams

Moles NaOH = 85.0 g NaOH x 1 mol NaOH = 2.125 mol NaOH

40 g NaOH
Problem Example 2. Calculate the mass in grams of 0.720 mol of Ca3(PO4)2 .

Solution: Formula mass of Ca3(PO4)2 = 3 (40 amu) + 1 (2) (31 amu) + 4 (2) (16 amu) =
310 amu

Molar mass or mass of 1 of Ca3(PO4)2 = 310 g

Mass of 0.720 mol Ca3(PO4)2 = 0.720 mol Ca3(PO4)2 x 310 g =

223.2 g
1 mol Ca3(PO4)2
It is found experimentally, by diffraction of X rays and other methods, that the number of
atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12 is 6.02 x 1023 . This number is known as Avogadro’s number,
named in honor of the Italian physicist and chemist Amadeo Avogadro.

1 mole of formula units = 6.02 x 1023 of these units

1 mole of H atoms = 6.02 x 1023 H atoms
1 mole of H2 molecules = 6.02 x 1023 H2 molecules
1 mole H2O molecules = 6.02 x 1023 H2O molecules
1 mole C atoms = 6.02 x 1023 C atoms

Problem Example 3. Calculate the number of molecules CO2 in 10 moles CO2 .

Solution: No. of CO2 molecules = 10 mol CO2 x 6.02 x 1023 CO2 molecules
mol CO2
= 6.02 x 10 CO2 molecules
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Problem Example 4. Calculate the mass of 1 atom of carbon-12.

Solution: mass of C-12 = 1 atom C-12 x 1 mol C-12 x 12 g

C-12
6.02x1023 atoms C-12 1 mol
C-12

= 2.0 x 10-23 g C-12

The volume of 1 mole of a substance is referred to molar volume. At standard
temperature and pressure (STP), the volume of one mole of any gas is 22.4 liters.
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Problem example 5. Calculate the volume of 10 moles of CO2 gas at STP.

Solution: Volume = 10 moles x 22.4 liters = 224 liters.
1 mole
Exercise Problems:
1. Calculate the number of moles of each of the following:
(a) 4.80 g Al (c) 0.050 g H2O (e) 8.30 x 1020 molecules
H2O
(b) 2.0 x 1024 atoms of Na (d) 3.5 mg Ca (f) 8.0 g NaCl
2. Calculate the number of atoms in each of the following:
(a) 0.500 mol C (c) 0.025 g He (e) 0.85 mol Al
(b) 2.2 kg Al (d) 0.020 mg Fe (f) 4.2 mol Na
3. Calculate the number of molecules in each of the following:
(a) 10.5 g O2 (c) 20.0 g H2 (e) 0.015 mg CO2
(b) 0.020 mg SO2 (d) 8.0 mol CH4 ( f) 3,500 mmol H2
3. Calculate the volume of each of the following at STP.
(a) 25 moles nitrogen gas (b) 36 g H2O vapor (c) 5.0 moles of CO2 gas

The Structure of the Atom and the Periodic Table of Elements

In 1913, Neils Bohr proposed a model of the atom that would account for experimental
results. He proposed that the electrons in an atom could only be in certain orbits, or energy
levels, around the nucleus; that is, his theory was that the energy of the electrons is quantized and
can only be lost or gained in discrete amounts. This can be compared to a ladder on which you
can climb from one step to the next, but not part way in between.
Refinements of the Borh theory, in the 1920’s and 1930’s, led to the modern theory of
atomic structure, which is based on quantum mechanics (or wave mechanics). This is a
mechanical description of the laws of motion that apply to very small particles, like electrons,
which have properties of both particles and waves. This theory provide a mathematical
calculation of the energy of each electron in an atom. It shows that the electrons occupy various
energy levels around the nucleus. Each energy level consists of one or more sublevels, and each
sublevel consists of a set of one or more orbitals. An orbital represents a region in space with a
specific shape, where a pair of electrons is most likely to be found. It is also found from quantum
mechanics that there is a limit to the number of electrons that can occupy any given energy level.

Arrangement of Electrons in Main Energy Levels

The electrons in an atom exist in energy levels or shells, which increase in energy as
they increase in distance from the nucleus. The nearer the electron is to the nucleus, the less
energy the electron has; the farther away it is, the more energy it has. These energy levels are
designated by whole numbers or sometimes by capital letters as 1 or K, 2 or L, 3 or M, 4 or N, 5
or O, 6 or P, 7 or Q.
It is found that the maximum number of electrons in each energy level is equal to 2n2
where n is the number of the energy level. The maximum number of electrons that can be in an
energy level are as follows:
Energy Level (Letter Designation) Maximum Number of Electrons

1 (K) 2(n) 2 = 2(1)2 = 2

2 (L) 2(2)2 = 8
3 (M) 2(3)2 = 18
4 (N) 2(4)2 = 32
5( O) 2(5)2 = 50
6 (P) 2(6)2 = 72
7 (Q) 2(7)2 = 98

Arrangement of the Electrons in Sublevels

The energy levels are further divided into sublevels, or subshells. These sublevels are
designated by letters: s for the first possible sublevel, p for the second sublevel, d for the third, f
for the fourth, g for the fifth, and from here on they simply go in alphabetical order. The number
of sublevels that each energy level is divided into is equal to the number of the energy level.
That is, the first energy level has only one sublevel, called the 1s; the second energy level has
 14

two sublevels, called the 2s and 2p; and so forth. The sublevels on the different energy levels are
as follows:
Sublevels for each energy level:

Energy Level Number of Sublevels Designation of Sublevels

1 1 1s
2 2 2s, 2p
3 3 3s, 3p, 3d
4 4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
5 5 5s, 5p, 5d, 5f, 5g
6 6 6s, 6p, 6d, 6f, 6g, 6h
7 7 7s, 7p, 7d, 7f, 7g, 7h, 7i

Maximum number of electrons in each sublevel:

Sublevel (or Subshell) Maximum Number of Electrons
s 2
p 6
d 10
f 14
g 18
h 22
i 26
Each sublevel consists of a set of orbitals. Each of these orbital represents an electron
cloud of a given shape. The set of orbitals that make up a particular sublevel are all of equal
energy. The number of orbitals in each sublevel are as follows:
s = 1, p = 3, d = 5, f = 7, g = 9, h = 11, and i =
13.

Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons. This is the reason why the
maximum number of electrons that can be in sublevel s is 2, in sublevel p is 6, in sublevel d is
10, in sublevel f is 14, in sublevel g is 18, in sublevel h is 22 and in sublevel i is 26.
Summary of energy levels, sublevels, orbitals, and maximum number of electrons in the
different energy levels:

Maximum Maximum
Main Energy Sublevel Number of Number Number
Level Orbitals of electrons of Electrons in
in the Sublevel Main Energy
Level

1 s 1 2 2
2 s 1 2
p 3 6 8
s 1 2
3 p 3 6 18
d 5 10
s 1 2
4 p 3 6 32
d 5 10
f 7 14
s 1 2
p 3 6
5 d 5 10 50
f 7 14
g 9 18
s 1 2
p 3 6
6 d 5 10 72
 15

f 7 14
g 9 18
h 11 22
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
7 f 7 14 98
g 9 18
h 11 22
i 13 26
The two electrons in a given orbital are said to have opposite spins; that is, apparently
each electron is spinning about its own axis. When an orbital is filled with its maximum of two
electrons, we say that the electrons are paired. When an orbital has only one electron in it, we
say that the electron is unpaired.
Occupancy of Sublevels and Orbitals
Within each energy level, the s sublevel is of lower energy than the p sublevel, which is
of lower energy than the d sublevel, and so on. But the orbital within a given set are all of equal
energy.

↑
↑
Increasing ↑ 2p
↑ 2s
energy ↑
1s

The electrons occupy orbitals starting with the lowest energy level and filling each to
capacity before the next is started. That is, the 1s orbital fills with two electrons, then the 2s fills
with two electrons, then the 2p fills with six, the 3s with two and finally the 3p with six and so
on. This is usually written as 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, and so on. This notation is sometimes designated as
the nlx notation where n represents the energy level; l, the sublevel; and x the number of
electrons.
Using the nlx notation , the electron configuration for the element 18, argon, would be
1s , 2s , 2p6, 3s2, 3p6 .
2 2

Beyond the 3p sublevel there is an electron overlap, so that in occupying sublevels

beyond this electrons fill the 4s sublevel before the 3d. The same is true with the 5s and 4d. With
higher energy levels, there is even more overlap of this type.
It turns out the order in which electrons occupy sublevels (or orbitals) is as follows: 1s,
2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f*, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f*, 6d, 7p, 8s (*It is found
that in occupying sublevels one electron goes into the 5d, then the 4f fills, and then the rest of the
5d. The same thing happens with the 5f and 6d)
_______________ 4f
sublevel
↑
↑ _______________ 4d
sublevel
↑ ____________________
↑ Fourth energy level _______________ 4p
sublevel
↑ _______________ 3d
sublevel
↑ _______________ 4s
sublevel
Increasing ↑ _________________________________________ 3p
sublevel
energy ↑ Third energy level
↑ _______________ 3s
sublevel
 16

↑ _______________ 2p
sublevel
↑ ____________________
↑ Second energy level _______________ 2s
sublevel
↑
↑
↑ _________________________________________ 1s
sublevel
↑ First energy level
This order of occupancy of sublevels is called the aufbau order, which means building
up in German. The periodic table is arranged following this order.

In any atom, electrons occupy the lowest energy sublevels that are available. When one
sublevel is filled to capacity, the next lowest one begins to fill. This gives the arrangement of the
electrons in an atom in the lowest energy condition, called the ground state.

Problem 1: Give the complete electron configuration (using the nlx notation) for each of the
following:
a. N e. K i. Xe
b. Ne f. Ga j. Ba
c. Mg g. Se
d. Cl h. Sb

Problem 2. Give the electron configuration in the outermost energy level (using the nlx
notation) of the
given elements in problem 1.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The Pauli Exclusion Principle relates the four quantum numbers to the maximum
possible number of electrons in each orbital, sublevel, and energy level. This principle states that
no two electrons in any given atom can have exactly the same set of four quantum numbers. This
is another way of stating the fact that within any given orbital there can be two electrons with
opposite spins.

The Four Quantum Numbers:

1. The Principal Quantum Number (n) – It specifies the energy level. It is a positive integral
value from
one on. It is related to the size of electron cloud or the general distance from the nucleus
for the
particular group of electrons.

2. The Secondary Quantum Number (l) - It can be any integral value which depend on the value
of n. It
is from 0 to (n – 1)
n l sublevel

1 0 s

2 0 and 1 s and p

3 0, 1 and 2 s, p and d

4 0, 1, 2 and 3 s, p, d and f

5 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 s, p, d, f, and g
 17

6 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 s, p, d, f, g and h

7 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 s, p, d, f, g, h and i

3. The Magnetic Quantum Number (m1) - The orbital which depends on the value of l. It is any
integral
Number from +l to –l including zero.

If l = 0, m1 is 0 (one orbital in the s sublevel)

If l = 1, m1 are +1, 0 and -1 (in the p sublevel)

If l = 2, m1 are +2, +1, 0, -1 and -2 (in the d sublevel)

If l = 3, m1 are +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2 and -3 (in the f sublevel)

If l = 4, m1 are +4, +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3 and -4 (in the g sublevel)

If l = 5, m1 are +5, +4, +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4 and -5 (in the h sublevel)

If l = 6, m1 are +6, +5, +4, +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, and -6 (in the I
sublevel)

4. The Spin Quantum Number ((ms). This(m1) can +1/2 or -1/2 which are of opposite spins.

Hund’s Rule
For any set of orbitals of equal energy, such as the set of 2p orbitals, it is found that there
is one electron in each orbital before there is any pairing. This is known as the Hund’s Rule.
If we represent the sublevels (set of orbitals) as boxes, or sets of boxes, and the electrons
with arrows, the orbital diagram for any atom can be shown as follows:

Orbital diagram for first ten elements

_____
H (1) ↓
_____
1s
_____
He (2) ↓ ↑
_____
1s

_____
____ ↓
Li (3) ↓ ↑ _____
_____ 2s
1s

_____
_____ ↓ ↑
Be (4) ↓ ↑ _____
_____ 2s
1s
______________
_____ ↓
↓ ↑ ______________
B (5) _____ _____ 2p
↓ ↑ 2s
_____
 18

1s
______________
_____ ↓ ↓
↓ ↑ ______________
C (6) _____ _____ 2p
↓ ↑ 2s
_____
1s
____________
_____ ↓ ↓ ↓
↓ ↑ ___________
N (7) _____ _____ 2p
↓ ↑ 2s
_____
1s
______________
_____ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓
↓ ↑ ______________
O (8) _____ _____ 2p
↓ ↑ 2s
_____
1s
______________
_____ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓
↓ ↑ ______________
F (9) _____ _____ 2p
↓ ↑ 2s
_____
1s
_____________
_____ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑
Ne (10) _____ ↓ ↑ ______________
↓ ↑ ___ 2p
_____ 2s
1s

Problem 3: How many unpaired electrons are in the following atoms?

a. N d. K g. Xe j. Sb
b. Ne e. Ga h. Ba
c. Mg f. Se i. Cl

Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table

The electronic structure of the elements varies in a regular way with increasing atomic
number and there is a direct relationship between the electronic structure of an atom and the
properties of that atom.

In setting up the periodic table the aufbau order is followed, with the maximum number
of electrons going into each sublevel before the next one starts to fil l. Each time a new s
orbital or a new energy level, starts to fill, a new row across the table, called a period, is started.

After element 20 (calcium, Ca) a set of d orbitals (the 3d sublevel) fills, and the table is
split after element 20 in order to fit in this series of 10 elements. Also, after element 57
(lanthanum, La) there is another break in the table as the series of 4f orbitals (the 4f sublevel)
fills. Since this sublevel can hold a maximum of 14 electrons, this series contains 14 elements.
This gives the common long form of the periodic table. (Refer to your Periodic Table of
Elements)
 19

As seen in the periodic table, there is a considerable variation in the electron

configuration of the series in which the d orbitals are filling because the sublevels are very close
together at this point. There are also two common variations to this order of filling which occur
at atomic number 24 (chromium, Cr) and 29 (copper, Cu). In chromium, instead of having 4s2,
3d4, it is actually 4s1, 3d5. There is added stability in two sets of half-filled orbitals, and hence it
has a symmetrical distribution around the nucleus. With copper, instead of having 4s2, 3d9
configuration it is actually 4s1, 3d10. In this case there added stability by having a half-filled s
orbital and a completely filled set of d orbitals.

We can now use the periodic table to follow through the aufbau order and to determine
the electron configuration for any atom. The first two columns represent atoms in which
electrons are entering s orbitals. The last 6 columns represent atoms in which electrons are
entering the p orbitals. The 10 columns in the center in the table represent atoms in which
electrons are entering the d orbitlas. The s and p orbitals being filled going across any period
are in the outermost (last) energy level, the d orbitals are of one energy level lower and the f
orbitals are two energy levels lower than the highest energy level.

Example. For element 74 (tungsten, W), the electron configuration : 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2,
3p , 4s , 3d10, 4p6, 5s2, 4d10, 5p6, 6s2, 4f14, 5d4 or (Xe) , 6s2, 4f14, 5d4 indicates that the
6 2

outermost energy level occupied by the electrons in an atom of W is energy level 6 which tells
that W is in Period 6.

If the atomic number of the element is given, the electron configuration can be written
and its location in the periodic table can be determined. And if the location of the element in the
periodic table is known, its electron configuration can be written and its atomic number can be
determined. Also we can tell from the periodic table how many electrons are in the outermost
energy level and in what sublevels they are in. And using Hund’s Rule the number of electrons
that are unpaired can be determined also.

Note: The outermost energy level occupied by electrons in an atom of the element
correspond
to the Period where the element belong.

For elements in Family A, the total number of electrons in the outermost energy
level
correspond to the Group No. where the element belong.

The number of unpaired electrons in an orbital can be determined using Hund’s

Rule.

Problem 4. Write the electron configuration of the elements whose location in the Periodic Table
are as
follows:

a. Period 2, Group III-A e. Period 5, Group IV-A h. Period 5, Group

III-A
b. Period 3, Group V-A
Period 2, Group V-A
c. Period 6, Group I-A
d. Period 4, Group VII-A
f. Period 7, Group II-A i.
g. Period 4, Group VI-A
h. Period 3, Group VIII-A

Problem 5. Given the atomic numbers of the following elements, determine their location in the
Periodic
Table. The answer will be based on the electron configuration of these elements. Just
look at
the Periodic table later to check if your answer is correct.

a. 7 e. 31 i. 83
b. 10 f. 34 j. 98
 20

c. 14 g. 38
d. 19 h. 53

Development of the Periodic Table

Early in the nineteenth century, more and more elements were being discovered and their
properties determined. It was noticed that certain groups of elements had similar properties. This
led chemists of that time to try to classify into groups the elements that were similar.

1969: Lothar Meyer (1830-1895), a German chemist, devised a classification of the elements
into a table that accounted for the periodic variations in properties. His table included 56
elements.

Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907), a Russian chemist devised a similar table to Lothar

Meyer, however, he left gaps and predicted that new elements would be discovered to fill
them. He also predicted the properties of these undiscovered new elements, based on
their position in his table. Some of these elements were discovered and found to have
properties quite similar to those he predicted.

The periodic tables of Meyer and Mendeleev were arranged in the order of increasing
atomic weights which is an error because this caused some elements to be misplaced in
the table. Cobalt and nickel for example. Nickel has a lower atomic weight than cobalt.

H.G. Moseley (1887-1915), after determining the charge of the nucleus concluded that
the elements should be arranged in order of increasing atomic number. This corrected the
earlier discrepancies of the periodic table.

This classification of the elements by atomic number is the basis of the periodic law,
which states that some of the physical and many of the chemical properties of the
elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

Periods, Groups and Families

Periods are the horizontal rows in the periodic table of elements.

Groups are the vertical columns in the periodic table of elements which are divided into
A and B subgroups.

The A subgroups are often called families due to the similarities of the elements
belonging to the same A subgroup. Some of these families are referred to by special
names as follows:

Alkali metals - Group IA Nitrogen family - Group VA

Alkaline earth metals - Group IIA Oxygen family -
Group VIA
Boron family - Group IIIA Halogen family - Group VIIA
Carbon family - Group IVA Group zero or - Group VIIIA
Noble gases

Types of Elements

Elements are classified into metal and nonmetals and also divided into four types:
representative elements, noble gases, transition elements, and inner transition elements.

Representative Elements - These are the elements in the A subgroups (IA through VIIA)
These elements, the outer energy level is incomplete and the
electrons occupy the s and p orbitals in going from one representative
element to the next.
 21

These elements have electron configuration from ns1 to np5 . The

position of the element in the periodic table will enable us to determine
the electron configuration for the outermost energy levels. Or if the
electron configuration for the outermost energy levels is given, the
position of the element in the periodic table can be determined.

Example: Element Period Group Electron Configuration for

Outermost Energy Level

Na 3 IA 3s1

As 4 VA 4s2 3d10 4p3

Noble Gases - They are the last group in the periodic table of elements. Each element
in these group has completely filled set of s and p orbitals. Thus, the
electron configuration for the outermost electrons is ns2 np6 or ns2 (n-
1)d10np6 or
ns2 (n-1)d10 (n-2)f14 np6. They have a total of 8 electrons in the outermost
energy
level.

Example: Kr in Period 4 has electron configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
Transition Elements - In these series of elements the set of d orbitals are being filled.
The outermost energy level will have the ns configuration except in VIB
and IB. There is (n-1)d1 through (n-1)d10 configuration along with this.
There are two incomplete energy levels, and thus there is more variation in
the properties of these elements than there is with the representative
elements. Note that the d orbitals are always one energy level lower than
the electrons in the s orbitals.

Example: Nickel (atomic number 28) has electron configuration of

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8

Inner Transition Elements -Includes the two series of elements fro 58 – 71 (Lanthanide Series)
and 90 – 103(Actinide Series) in which the set of f orbitals are being
filled.
These elements have three incomplete energy levels since one electron
enters a d orbital before the set of f orbitals begin filling.

Example: U (atomic number 93) has electron configuration of

1s2 2s2 2p6 . . . . . . 7s2 5f3 6d1

Valence Electrons

The Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost energy level or valence shell of
the atom and are the ones that are used in forming compounds. For the representative elements
the number of valence electrons correspond to the group number. For representative elements,
it is often convenient to show the valence electrons in the atom by using what is called the kernel
notation, or an electron dot notation. In this notation the symbol of the element is used to
represent the nucleus and all inner electrons, and a dot is put in for each of the valence electrons.
. . . . .. .. ..
Example: Li. Be. .B. .C.
. . :N . . . :O. .. :F:
:Ne:

Differentiating Electron

The differentiating electron in an atom is the electron that makes that atom different
from the one before it in the periodic table. This can also be stated as the last electron added in
 22

building up the periodic table following the aufbau order. The differentiating electron of Mg
makes it different from Na and of K makes it different from Ar.

Type of element Orbital where the differentiating electron is found

Representative s or p
Transition d (with some exceptions)
Inner Transition f (with severalexceptions)

Periodic Variations

Properties of atoms/elements with periodic variations:

1. metallic properties 4. ionization energy

2. atomic size 5. electron affinity
3. ionic size 6. electronegativity

Metallic Properties

 Within any period in the table, the elements become less metallic, or more
nonmetallic, going across the period from left to right.
 Within a group or family, metallic properties increase in going down the group.

IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA

Period 2 B C N O F Ne

Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Period 4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Period 5 Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe

Period 6 Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

Period 7 Fr Ra

Na – the most metallic element in Period 3 Pb – the most metallic element in Group
IVA

Atomic Size

 Going across any period in the table, there is a small but rather general decrease in
size of the atomic radius. This is due to the fact that going across a period the valence
electrons are all in the same energy level, or the same general distance from the
nucleus, but in proceeding from one element to the next the nuclear charge (number
of protons) increase by one.
 Going down any group in the table there is a rather large increase in atomic size
even though there is increase in nuclear charge. This large increase in atomic size is
due to increase in number of energy levels.

Na – the largest atom in Period 3 Pb – the largest atom in Group IVA

Problem: Using the periodic table, arrange the following elements in order of
decreasing
size: Br, Sr, Sn, I, Cs, Ba

Answer: _____, _____, _____, _____, _____, _____

Ionic Size
 23

An ion is an atom that has gained or lost electrons. Since an electron has a negative
charge, when an atom loses one electron, it attains a charge of plus one (+1). Likewise, when
two electrons are lost from an atom, it becomes an ion with a plus two (+2) charge. Metal atom
loses electron/s so that there is a relatively large decrease in size due to the decrease in energy
level by one.

Examples how metals form ions:

Na → Na+1 + 1e - Mg → Mg+2 + 2e-

Na is larger than Na+1 because Na has 3 energy levels occupied by its 11

electrons while Na+1 has only 2 energy levels for the remaining 10 electrons.

Mg is larger that Mg+2 because Mg has 3 energy levels occupied by its

12 electrons while Mg+2 has only 3 energy levels for the remaining 10 electrons.

If an atom gains one electron, it becomes an ion with a charge of minus one (-1) and if it
gains two electrons it will have a charge of minus two (-2). Atoms of nonmetals gain electrons
so that there is a rather large increase in size due to the repulsion of the electrons from one
another.

Examples how nonmetals form ions:

Cl + e- → Cl-1 S + 2e- → S-2

Cl-1 is larger than Cl. S-2 is larger than S.

Problem: In each of the following sets, encircle which will be the smallest:

a. I, I-1 c. S-2 , Cl- , Br--1

b. Ca, Ca+2 d. Na, Na+1, Mg, Mg+2, Ca, Ca+2

Ionization Energy

Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom
or ion.

First ionization energy of a particular atom is the amount of energy required to

remove one electron from that atom. Example: Al + 1st I.E. → Al+1 + 1e-1
Second ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the second electron
from the ion formed.The second ionization energy is always higher that the first ionization
energy since an electron is being removed from a positive ion.
Example: Al+1 + 2nd I.E. → Al+2 + 1e-1

Third ionization energy is the amount of energy required to removed the second electron
from the ion formed. It is higher than the second ionization energy. Note that once the noble gas
configuration is attained, such as in the case of Na+1, Mg+2, and Be+2, the next ionization energy
is very high. This explains why once a noble gas configuration is attained, no more electron
can be removed from an atom by simple chemical reaction.
Example: Al+2 + 3rd I.E. → Al+3 + 1e-1

If we compare the first ionization energies for the atoms going across a period, there is
a rather general increase. This is due to the fact that the electron being removed are at the same
energy level but there is a greater nuclear charge holding that electron. There are only two places
where there is a decrease in going across a period; that is, in going from group IIA to IIIA and
from VA to VIA, the ionization energy decreases.
 24

Going down the group in the table, the first ionization energy decreases from one atom
to the next. This is due to the fact that the valence electron being remove is at a higher energy
level or greater distance from the nucleus, so it is easier to remove.

Electron Affinity

Electron affinity is the amount of energy released when an atom gains an electron.

Going across a period from left to right for the nonmetals, such as from nitrogen to
oxygen to fluorine, the electron affinity increases. As with atomic size and ionization energy,
this is due to the fact that the valence electrons are in the same energy level but the nuclear
charge becomes greater so that more energy is released when an electron is added to the valence
shell.

In going down a group of nonmetals, such as the halogens (Group VIIA), the electron
affinity decreases. This is due to the fact that going down the group the valence electrons are
farther from the nucleus and, therefore, not as much energy is released when an electron is added
into the valence shell.

Electronegativity

The electronegativity of an atom is defined as the general tendency of that atom to attract
electrons toward itself in a compound. This is determined from the ionization energies and the
electron affinities. The most commonly used table for electronegativities is that arranged by
Linus Pauling, which is referred to the Pauling scale. This concept of electronegativity is very
useful in writing names and formulas for compounds and predicting the type of bonding in
compounds and polarity of bonds and molecules.

There is an increase in electronegativity going across a period from left to right and a
decrease in going down a group.

Problem: Arrange the following elements in order of increasing electronegativity:

Ba, Br,
Sn, Sr
Answer: _____, _____, _____, _____

Oxidation Number (Oxidation State)

The valence of an atom describes the combining power of that atom in a compound.
Another related concept, which is even more useful, is the concept oxidation number or
oxidation state. This is a positive or negative value that not only describes the combining
capacity of an atom but also gives an indication of how the electrons are arranged in the
compound.

Some general rules for assigning or determining oxidation numbers (states)

1. The oxidation number of an element in the free or uncombined state is always zero.
2. The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in the formula for a
compound is zero.
3. The oxidation number of an ion is the same as the charge on the ion.
4. The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in a polyatomic ion must equal the
charge on the ion.
5. Some common oxidation numbers:
a. Group IA elements are always +1.
b. Group IIA elements are always +2.
c. Hydrogen is usually +1, except in hydrides (ionic compounds with IA and
IIA elements); then it is -1.
d. Oxygen is usually -2, except in peroxides such as H2O2 and Na2O2 ; then it is -
1 (in superoxides, such as KO2 , it is -1/2).
 25

e. Group VIIA elements are -1 when in binary compounds with more

electropositive (less electronegative) elements.
f. Sulfur in binary compounds with more electropositive elements is -2.
g. Nitrogen in binary compounds with more electropositive elements is -3.
h. Al (Group IIIA) is +3; Zn (Group IIB) is +2; Ag (Group IB) is +1.
i. Sn and Pb are +2and +4; Cu and Hg are +1 and +2; Fe is +2 and +3.
j. All other metals, like these last five , have more than one oxidation state or are
said to have variable oxidation numbers.

Binary compounds are compounds containing only two kinds of atoms or elements.

Examples: NaCl, MgCl2

Ternary or higher compounds are compounds containing more than three kinds of atoms
or
elements.

Examples: H2SO4, Ca3(PO3), etc.

Polyatomic ions are charge particles containing two or more kinds of atoms or elements.

Examples: sulfite or SO3-2 phosphate or PO4-3

carbonate or CO3-2 nitrate or NO3-1

Excersise: Using the general rules, determine and assign the oxidation state of the elements in
the following formulas:

1. Na 6. MgS 11. Fe2O3

2. KCl 7. PbO2 12. H2SO4
3. BaF2 8. HBr 13. KClO3
4. FeCI3 9. CaH2 14. MnO4-1
5. CuO 10. Na3N 15. SO3-2

Chemical Bonds

Two most important types of chemical bonds:

1. Ionic or Electrovalent bond 2. Covalent bond

Ionic Bond

Ionic or electrovalent bond is formed when one or more electrons are transferred from
one atom to another. This forms a positive ion and a negative ion, which are held together by an
electrostatic attraction. Each positive ion is surrounded by negative ions and each negative ion is
surrounded by positive ions. For example, in an ionic compound sodium chloride, the formula
NaCl, does not indicate that one sodium ion combines with one chloride ion but only that the
ratio of sodium to chloride ions is one Na+1 to one Cl-1.

Formation of monatomic ions: The Octet Rule and Some Exceptions

Elements may give or take in electrons and become stable by having 8 electrons in the
last energy level. This is called the Octet Rule. However, some exceptions are observed. For
example, Group IV metals like tin (Sn) and lead (Pb) can usually give away 2 electrons only
because of the high energy required to remove the next two.

Sn → Sn+2 + 2 e-2 Pb → Pb+2 + 2 e-2

 26

In forming monatomic ions, the metals can lose one, two or possibly three electrons to
form cations with a charge of +1, +2 or +3; however a charge of either +3 or -3 is quite rare.

1. IA metals can lose one electron and form cations with a charge of +1.

Example: Na → Na+1 + 1e-1

2. IIA metals can lose two electrons and form cations with a charge of +2.

Example: Mg → Mg+2 + 2e-1

3. The aluminum can lose three electrons and form a cation with a charge of +3.

Example: Al → Al+3 + 3e-1

For the IA metals, IIA metals and aluminum, the ions formed always have a noble gas
configuration; that is, these metals lose all their valence electrons in forming cations.
In forming monatomic ions the nonmetals always gain enough electrons to attain a noble
gas configuration. These atoms will always gain one, two or possible three electrons in forming
monatomic ions such as:

1. Nonmetals in Group VIIA can gain one electron to have the configuration of the noble gas
next to them (eight electrons in the last energy level)

Example: Cl + 1e-1 → Cl-1

2. Nonmetals in Group VIA can gain two electrons to have the configuration of the noble
gas having eight electrons in the last energy level.
Example: S + 2e-1 → S-2

3. Nitrogen can possibly gain three electrons.

N + 3e-1 → N-3

Formation of ionic compounds:

Na+1 + Cl-1 → NaCl

Mg+2 + 2Cl-1 → MgCl2

2Al+3 + 3O-2 → Al2O3

Covalent Bond

A covalent or molecular compound is defined as a compound in which covalent bonds

are formed between the atoms. The covalent bond is formed when a pair or pairs of electrons
are shared between the atoms, in a new type of orbital. Since the covalent bond is formed from a
pair of electrons, it is sometimes referred to as an electron pair bond. This type of bond can be
formed by two nonmetals where both are considered electron acceptors. In many covalent
compounds one electron comes from each atom, in forming the bond. There are some cases,
however, where one atom furnishes both electrons. A bond of this type. A bond of this type is
referred to as a coordinate covalent bond. Once this bond is formed however, it is no different
than any other covalent. If two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms, the bond is
called a double bond; if three pairs are shared, it is a triple bond. The bond length,
which is the distance between the two nuclei making up the bond, is shorter for a double bond
than for a single and shorter for a triple bond than for a double. Likewise, the bond strength,
which is the amount of energy necessary to break the bond, is greatest for a triple bond and least
for a single bond. The maximum number of bonds that can form between two atoms is three.
 27

In forming these covalent bonds, the new orbital formed is sometimes referred to as a
molecular orbital which is simply overlapping of atomic orbitals. Three things that should be
considered in formation of covalent bond:

1. The new orbital is formed by the overlap of atomic orbitals of different atoms.
2. Electrons occupy the new orbitals in pairs.
3. Only valence electrons are used to form the bond. Inner electrons are bound too
strongly to their own ato to be used in bond formation.

Examples of Covalent compounds or molecular compounds that are formed by covalent

bonding:

CO CO2 H2O NH3 SO3

Polarity of Molecules

The polarity of molecules refers to whether the electron clouds that make up the various
bonds are equally distributed or not.

Two types of molecules or covalent compounds:

1. polar molecule or dipole – it is a molecule with one part more positive and the other
part more negative or the electrons are not shared equally by the atoms. This is true
when the difference in the electronegativity of the atoms is 0.6 to 1.5.

Example: CO (the electronegativity of C is 2.5 and that of O is 3.5 so that the

difference
is 1.0)
2. nonpolar molecule – it is a molecule where electrons are shared equally by the
atoms. The
difference in electronegativity is 0 to 0.5 only.

Example: H2 or H-H N-O

A difference in electronegativity above 1.5 is true only between a metal and a nonmetal
and the compound is said to be an ionic compound.

Problem 1. Place a (+) above the atom or atoms that are relatively positive and a (-)
above the
atom or atoms that are relatively negative in the following covalent bonded
molecules:

(a) HF (e) OF2 (i) NH3

(b) H2O (f) HI (j) Cl2O

(c) ICl (g) BrCl

(d) PCl3 (H) SiCl4

Problem 2. Arrange each of the following groups in the order of increasing polarity:

(a). N-F, Mg-O, N-O, N-N Answer: __________, __________, __________,

__________

(b). C-O, N-O, O-O, C-F Answer: __________, __________, __________,

__________

Problem 3. By using the Periodic Table of Elements predict the type of chemical
bonding that will occur between two atoms: If covalent also identify if polar or nonpolar.
 28

(a) K–I (e) Cl – Cl (i) Na – Br

(b) C–O (f) N–O (j) N – H
(c) S – Cl (g) Cu - Br
(d) Ca – F (h) H-I

Lewis Structure (Electron Dot Formula)

In many compounds there are eight electrons, or four pairs, around each atom, just as
there are in a noble gas(hydrogen, of course , only has two, like the noble gas helium). Therefore,
the formation of a complete octet, or a noble gas electron configuration, seem to be a very strong
driving force in the formation of molecules.

In representing a molecule, for purposes of describing the bonding, the first step is to
show how the electron pairs are arranged within the molecule. This is done by using what is
called a Lewis structure or electron dot formula. In drawing these the symbol for each element
is used to represent the nucleus and all the inner electrons. The valence electrons are then shown
as dots around the symbol. All the valence electrons in the molecule are arranged in such a way
that each atom has eight electrons around it, except hydrogen , which has only two.

The following are the general rules that are helpful in drawing the Lewis structure:

1. Arrange the atoms in the most probable arrangement, from the formula of the compound.

Example: For CO2, C is in the center with the two O atoms around it.

O C O

2. Count up and use the total number of valence electrons that are available- no more and no
less.

C has 4 valence electrons = 4

O has 6 valence electrons x 2 (Since there are two O atoms) = 12
16
3. Put one pair of electrons between each atom and arrange the remaining electrons in pairs
around
the atoms in such a way as to obtain eight around each atom except H, which only has
two.
.. .. ..
:O : C : O:
..
4. Rearrange the electron pairs if necessary by putting in double or triple bonds, in order to
place
eight electrons around each atom, except H.
.. ..

:O :: C ::O:

Problem: Draw the Lewis structure for the following molecules:

(1). H2O (3). SO2 (5). NO3-1

(2). NH3 (4). N2

Types of Covalent Bonds – Sigma (σ) and Pi (π) Bonds

There are two types of covalent bonds: the sigma (σ) and pi (π) bonds. A sigma bond is
the first bond formed between atoms in a covalent compound. It is formed by the direct, or head-
on, overlap of orbitals and is thus the strongest bond and the one that determines the shape of
 29

the molecule. The new orbital formed is an electron cloud surrounding the two nuclei. The
figure below shows representation of a sigme (σ) bond formed by the overlap of two s orbitals
and also one formed by the overlap of two p orbitals. When two electrons occupy this new
orbital, a sigma covalent bond has been formed.

A pi (π) bond is formed after the sigma (σ) bond; that is, it is the second (or third) bond
formed between two atoms. This is formed by the sideways overlap of p orbitals (or sometimes p
and d). This is a weaker bond than a sigma bond since there is a nodel plane (zero electron
probability density) along the internuclear axis, as shown below.

There is also a third type of bond, called a delta (∆) bond, which is formed by the overlap of d
orbitals.

The formation of the H2 molecule was used as an example of a sigma bond between two s
orbitals as shown below.

For the molecules, O2 and N2, the formation of the sigma and pi bond can be seen from their
Lewis structure. In the Lewis structure of O2, there are two bonds between the two oxygen
atoms:
.. ..
O::O
.. ..

Therefore there is one sigma bond and one pi bond. These can be thought of as being formed by
overlap of p orbitals on the oxygen atoms. The first bond formed would be the sigma bond,
formed by the direct overlap of two p orbitals, such as the px . Then the pi bond could be formed
by the sideways overlap of py orbitals.

The Lewis structure for shows that there must be a triple bond between the two atoms:
.. ..
N:::N

Therefore, there is one sigma and two pi bonds. These can be taught of as being formed from the
three p orbitals on the nitrogen atoms, with the lone pair in each case being in an s orbital. The
figure below shows the formation of the sigma bond by the direct overlap of the px orbitals and
the pi bonds by the overlap of the py and pz orbitals. Keep in mind that, as with atomic orbitals,
these clouds do not represent solid boundaries. Therefore, the overall electron cloud around the
molecule is cylindrical, just as the combination of all the three p orbitals in a set gives a spherical
electron cloud.

Formation of
sigma and pi
bonds in oxygen, Fig. 7-6 (Page 158)
O2, molecule and
Nitrogen, N2,
molecule
 30

This type of bonding can be considered to be somewhat between ionic and covalent bonding;
that is, the valence electrons are not transferred from one atom to another and are not shared
between any two atoms in a molecular orbital but are free to move about among the various
electron clouds.

Therefore, in metals the forces of attraction that must be overcome to convert from the
solid to the liquid state, or from the liquid to the gas state, are quite strong. Of course, these
attractive forces vary from one metal to another but in general they are quite strong.

Geometry of Molecules – The Valence Shell Electron Pair

Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)

One method used to explain and predict the geometry of molecules is to consider the
repulsion of electron pairs around the central atom. Since electrons all have a negative charge,
the electron clouds will repel each other and they separate as far apart as possible. Keep in mind
the two things about this. First, a double or triple bond acts like a single group since it
represents pairs of electrons between two atoms. Also, the nonbonding or lone pairs around the
central atom must also be considered since they also consist of electron clouds.

Since the repulsion of the electrons in the valence shell is being considered, this is called the
valence shell electron pair repulsion theory or the VSEPR Theory.

In using the VSEPR Theory or model to describe molecular geometry. First draw a Lewis
structure. From this Lewis structure, count the number of pairs, or groups of pairs for multiple
bonds, that will determine the arrangement of the electron pairs. These are often called
stereoactive pairs. For example in the Lewis structure of water and ammonia each have four
stereoactive pairs, SO2 (O::S:O:) and NO2-1
 31

:O:
..
:O:: N:O: each have three, and CO (O::C::O) has two.

Two factors must be kept in mind here: First, we are considering stereoactive pairs around the
cental atom; second, we count bonding and lone pairs, but we only count a double or triple bond
as one.

Another way of determining stereoactive pairs, which gives exactly the same results, is to count
the sigma bonding and nonbonding pairs around the central atom.

From the number of stereoactive pairs around the central atom, we can predict how these pairs
will arrange themselves, to get as far apart as possible. Then we consider which pairs actually
form bons and predict the bond angles in the molecule. If there are nonbonding pairs of electrons
present, the bond angles are less than they would be if all pairs were bonding. This is due to the
fact that a lone (nonbonding) pair is “spread out” more than a bonding pair, which is held
between the two nuclei. The arrangement of these lone pairs can only be inferred since there is
no way of measuring the angles between an atom a lone pair of electrons.

There are five types of arrangement that must be considered around the central atom as shown in
the Tables 1 and 2 below. Table 1 includes the cases where there are 8 electrons around the
central atom, and Table 2 shows those that have more than 8. Note in the examples in Table 1
that there are four pairs of electrons around the central atom,but in some cases one or two of
these pairs are “pi” bonding pairs, and hence, are not stereoactive. Also, in both tables it should
be noted that the first column gives the theoretical arrangement of electron apirs around the
central atom for a particular type. However, if there are lone (nonbonding) pairs, this does not
give the shape of the molecule. For example, with three stereoactive pairs around the central
atom, if all three are sigma bonding pairs, the angles in the molecule are 120o. However, if there
is one lone pair and two bonding pairs, the molecule just has a V shape, with the angles less that
120o. The illustrations which follows shows some molecules, using the information given in
Tables 1 and 2.

Fig 7-8 (page 160) Table 7-1 (page 161) Table 7-1 (page 162-163)

Types of Intermolecular Forces:

 32

The attractive forces between particles are very important in considering the liquid and
solid states. There are five types of attractive force that we shall consider: ionic, dipole, van der
waals, metallic and covalent.

1. Ionic Attraction - this bond consists of an electrostatic attraction between two

oppositely charged ions. It is a strong force of attraction, especially when considering an
ionic crystal wherein each negative ion is surrounded by positive ions and each positive
ion is surrounded by negative ions. An ion with a relatively small size and relatively high
charge is said to have a high charge density. The greater the charge density is on the ions
in a crystal, the stronger are the forces of attraction. The stronger the forces of attraction
between the particles (ions in this case) in a liquid or solid, the higher are the melting and
boiling points and other related properties.

2. Dipole Attraction - this is the attractive force between atoms in covalent compounds,
where one of the molecule has a partial positive charge and another part has a partial
negative charge. The positive portion of one molecule will be attracted toward the
negative portion of another. The more polar the compound is, the greater these forces of
attraction will be. Therefore within this class of polar covalent compounds there is
considerable variation between the attractive forces. This causes variation in the
properties such as melting and boiling points.

3. Van de Waals Forces - these are weak forces of attraction between the particles in a
Completely nonpolar substance, such as oxygen (O2), hydrogen(H2) , or helium gas. In
the gas state these forces are negligible; but as the gas is cooled down and compressed, it
eventually becomes a liquid. In this state there must be some force of attraction in order
to hold the particles together, the van der Waals forces or London dispersion forces.
Since the number of electrons in a substance increases with the formula weight, the van
der Waals forces also increase increase with increasing formula weight. The properties of
liquids and solids that depend on the force of attraction between particles (such as
melting and boiling point) vary with formula weight for all substances but that this
variation is most noticeable for nonpolar substances.

4. Metallic Bond - this is generally considered to consist of a group of positive ions and a
sea of
electrons, which are free to move about among the ions. This accounts for the general
properties of metals, such as their ability to conduct an electric current. For example, in a
piece of sodium metal the “ions” are held in a fixed position and the valence electrons
(one from each sodium atom) are free to move about among the various electron clouds
as in the figure below.

5. Hydrogen bond – an electrostatic attraction between the hydrogen atoms in one water
molecule
and the oxygen atoms in another water molecule. It is a much weaker bond than the
covalent bonds within the water molecule but it is sufficiently strong to have a
considerable effect on the properties of water.

(Fig. 12-1 (page 271)

Metallic Bonding in Sodium Metal

6. Covalent Bond - this last type attractive force, the covalent bond, exist between atoms
in a
macromolecular substance, such as a diamond. A macromolecular substance is
considered to
be one large molecule. The attractive forces that must be overcome to melt or boil one of
these
substances are the covalent bonds between the atoms. These attractive forces are
extremely great and it takes a very high temperature to melt a substance of this type.
 33

Along with diamond, another common macromolecular substance is silicon dioxide

(SiO2), which is the principal constituent of sand.

POLYATOMIC IONS

Name Symbol Name Symbol

acetate CH3COO-1 dihydrogen phosphate H2PO4-2 aluminate
AlO3-3 dihydrogen phosphiteH2PO3-2
aluminite AlO2-2 hydroxide OH-1
ammonium NH4+1 hypochlorite ClO-1
bicarbonate HCO3-1 hypomanganite MnO-1
or hydrogen carbonate iodate IO3-1
bisulfate HSO4-1 manganate MnO3 -1

or hydrogen sulfate manganite MnO2-1

bisulfite HSO3-1 nitrate NO3-1
or hydrogen sulfite nitrite NO2-1
biphosphate HPO4-2 oxalate C2O4-2
or hydrogen phosphate perchlorate ClO4-1
biphosphite HPO3-2 permanganate MnO4-1
or hydrogen phosphite phosphate PO4-3
bisulfide HS-1 phosphite PO3-3
borate BO3-3 pyrophosphate P2O7-4
bromate BrO3-1 silicate SiO4-4
carbonate CO3-2 stannate SnO3-4
chlorate ClO3-1 stannite SnO2 -4

chlorite ClO2-1 sulfate SO4-2

chromate CrO4-2 sulfite SO3-2
cyanate CNO-1 thiosulfate S2O3-2
cyanide CN-1 thiocyanate SCN-1
dichromate Cr2O7-2 zincate ZnO2-2

Metals with Variable Oxidation Numbers

arsenic arsenic (III) - - - - As+3 arsenic (V) - - - - - - As+5

antimony: antimony (III) - - - Sb+3 antimony (v) - - - - - Sb+5

bismuth bismuth (III) - - - - Bi +3
bismuth (V) - - - - - Bi+5
chromium chromium (II) - - - Cr+2 chromium (III) - - - - Cr+3
chromium (VI) - - - Cr+6
cobalt (II) cobalt (II) or cobaltous - - - - Co+2
cobalt (III) or cobaltic - - - - - - Co+3
copper copper (i) or cuprous - - - - - - Cu+1
copper (II) or cupric - - - - - - Cu+2
gold gold (I) or aurous - - - - - - - - Au+1
gold (III) or auric - - - - - - - - Au+3
iron iron (II) or ferrous - - - - - - - - - Fe
iron (III) or ferric - - - - - - - - - - Fe
lead lead (II) or plumbous - - - - - - Pb+2
lead (IV) or plumbic - - - - - - Pb+4
manganese manganese (1) - - Mn +1
manganese (V) - - Mn+5
manganese (III) - - Mn +3
manganese (VII) - - Mn+7
 34

mercury mercury (I) or mercurous - - - - Hg+1

mercury (II) or mercuric ---- Hg+2
nickel nickel (II) or nickelous ---- Ni+2
nickel (III) or nickelic ---- Ni+3
tin tin (II) or stannous -------- Sn+2
tin (IV) or stannic - - - - - - - - - Sn+4
Writing Chemical Formulas of Compounds

Rules in writing the formula of a compound:

1. Only elements with positive oxidation numbers can unite with elements with negative
oxidation numbers.
2. The symbol of the element with a positive oxidation number is written before the
symbol of the element with a negative oxidation number.
3. The number of atoms of a given element in a formula is represented by a subscript. If
no subscript appears, one atom is represented.

Steps in Writing a Chemical formula of a Compound:

1. Write the symbols of the elements and their corresponding oxidation numbers. The
oxidation numbers are not part of the formula but are only used to check that the
algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in the formula is zero.
2. If the positive and negative oxidation numbers are numerically equal, this means that
the atoms exist in the compound in a 1:1 ratio. The correct formula is correctly
written by removing the oxidation numbers since they are not part of the chemical
formula.
3. If the positive and the negative oxidation numbers are not numerically equal, alter the
number of atoms in such a way that the algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all
atoms in the formula becomes zero. This is done by putting a subscript to the symbol
of the element.
4. The cations or anion (be they single or polyatomic) should always exist together to
form a ratio in a molecule in such a way that the total positive charge is equal to the
total negative charge. When more than one polyatomic ions are in a formula unit, a
parenthesis and a subscript are used.

Note that compounds whose names end with “ide” maybe binary compounds,
hydroxides or cyanides. Ammonium compounds and compounds whose names end with “ate” or
“ite” are ternary or higher compounds.

Writing chemical formula of compounds:

Name of Compound Ions Formula of

Compound

1. sodium chloride Na +1Cl-1 ( +1 and -1 are numerically equal) NaCl

2. magnesium sulfide Mg +2S-2 (+2 and -2 are numerically equal) MgS

3. calcium fluoride Ca+2F-1 (+2 and -1 are not numerically equal) CaF2

4. ferric oxide Fe +3O-2 (+3 and -2 are not numerically equal) Fe2O3

5. Barium sulfite Ba+2SO3-2 BaSO3

6. copper (II) nitrate Cu+2NO3-1 Cu(NO3)2

7. ammonium phosphate NH4+1PO4-3 (NH4)3PO4

8. Mercury (II) cyanide Hg+2 CN-1

Hg(CN)2
 35

9. sodium biphosphite Na+1HPO3-2 Na2HPO3

Write the formula of the ions and the formula of the following compounds:

1. lithium hydroxide 6. potassium cyanide

2. sodium carbonate 7. potassium dichromate

3. aluminum sulfate 8. calcium bicarbonate

4. magnesium iodide 9. mercurous chloride

5. ferrous oxide 10. stannic oxide

Naming Inorganic Compounds

The systematic nomenclature was developed by an organization of chemists called the

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). These rules were set up by this
group and are periodically revised and updated.

The names and formulas of inorganic compounds are written in such a way that every
compound can be named from its formula, and each formula has a name peculiar to that formula.
The more positive portion (less electronegative or that which has lower electronegativity) is
written and named first. The more positive portion can be a metal, a positive polyatomic ion, a
hydrogen ion, or simply the less electronegative portion of the compound. The more negative
portion is written and named last. This can be an anion or simply the more electronegative ion.

1. Binary Compounds Containing Two Nonmetals

All binary compounds take an –ide ending on the last element named.

a. Hydrogen and another nonmetal. If two nonmetals combine to form only one
compound, the compound is simply named by writing the name of the second element with an –
ide ending. Compound of this type contain hydrogen with another nonmetal.

Examples: HBr - hydrogen bromide

H2S - hydrogen sulfide

b. Two nonmetals other than hydrogen. If more than one binary compound can be
formed by two nonmetals, Greek prefixes are used with each element. The prefix mono is not
used with the first element.

Examples: CO - carbon monoxide

CO2 - carbon dioxide
Note that carbon forms two kinds of compound with
oxygen because it has two positive oxidation
numbers, +2 and +4. With a +2, it combines
with oxygen to form
CO and with +4, CO2 .

The Greek prefixes denote number of atoms as follows:

Greek Prefix No. of Atoms Greek prefix No. of Atoms

 36

mono- 1 hexa- 6
di- 2 hepta- 7
tri- 3 octa- 8
tetra- 4 nona- or ennea- 9
penta- 5 deca- 10

Some binary compounds of two nonmetals have common names, such as water
for H2O and ammonia for NH3 (ammonia is an exception to the general rule that the most
positive part is written first).

2. Binary compounds Containing a Metal and a Nonmetal

The metal is always written first, in both the name and the formula. The nonmetal takes the –ide
ending as with other binary compounds. There are two types of metals: metals with fixed (only
one) oxidation number and those with variable (more than one) oxidation number.

a. Metals with Fixed Oxidation Numbers and a Nonmetal

The metals with fixed oxidation numbers are the IA metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr)
and IIA metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra), plus Al, Zn and Ag. All other metals have variable
oxidation numbers. The names of compounds in which the metal has a fixed oxidation number
are simply written followed by the –ide ending nonmetal. The Greek prefixes are not used in
these compounds.

Examples: NaCl - sodium chloride Al2O3 - aluminum oxide

Na 2S - sodium sulfide CaH2 - calcium hydride
AgBr - silver bromide Mg3N2 - magnesium nitride

b. Metals with Variable Oxidation Numbers and a Nonmetal

Except for IA metals, IIA metals, aluminum, zinc and silver, all metals have variable
oxidation numbers. There are two methods of naming compounds containing metals having
variable oxidation numbers. The classical system and the stock system.
In the classical system, an –ic ending is used on the name of the metal for the highest
oxidation state and an –ous ending is used for the lowest. Also the Latin name is used for iron
(ferric and ferrous), copper (cupric and cuprous), tin (stannic and stannous) and lead (plumbic
and plumbous). But this naming don’t tell us the actual oxidation state. It only indicates the
highest and lowest oxidation state. And for metals having more than two possible oxidation
states, it cannot be used.

The newer Stock system or Roman numeral system, is more accurate. In this system, the
actual oxidation number of the metal is indicated by a Roman numeral in parentheses
immediately following the name of the metal.

Before the compound containing metals with variable oxidation number is named, the
actual oxidation state of the metal must be determined.

Examples:

Formula of Compound Oxidation State Assigned Classical Name

Stock Name

CuCl2 Cu+2Cl-1 cupric chloride Copper

(II) chloride
FeO Fe+2O-2 ferrous oxide iron (II) oxide
SnF4 Sn+4F-1 stannic fluoride tin (IV)
fluoride
PbS Pb+2S-2 plumbous sulfide lead (II) sulfide
HgO Hg+2O-2 Mercuric oxide
mercury (II) oxide
 37

The third method that can be used for this type of compounds is to use the Greek
prefixes. This is not recommended but sometimes used. For example, PbO 2 could be named as
lead dioxide.

3. Compounds Named like Binary Compounds

There are few other compounds that take an –ide ending, like binary compounds. These
include the following:

a. Ammonium (NH4+) compounds – in these the NH4+ ion acts like a simple metal ion.

Example: (NH4)2S - ammonium sulfide

b. Cyanides (CN - ) – here the CN- ion acts like a simple nonmetal anion.

Example: Fe(CN)2 - Fe+2(CN)-12 - iron (II) cyanide or ferrous cyanide

c. Hydroxides (OH -) – these compose a special type of compound which will be

discussed later. The hydroxide has the –ide ending like the binary compounds.

Example: NaOH - sodium hydroxide

4. Binary Acids

Substances that produce H+ ion in solution are acids. A binary compound composed of
hydrogen with a more electronegative element (the nonmetal) can act as a binary acid, when in
water solution. For example when the gas hydrogen chloride (HCl) is placed in water solution, it
becomes hydrochloric acid.

Binary acids are named with the prefix hydro- is added and the –ide ending is replaced
by –ic acid.

Examples:

Compound Name Name of Acid Formed in Water

Solution

HBr hydrogen bromide hydrobromic acid

H2S hydrogen sulfide hydrosulfuricacid
HCN hydrogen cyanide hydrocyanic acid

5. Hydroxides

These are inorganic compounds that contain the –OH group. They are commonly called
bases, alkalies, or just hydroxides. To write the correct formula of these compounds it must be
remembered that the –Oh group has a -1 charge.

Examples: Name Formula

Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Iron (III) hydroxide Fe(OH)3
Stannic hydroxide Sn(OH)4
6. Ternary Acids and Their Salts

Acids that contain more than two elements always contain oxygen along with the
hydrogen, and thus often referred to oxyacids.
Since the hydrogen ion (H+) has a +1 charge, the charge on the oxyanion is equal to the
number of hydrogen ions that can be produced by a molecule of the acid.
 38

An –ous acid always forms an –ite oxyanion or salt; an –ic acid always forms an –ate ion
or salt.
Examples:
. .
Ternary Acid Oxyanion
.
. Formula Name Formula
Name .
. H2SO3 sulfurous acid SO3-2 sulfite
.
. H2SO4 sulfuric acid SO4-2 sulfate
.
. HNO2 nitrous acid NO2-1
nitrite .
. HNO3 nitric acid NO3-1
nitrate .
. H2CO3 CO3-2
carbonate.
. H3PO3 PO3-3
.
. H3PO4 PO4-3
.
. HClO hypochlorous acid ClO-1
hypochlorite .
. HClO2 chlorous acid ClO2-1
chlorite .
. HClO3 chloric acid ClO 3-1
chlorate .
. HClO4 perchloric acid ClO 4-1
perchlorate.
. HMnO MnO-1 .
. HMnO2 MnO2-1 .
. HMnO3 MnO3-1 .
. HMnO4 MnO4-1 .

A salt is formed when one or more of the hydrogen ions of an acid is replaced by a cation
(metal or a positive polyatomic ion)
Examples:
. .
. Acid Salt ,
. Formula Name Formula
Name .
. H2SO3 sulfurous acid K2SO3 potassium sulfite
.
. CuSO3 copper(II) sulfite
.
. HCl hydrochloric acid MgCl2
magnesium chloride
. H3PO4
.
. H2CO3 .
HNO2 .

or when one or more of the hydroxide ions of a base or alkali is replaced by an anion(nonmetal
or negative polyatomic ion).
Examples: . .
. Base or Alkali Salt .
. Formula Name Formula Name
.
 39

. NaOH sodium hydroxide NaCl sodium

chloride .
. Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide CaF2 calcium
fluoride .
. Al(OH)3 aluminum hydroxide Al2S3
aluminum sulfide .
. Ba(OH)2 _.
. CuOH
_.
. Fe(OH)3
__.
. Sn(OH)4
.

7. Acid Salts - these are salts of polyproticacids (acids with more than one replaceable H+ ion,
like for example H3PO4, H2SO3 , etc) in which one or more hydrogen atoms remain in the salt. In
naming them, hydrogen is added to the name of the oxyanion. Sometimes a prefix bi- or acid is
used in the place of hydrogen. If there are
Examples:
Polyprotic Acid Acid Salt
Formula Name Formula Name
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid NaHSO4 sodium hydrogen
sulfate
or sodium bisulfate
or sodium acid sulfate
. H3PO4. phosphoric acid K 2HPO4 potassium hydrogen
phosphate
KH2PO4 potassium dihydrogen
phosphate
8. Mixed Salts - these are salts that contain two cations, the one with the lower charge is
usually written and named first.
Examples: KCaPO4 - potassium calcium phosphate
NaCaPO4 - sodium calcium phosphate
Na2Ca(SO4)2 - disodium calcium sulfate

CONSERVATION OF MATTER AND STOICHIOMETRY

Chemical Equations

A chemical equation is a short way of expressing a chemical change or reaction, in terms

of symbols and formulas. In a chemical reaction one or more elements or compounds react to
form one or more different elements or compounds. No atoms disappear or are changed to
different kinds of atoms, however, that is, a reaction is simply a process of rearrangement of
atoms.

The Law of Conservation of Mass (Matter) states that, in a chemical reaction, mass
(matter) is neither created nor destroyed.

A chemical equation shows what elements or compounds are reacting (reactants) and
what new elements or compounds are being formed (products). In order to obey the law of
conservation of mass, there must be exactly the same number of each atom on each side of a
correct chemical equation. If there is exactly the same number of each atom on each side of the
equation, the chemical equation is balanced. An equation is not correct until it is balanced.

Terms and Symbols Used in Chemical Equations:

reactants - are substances that are originally present before the chemical reaction or
chemical
 40

occur. They are always written on the left.

products - are substances that are formed after the chemical reaction or chemical
change has
taken place. They are always written on the right.
→ (arrow) - a symbol that separates the reactants from the products. It may be ↔
(double
arrow) if the chemical reaction is reversible. Sometimes an equal sign (=)
is also used.
∆ - if written in an equation, it represents heat
catalyst - a substance that alters the speed of the reaction without being consumed in
the
reaction. In general, the catalyst is used to speed up the reaction, but there
are
some catalysts called negative catalysts or inhibitors that are used to slow
down the reaction.

Symbols that denote the physical state of the reactants or products:

a. (g) for gas, or in some cases if the gas is a product, an arrow pointing upward
after
the formula is used, such as CO(g) or CO↑.
b. (l) for liquid, such as H2O(l) .
c. (s) for solid, or if the solid is a product, sometimes an arrow pointing down
after the
formula for that product, or the product can be underlined, such as FeS(s),
FeS↓
or FeS.
d. (aq) for a substance in aqueous (water) solution, such as NaCl(aq) .

Writing and Balancing Simple Chemical Reactions:

Balancing chemical equations are done by simply putting in whatever numbers are
needed to obtain the same number of atoms on each side of the equation. The first and most
important rule to remember is that the formulas are never changed in balancing an equation.

Some general guidelines for balancing simple equations:

1. Write the correct formula for the reactants and the products, with the reactants on the
left and the products on the right separated by → . Each reactant and each product is separated
from each other by a + sign. Once the correct formula is written, it must not be changed during
the subsequent balancing operation.
2. Start with the more complex parts- that is, the compounds that have several elements
in them. In some cases, it is just a matter of balancing all atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen
first.
3. Balance hydrogen and oxygen by putting in water, if necessary, after all other
elements have been balanced.
4. Leave any elements in the free state until last since changing the coefficients on these
only changes that one kind of atom. For example, when a 2 is placed before H2O, it doubles the
number of H atoms and O atoms, but when a 2 is placed before Al, it only changes the number of
Al atoms.
5. For reactions involving polyatomic ions, balance the ion as a group. For example, with
SO4-2, balance as sulfate ion, not as S atoms and O atoms.
6. Generally, if reactions appear in an equation, we multiply everything by the smallest
number that will eliminate the fraction. It is not essential to remove the fractions, however, it is
just more simple in most cases. Also, make sure at the end that all coefficients are in the lowest
possible ratio; if they are not, simplify to make them so.

Examples:
 41

1. Al2(s) + Cl2(g) → AlCl3(s) (unbalanced) 3. Ca(OH)2(aq) + H3PO4(aq) → Ca3(PO4)2(s) +

H2O(g)
Al2(s) + 3Cl2(g) → AlCl3(s) (unbalanced) Ca(OH) 2(aq) + 2H3PO4(aq) → Ca3(PO4)2(s) +
H2O(g)
Al2(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3(s) (unbalanced) 3Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2H3PO4(aq) → Ca3(PO4)2(s) +
H2O(g)
2Al2(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3(s) (balanced) 3Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2H3PO4(aq) →Ca3(PO4)2(s) +
6H2O(g)
2. C2H6(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g) (unbalanced)
C2H6(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + H2O(g) (unbalanced)
C2H6(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) (unbalanced)
C2H6(g) + 3-1/2O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) (unbalanced)
then, multiply all coefficients by 2 to eliminate the fraction
2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) (balanced)

Five Simple Types of Chemical Reactions:

1. Combination reaction 4. Metathesis (double replacement) reaction

2. Decomposition reaction 5. Neutralization reaction
3. Replacement (displacement) reaction

Steps when writing equations:

1. Write the correct formulas for the reactants, if necessary.

2. Decide what type of reaction it is and thus what the products are.
3. Write the correct formula(s) for the product(s).
4. Balance the equation.

Combination reaction - two or more substances (either elements or compounds) react to form
one
product.

Types of combination reactions:

1. Metal + nonmetal → binary compound (such as oxide, sulfide or

halide)

For metals with fixed oxidation number, the product can always be
predicted.
But for metals with variable oxidation numbers, the final product depends on
the
reaction conditions, and generally more information is needed to predict the
product.

Examples: 4Al(s) +3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s)

∆
Mg(s) + S(s) → MgS(s)
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

2. Nonmetal + oxygen → nonmetal oxide

Examples: 2C(s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g)

(limited)
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
(excess)

3. Metal oxide + water → metal hydroxide (base)

Example: CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)

 42

4. Nonmetal oxide + water → oxyacid

Example: SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)

5. Metal oxide + nonmetal oxide → salt

Example: CaO(S) + SO2lg) → CaSO3(S)

Decomposition Reaction - one compound decomposes or breaks down to form two or more
new
substances. The products formed can be either elements or compounds.

Types of decomposition reactions:

1. Hydrates, when heated, decompose to yield water and the anhydrous salt. A
hydrate
is a salt that contains one or more molecules of water for each formula unit
of
salt, built right into the crystal structure .
∆
Example: BaCl2 . H2O(s) → BaCl2(S) + H2O(g)
2. Chlorates, when heated, decompose to form chlorides plus oxygen gas.
∆
Example: 2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(S) + 3O2(g)

3. A few metal oxide decompose when heated to form the free metal and oxygen
gas.
∆
Example: 2HgO(s) → 2Hg(l) + O2(g)
4. Most carbonates, when heated, decompose to form oxides and CO2(g)
∆
Example: CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
5. Most hydrogen carbonates (bicarbonates), when heated, decompose to form
an
oxide plus water and CO2(g). Example: Ca(HCO3)2(s)→CaO(s)+ H2O(g)
+ CO2(g)
6. Water can be broken down into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas by a direct
electric
current, according to the following equation:
direct
2H2O(g) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Current
Replacement (displacement) reactions - a metal replaces another metal ion from a solution.
In order
for the reaction to take place, the free metal must be more active than the metal that is in
solution. The arrangement of metals from the most active to the least active is called the
electromotive
series or the activity series. The activity series is written at the margin of this page.
Li
K
Examples: 1. Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Ba
2. FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s) → no reaction (Cu is less active than Fe)
Ca
3. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → H2(g) + ZnCl2(aq) (Zn is above H)
Na
4. A very active metal, such as sodium, will displace hydrogen gas
Mg
 43

from water. But only one of the hydrogen atoms is displaced, due
Al
to the slight amount of hydrogen ion formed from the H-OH
Zn
molecule) Fe
Cd
There are also replacement reactions involving nonmetals. For example for the halogens,
Ni
the series would be fluorine-chlorine-bromine-iodine; that is, free chlorine will displace
Sn
bromine from the compound, and bromine will displace iodine from a compound. The
Pb
activity of nonmetals is related to their ability to gain electrons and form negative ions,
(H)
whereas the activity of metals is related to their tendency to lose electrons to form
positive Cu
ions. In writing replacement reactions involving the halogens (group VIIA elements),
keep Hg
in mind that in the free state all the halogens exist as diatomic molecules. Ag
Au
Examples: 1. Cl2(s) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(ag) + Br2(aq)

2. I2(s) + 2NaBr(aq) → no reaction

Metathesis (or double displacement) reaction - two compounds react to form two new
compounds. I
In general, these involve ions, and the positive ions exchange partners with the negative
ions to
form the two new compounds. In many of these reactions an insoluble substance is
formed.
Therefore to predict the products formed here, you must be familiar with some common
solubility
rules. The solubility rules can be summarized as follows:

1. Soluble - compounds of the IA metals; ammonium (NH+) compounds;

nitrates;
acetates; most chlorides except AgCl, PbCl2, and Hg2Cl2; and most
sulfates, except Ca+2 , Sr +2, Ba+2, and Pb+2 sulfates.

2. Insoluble - oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, and phosphates, except those of

IA
metals and ammonium; and sulfides, except those of IA and IIA
elements
and ammonium.

Examples: 1. AgNO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)

2. Na2SO4(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

3. Ba(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Ba(OH)2(s) +

2NaNO3(aq)

Another type of metathesis reaction involves the formation of non-ionized substances,

such
water and carbon dioxide.

Example: CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

 44

Neutralization reaction - an acid or acid oxide (nonmetal oxide) reacts with a base or basic
oxide
(metal oxide). A salt is formed in the reaction, and for most of these, water is also
formed.

Types of neutralization reaction:

1. Acid + base → water + salt

HCl(aq) + NaOH (aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

2. Metal oxide (basic anhydride) + acid → water + salt

CaO(s) + 2HCl (aq) → H2O(l) + CaCl2(aq)

3. Nonmetal oxide (acid anhydride) + base → water + salt

SO2(g) + 2NaOH (aq) → H2O(l) + Na2SO3(aq)

4. Basic oxide (metal oxide) + acid oxide (nonmetal oxide) → salt

MgO(s) + SO3(g) → MgSO4(s)

5. Ammonia + acid → ammonium salt

NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)

Oxidation-Reduction Reaction

The chemical equation in which there are changes in oxidation numbers (or oxidation
state) of the reactants are called oxidation-reduction or, sometimes more simply, redox
equations. Some of the simple types of reactions, combination, decomposition, and replacement
reactions actually involved oxidation and reduction. In general, however, these redox equations
are not so simple and thus cannot be balanced by inspection.

The term oxidation does not only refer to reactions with oxygen but has been expanded to
include any chemical reaction in which a substance increases in oxidation state by losing
electrons. Therefore, we define oxidation and reduction as follows:

1. Oxidation is any chemical change in which a substance loses electrons and thus
increases in oxidation state. For example, when a Zn atom loses two electrons to
become a Zn+2 ion, the zinc has increased in oxidation state (from 0 to +2):

Zn → Zn+2 + 2 e-

2. Reduction is a chemical change in which a substance gains electrons and thus

decreases in oxidation state. For example, when a sulfur atom gains two electrons to
become a sulfide
(S-2) ion, it decreases in oxidation state (from 0 to -2),

S + e- → S-2
In a given reaction, whenever one substance is oxidized, it loses electrons to another
substance, which is thereby reduced; that is, oxidation is always accompanied by reduction.
Hence those equations are called oxidation-reduction equations or often, more simply, redox.

In an oxidation-reduction equation, the substance that is oxidized is called the reducing

agent since it causes something else to be reduced. Likewise, the substance that is reduced causes
something else to be oxidized and is thus called the oxidizing agent.
oxidation

electrons lost = 2
Example of a Redox Equation: Zn0 + S0 → Zn+2 S-2
e- gained = 2
reduction
 45

The Zn is the reducing agent and the S is the oxidizing agent. This is therefore an example of an
oxidation-reduction equation. It is important to keep in mind when considering equations of this
type that there must be both oxidation and reduction taking place. Electrons cannot be lost
(oxidation) by one substance unless they are being gained (reduction) by something else.

Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations by the Oxidation Number Method

In balancing a redox reaction, balance the number of atoms of each element on both sides
of the equation and the number of electrons lost or gained by the elements. This method of
balancing redox equations can be used for both molecular and ionic equations. The following are
some guidelines to follow in balancing redox equations.

1. Write the oxidation numbers of all the elements.

H2 + CuO → H2O + Cu
o +2 -2 +1 -2 o
H2 + Cu O → H2O + Cu

2. Pick out the elements which changed in oxidation number.

o +2 -2 +1 -2 o
H2 + Cu O → H2O + Cu

Loss of e- or oxidation

Gain of e- or reduction

3. Separate the oxidation and reduction processes. Then balance the number of atoms in
the reactants and products by altering the number of molecules.
o +1 -2
H2 → H2O Oxidation (loss of electrons)

+2 -2 o
Cu O → Cu Reduction (gain of electrons)

4. Get the number of electrons lost in the oxidation process and the number of electrons
gained
in the reduction process according to the formula:
No. of e- = (no. of lost or gained per atom) x (no. of atoms per formula unit)

o +1 -2
H2 → H2O Oxidation (loss of electrons)

No. of e- lost = 1 x 2 = 2 e-
0 +1

+2 -2 o
Cu O → Cu Reduction (gain of electrons)

No. of e- gained = 2 x 1 = e-
+2 0

5. Balance the number of electrons lost and the number of electrons gained by altering
the
Number of molecules.

o +2 -2 +1 -2 o
H2 + Cu O → H2O + Cu
 46

2 e- lost

2 e- gained

6. Balance by inspection the other elements which do not change in oxidation number.
Then,
check the number of atoms of each element on the left and right sides of the equation.

H2 + Cu O → H2O + Cu

Exercises:

1. Cu + HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + NO2 + H2O

2. H2S + HNO3 → NO + S + H2O

Stoichiometry – Calculations Based on Formulas and Equations

The elements, compounds and chemical equations are being considered in performing
quantitative calculations. It makes use of concepts of formula (molecular) weight and moles, as
well as the factor unit method of calculations.

The term stoichiometry refers to the quantitative relationship of chemical combinations.

Thus, it refers to chemically equivalent quantities, as determined either from the formula of the
compound or from a balanced chemical equation.

1. Percent Composition of Compounds

Percent is defined as parts per hundred, or a fraction of one hundred. For example if a
compound contains 15 grams of oxygen in 100 grams of compound, the substance contains 15%
oxygen by mass. In general percent is taken to mean by mass unless some other units are
specified, such as volume percent.

Any type of mass unit can be used to calculate percentage; that is, to find the percent
composition of a compound we can use either units such as atomic mass unit (amu) or other
mass units such as grams. For example, to calculate the percent of hydrogen and oxygen in
water, we can simply use the relative masses of the elements and the total relative mass, called
the formula weight, or we can consider the mass of 1 mole and use the common unit grams. In
either case, the percent composition of water (H2O)would be calculated as follows:
2.0 amu
H = 1.0 amu x 2 = 2.0 amu %H= x 100 = 11% H
O = 16.0 amu x 1 = 16.0 amu 18.0 amu

18.0 amu 16.0 amu

%O= x 100 = 89% O
18.0 amu

Or, using 1 mole of water gives

2.0 g
1 mole H2O = 18.0 g H2O %H= x 100 = 11% H
18.0 g

16.0 g
%O= x 100 = 89% O
18.0 g

Example Problem 1. Calculate the percent composition of calcium nitrate.

 47

Solution: The formula of calcium nitrate is Ca(NO3)2

Ca = 1 x 40 = 40
N = 2 x 14 = 28
O = 6 x 16 = 96
Formula Weight = 164

The percent of each element in the compound is calculated

by dividing the mass of each element by the total mass and
multiplying by 100, to give,

% Ca = (40 / 164) x 100 = 24%

% N = (28 / 164) x 100 = 17%
% O = (96 / 164) x 100 = 59%

Example Problem 2. It is found that 8.25 g of a metal combine with oxygen to form
17.80 g of
metal oxide. Calculate the percent of etal and oxygen in the
compound.

Solution: Since the compound contain only the two elements, metal
and
oxygen, the mass of oxygen is 17.80 g – 8.25 g = 9.55 g.
Therefore, the percent of metal (M) and oxygen (O) is
calculated as

%M = (8.25 / 17.80) x 100 = 46.3%

%O = (9.55 / 17.80) x 100 = 53.7%
2. Relationships from the Formula
a. Relationship in terms of atoms: Ex. 1 molecule of water has 2 atoms of hydrogen to 1
atom of oxygen.
b. Relationship in terms of mole: Ex. 1 mole of water molecule has 2 moles of
hydrogen
atoms are equivalent to 1 mole of oxygen atoms
1 mol = 2 mol H = 1 mol O
c. Relationship in terms of grams: Ex. 1 mole H2O = 18.0 g H2O = 2.0 g H = 16.0
gO

Example Problem 1. How many grams of sulfur will combine with 15.0 g of Zn to form
ZnS?
1 mol Zn 1 mol S 32.1 g S
Solution: grams S = 15.0 g Zn x x x =
7.36 g
65.4 g Zn 1 mol Zn 1 mol S

Example Problem 2. How many grams of oxygen are there in 2.5 moles of Ca(NO3)2?
6 mol O atoms 16 g O atoms
Solution: 2.5 mol Ca(NO3)2 x X = 240
g 1 mol Ca(NO3)2 1 mol O atoms

Or
164 g Ca(NO3)2 96 g O atoms
2.5 moles Ca(NO3)2 x X
1 mol Ca(NO3)2 164 g Ca(NO3)2
= 240 g O atoms

3. Empirical (Simplest) and Molecular Formulas

 48

The empirical formula of a compound gives the smallest whole number ratio of atoms
that make up the compound. This can be determined from the percent composition of the
compound or from the experimentally determined mass relationships of elements that make up
the compound.

The molecular formula of the compound is the true formula and shows the actual number
of atoms of each element present in one molecule of the compound. For example the empirical
formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO; however the actual molecular formula is found to be H2O2.

Both the empirical and molecular formulas for a compound are obtained from
experimental evidence. For majority of inorganic compounds, the molecular formula and the
empirical formula turn out to be the same. For organic compounds, however, this is very often
not the case.

To calculate the empirical formula of a compound, the following steps are carried out:

1. If not given directly, find out the relative number of grams of each element present
from the percentage composition of the compound by considering a total of 100 grams of the
compound.
2. Convert each of these quantities in grams to moles of atoms, using the atomic weight
of the element.
3. Convert the ratio of numbers obtained to the smallest possible whole numbers. One
way of doing this is to divide through by the smallest value and to multiply by what number is
necessary to obtain whole numbers.To calculate the molecular formula from the empirical
formula, the molecular weight must be known. This is done by adding all the relative masses of
the atoms in an empirical formula and dividing this total into the molecular weight. This tells
how many of the empirical units are present in one molecule. For example, the empirical formula
for hydrogen peroxide HO and the molecular weight is known to be 34. The relative mass of one
empirical formula is 1 + 16 is 17, and 34 : 17 is 2. Therefore, there are two of these empirical
units in one molecule, and thus the molecular formula is H2O2.

Problem Example. The compound is found to contain 27.3% carbon, 4.55% hydrogen,
and 36.4
% oxygen. The molecular weight is found to be 99.0. Calculate the
molecular weight.

Solution: If 100 grams is considered as the total weight of the

compound,
the number of moles of each element are as follows:
1 mol C atoms
C = 27.3 g C x = 2.28 mol C atoms
12.0 g C
1 mol H atoms
H = 4.55 g H x = 4.55 H atoms
1.00 g H
1 mol O atoms
O = 36.4 g O x = 2.28 mol O atoms
16.0 g O

The mole ratio are as follows:

C = 2.28 / 2.28 = 1 C
H = 4.55 / 2.28 = 2 H
O = 2.28 / 2.28 = 1 O
Thus, the empirical formula is CH2O.
The mass of one of these empirical formula unit is
C = 1 x 12.0 = 12.0
H = 2 x 1.00 = 2.00
O = 1 x 16.0 = 16.0
30.0
 49

Dividing the molecular weight by the formula mass, 90.0 / 30.0 I

is 3. Therefore, the molecular formula is C3H6O3.
Exercise Problem: Calculate the empirical formula for a compound that contains 26.6%
Potassium, 35.4% chromium, and 38.1% oxygen. (The error of 0.1%
here
emphasizes the experimental aspect.

4. Calculations based on Balanced Equations:

Using the balanced chemical equations, the amount of materials produced or required in
a given
reaction can be calculated. A balance chemical equation can be interpreted in terms of atoms and
molecules, or in terms of moles. For example a balanced chemical equation,

2 H2(gas) + O2(gas) → 2 H2O(l)

can be read as 2 moles of hydrogen gas combine with 1 mole of oxygen gas to form 2 moles of
liquid water. The following relationships that can be obtained from the above equation are:

2 mol H2 = 1 mol O2
2 mol H2 = 2 mol H2O or 1 mol H2 = 1 mol H2O
1 mol O2 = 2 mol H2O

For the balanced chemical equation, CH4(gas) + 2 O2(gas) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) ,

the following relationships can be obtained:

1 mol CH4 = 2 mol O2

1 mol CH4 = 1 mol CO2
1 mol CO2 = 2 mol H2O
Calculations based on balanced equations involves four steps as follows, although in
some problems some of these steps are not necessary.

1. Write a complete, balanced equation.

2. Convert from the given units to moles.
3. Convert from moles of the given quantity to moles of the desired quantity – from the
balanced equation.
4. Convert from moles of the new quantity to the desired units, using formula weight,
density, Avogadro’s number, and so on.

Problem Example1. Calculate the number of moles of NaOH that are necessary to produce 7.5
moles of
Na2SO4 from the reaction

2 NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4

+ 2 H2O
2 mol NaOH
Solution: moles NaOH = 7.5 mol Na2SO4 x
1 mol Na2SO4

= 15 mol NaOH

Limiting reagent

In general when a chemical reaction is carried out, one of the reagents will be used in
excess of the amount needed. The reagent that is not present in excess is the one that will
determine how much product can be obtained and is thus referred to as the limiting reagent. The
following are the steps that can be used in doing calculations to …

1. Calculate the number of moles of product that could be obtained for each reagent
given.
 50

2. The reagent that gives the least number of moles of product is the limiting reagent
and is the
one that will determine the theoretical yield in the reaction.
3. Next the moles of theoretical yield are converted to any other desired units, such as
grams.
4. To find the amount of excess reagent, if desired, we first calculate the amount of the
excess reagent that will be used to produce the theoretical yield. The difference
between this amount and the amount present to start is the amount of excess.

Problem Example 1. A 50 g sample of calcium carbonate is reacted with 35.0 g phosphoric acid.
Calculate: (a) The number of grams of calcium phosphate that could be
produced.
(b) The number of grams of excess reagent that will remain.

Solution:The balanced equation is:

3 CaCO3 + 2 H3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 3 CO2 + 2 H2O

1 mol CaCO3 1 mol Ca3(PO4)2
50 g CaCO3 x x = 0.167 mol
Ca3(PO4) 2
100 g CaCO3 3 mol CaCO3

1 mol H3PO4 1 mol Ca3(PO4)2

35.0 g H3PO4 x x = 0.179 mol
Ca3(PO4) 2
98.0 g H3PO4 2 mol H3PO4

The limiting reagent is CaCO3. since it has the least yield of

Ca3(PO4) 2.

The theoretical yield is:

310 g Ca3(PO4)2
0.167 mol Ca3(PO4)2 x = 51.8 g
Ca3(PO4)2 1 mol Ca3(PO4)2 (the
threoritical yield)

Amount of H3PO4 needed to produce the theoretical yield:

2 mol H3PO4 98.0 g H3PO4
0.167 mol Ca3(PO4)2 x x = 32.7 g
H3PO4
1 mol Ca3(PO4)2 1 mol H3PO4

Excess amount of H3PO4 = 35.0 g - 32.7 g = 2.30 g

SOLUTION

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in which a solid, liquid

or gas forms a single phase with another liquid (or sometimes with a gas or a solid), and which
has the same physical and chemical properties throughout at any given concentration.

Parts or components of the solution:

1. solute – the substance being dissolved

2. solvent – the substance, usually a liquid, capable of dissolving other substances; it is
usually
the component present in greater amount.
 51

Example of a solution:

The solution of sugar in water. (The solute is sugar and the solvent
is
Water)

Solubility is the quality of being soluble.

Types of solution:

1. saturated solution - a solution that contains the maximum amount of solute that can
be
dissolved by the solvent at a given temperature.
2. unsaturated solution - a solution that contains less solute than can be dissolved at a
given temperature.
3. supersaturated solution - is a rather unstable condition in which there is more
solute in
solution than can normally exist at a given temperature. If anything is
done to this solution to begin crystallization, all the excess solute will
precipitate out, leaving a saturated solution.

Factors that affect solubility:

1. Properties of solute and solvent

Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents but will not dissolve in nonpolar
solvents. Example: sodium chloride which is an ionic compound dissolves in water
which is a polar compound but not in carbon tetrachloride which is nonpolar.
Covalent compounds are soluble in nonpolar solvents. This is often called
“like
dissolves like”.

2. Temperature

For solutions of gas in liquid, the solubility decreases with temperature.

Example: CO2(g) dissolves better in cold softdrinks.
In case of solids being dissolved in liquids, for many substances the
solubility increases with temperature. Example: less sugar can be dissolved in cold
water
than in warm or hot water.

3. Pressure

Solutions that contain only solids and liquids are not appreciably affected by
changes
in pressure.
For solution of a gas in a liquid, there is an appreciable effect. The solubility of
a gas
in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid
(Henry’s
Law: C = kP where: C is the solubility or concentration, k is the constant, and P is
the partial
pressure).

Factors that affect rate of solution:

1. Particle size
 52

Due to greater surface area that is exposed to the solvent, small particles will
dissolve
more rapidly than larger ones.

2. Rate of stirring
The rate of solution (that is, the rate at which the solute dissolves), can also be
increased by stirring. This causes more solute particles to come in contact with the
solvent molecules in a shorter period of time and hence causes the solute to dissolve
more rapidly.

3. Temperature

Increasing the temperature will always cause a solute to dissolve more rapidly.
This is
true whether the actual solubility increases or decreases at higher temperature. The
reason
for this increase is that the kinetic energy of the solute, solvent and solution all
increase.

Concentration of Solutions

The concentration of a solution expresses the amount of solute present in a given amount
of solution. The terms concentrated and dilute are just relative expressions. A concentrated
solution has more solute in it than a dilute solution; however, this does not give any indication of
the exact amount of solute present. The following are the methods of expressing quantitatively
the amount of solute present in a given solution:

1. percent by mass 4. molal concentration

2. percent by volume 5. molar concentration
3. mole fraction

Percent by Mass (Weight) - is simply the mass of solute divided by the mass of solution, all
multiplied
by 100.
mass of solute
percent by mass = x 100
mass of solution

where mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent

Problem Example: If 28.5 g calcium hydroxide is dissolve in enough water to make 185
g of
solution, calculate the percent concentration of calcium hydroxide in
the
solution.

28.8 g Ca(OH)
Solution: x 100 = 15.4%
185 g solution
Percent by Volume
Volume of solute
percent by volume = x 100
Volume of solution

Mole fraction: For example, in a solution of A and B containing nA moles of A and nB moles
of B, the
concentration of A and B, expressed as mole fractions are:
nA nB
mole fraction of A = ; mole fraction of B =
nA + nB nA + nB
 53

The number of moles is can be obtained by dividing the weight of the substance
by its
formula weight.

Molal concentration or Molality (m) – is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram
of
solvent. The unit used is molal.
moles of solute
molality (m) =
kilograms of solvent

This method of expressing concentration is especially useful when considering

colligative properties of solutions.

An example of this would be a solution in which one mole of NaOH (40 g) was
dissolve in 1 kg of water to make a 1 molal solution

Molar concentration or Molarity (M) - is defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of
solution.
The unit is molar.
moles solute
molarity (M) =
liter of solution

Normal concentration or Normality (N) - is defines as the number of equivalents of solute

per liter of
Solution. The unit is normal.

equivalents of solute
normality =
liter of solution

weight in grams
number of equivalents =
equivalent weight

formula weight in grams

equivalent weight =
h

where h = number of H+ or OH- ions replaced

quantity unit to be used

Normality (N) Equivalents/
liter or normal
Equivalent Gram/
weight (EW) equivalent
Formula weight Gram/mole
(FW)
H Equivalent/
mole

Problem Example: Calculate the normality of a phosphoric acid solution containing 2.50
g of
phosphoric acid in 135 ml of solution in a reaction that replace all
three
hydrogen ions.
 54

98 g/mol
Solution: EW = = 32.67 g/eq
3 eq/mol
2.50 g
No. of equi = = 0.077 eq
32.67 g/eq
0.077 eq
Normality = = 0.57 N
0.135 L

ELECTROLYTES

An electrolyte is a substance that breaks up into ions when it goes into solution. A
substance that does not ionize is a nonelectrolyte. An electrolyte that is completely ionized is
classified as a strong electrolyte and the one that is partially ionized is a weak electrolyte

The Importance of Electrolytes

Electrolytes are minerals in your body that have an electric charge. They are in your
blood, urine and body fluids. Maintaining the right balance of electrolytes helps your body's
blood chemistry, muscle action and other processes.

Electrolytes are substances containing free ions, especially ionic compounds dissolved in
water, that act as electrical conductors. Nutritionally, they serve as aids to re-hydration. If you
consume large amounts of pure water during periods of physical exertion, the water can dissolve
salts in your cells, impeding the normal function of the cells. In extreme cases, it can even lead to
fatal water poisoning. But a drink containing electrolyte allows your body to use the water to re-
hydrate without suffering those ill effects.

If your electrolytes are too high you may experience: Blood agglutination, heat states,
hypertension, nervous tension, migraines, high platelets, kidney problems, adrenal stress, high
minerals, cardiac stress, excessive plasma, edema, arthritis, colitis, skin disorders hemorrhoids,
allergies, vascular disorders, high cholesterol.

If your electrolytes are too low you may experience: Anemia, cold states, deficiency
stress, hypotension, nervous exhaustion, dull headaches, low platelets, kidney weakness, adrenal
fatigue, poor retention of minerals, cardiac weakness, low plasma, chronic fatigue, osteoporosis,
anxiety, pituitary, muscle weakness.

ELECTROLYTES
Calcium Fluoride
Calcium Phosphate
Calcium Sulfate
Ferric Phosphate
Potassium Chloride
Potassium Phosphate
IMPORTANCE
Gives tissues elasticity. It is essential to the walls of the
blood vessels, muscular tissue, connective tissue, surface
of bones and the enamel of teeth.
Important in blood coagulation, without it there could be
no blood coagulation. It restores tone to weakened organs
and tissues.
Blood purifier and healer. Found in the liver where it
helps remove waste products. Cleans out non functional
organic matter in the tissues
It is an oxygen carrier. It enters into the composition of
hemoglobin. It takes oxygen inhaled by the lungs and
carries it to the blood stream. It gives strength and
toughness to the cellular walls, especially the arteries.
Bonds with tissue salt and causes fibrin. It is associated
with mucous thickening and blood for clotting purposes.
Is a nerve nutrient. Tissue salt sharpens mental faculties
and creates a betterdisposition.
 55

Potassium Sulfate Is an oxygen carrier. It aids in the exchange of oxygen

from the blood stream to the tissue cells. Beneficial for
respiratory.
Magnesium Phosphate Anti spasmodic. Its main function is the nervous system.
Important to muscular tissue for rhythmic and coherent
movement. When it is lacking you may experience
shooting nerve pain
Sodium Chloride It effects every fluid and solid of the body. Helps with the
ebb and flow of body fluids. Proper degree of moisture
throughout the system. Without it cell division and
normal growth would not proceed.
Sodium Phosphate Is an acid neutralizer. It is the remedy for acid conditions
in the blood. It aids the digestive organs and the
assimilation of fats and nutrients. If it is low in the
system it causes uric acid to effect joints.
Sodium Sulphate Regulates the density of the inter cellular fluids by
eliminating excessive water. It is necessary for the
healthy function of the liver. It detoxes poisoned charged
fluids and helps in the production and flow of bile.
Silicic oxidE - Is a cleanser and eliminatory. It throws off non-
functional organic matter and initiates the healing process
by promoting the breaking up of pathological
accumulations. It is found in the hair, skin, nails and
bones.

Colloids
The colloids are intermediate between solutions and precipitates. The particles in
colloids are larger than the molecules or ions that make up solutions. They are not large enough
to settle out upon standing, however, as a precipitate will do. The colloidal particles are in the
approximate range of about 0.1 to 10 nm. Thes colloidal particles can consist of individual, very
large molecules, such as starch, or aggreagates of smaller particles. The components of colloids
are the dispersed particles (dispersed phase) and dispersing medium (dispersing phase).
Dispersed particles are the colloidal particles comparable to the solute in a solution. The
dispersing medium is the substance in which the colloidal particles are distributed, comparable to
the solvent in solution. Milk is an example of a colloid; butterfat constitutes the dispersed
particles and water is the dispersing medium.

As with solutions, colloids may exis in any one of the three physical states of matter.
These different types of colloids have different names:
Name of Dispersed Dispersing Example
colloid Particles Medium
foam gas liquid Whipped cream
Solid foam Gas Solid Styrofoam
Liquid Liquid gas Fog
aerosol
emulsion liquid liquid mayonnaise
Gel liquid solid Jello
Solid aerosol solid gas Smoke
sol solid liquid Paint
Solid sol solid solid Gems, such as
ruby, turquoise
or garnet

Definitions and Properties of Acids and Bases:

Aqueous solutions of acids generally have the following properties:

4. Sour taste
 56

5. Ability to turn blue litmus paper red.

6. Neutralize bases.

Aqueous solutions of bases, in general, have the following properties:

1. Bitter taste.
2. Soapy or slick feeling.
3. Turn red litmus paper blue.
4. Neutralize acids.
Arrhenius concept of acids and bases (Definition of acid and base):
The Arrhenius definition of acids and bases was proposedin 1894 by Svante August
Arrhenius (1859 – 1927), a Swedish physicist and chemist. Arrhenius defined an acid as a
substance that yields
hydrogen ions (H+1 ) when dissolved in water and a base as a substance that yields hydroxide or
hydroxyl ions (OH -1) when dissolved in water.
The hydrogen ion is a bare proton, but in water solution it is hydrated and exist as a
hydronium ion (H3O+1).

Acid: HCl + H2O → H3O+1 + Cl-1

Base: NaOH + H2O → Na+1 + OH-1
A strong acid and a strong base ionize completely while a weak acid and a weak base
is only partially ionized. HCl, HNO3 , HBr, HI, HClO4 are strong acids while NaOH, KOH, and
LiOH are examples of strong bases. H2SO4 is also a strong acid but only the first hydrogen ion is
completely ionized.
pH and pOH
The pH of a solution is the measure of the acidity of a solution or, more accurately, the
hydronium ion concentration [H3O+1] or the hydrogen ion [H+1] concentration of the solution.
The notation p means 1/log or –log and, therefore,
pH = - log [H+1] and pOH = -log [OH-1]
For any water solution, the sum of the pH and pOH is always equal to 14.
pH + pOH = 14 or ph = 14 - pOH or pOH = 14 - pH
Problem: Calculate the pH of a solution whose [H+1] is 0.125 molar.
Solution: pH = - log [H+1] = - log 0.125 = - (0.903) = 0.903
Problem: Calculate the pH of a solution whose [OH-1] is 3.0 x 10-3 molar.

Solution: pOH = - log [OH-1] = - log 3.0 x 10-3 = - (2.52) = 2.52

pH = 14 – pOH = 14 - 2.52 = 11.48

A solution with pH of 7 is neutral, below 7 is acidic, and above 7 is basic.This can be

summarized as:

pH below 7 pH = 7 pH above 7
←---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------→
More acidic neutral More basic

Determine if the solution is acidic, basic or neutral.

1. pH = 4. Answer: acidic
2. pH = 9. Answer: basic
3. pH + 7. Answer: neutral
4. A solution that turn blue litmus paper red. Answer: basic
5. A solution that has no action on litmus paper. Answer: neutral
6. [H+1] = 2.5 x 10-5 M Answer:
7. [OH-1] = 3.0 x 10-5 M Answer:
8. 0.020 M HCl solution Answer:
9. 0.020 M NaOH solution Answer:
10. water Answer:
 57

CHEMICAL KINETICS AND EQUILIBRIUM

Chemical kinetics consists of the study of (a) the rate or speed at which the reaction
takes place, or the reaction rate and (b) the path or mechanism by which a reaction takes place.

change in concentration
Rate =
change in time

Collision Theory of Reaction Rates

One way of considering what happens in a chemical reaction is to think of a reaction as

taking place due to collision of particles. In some reactions almost all collisions result in
reaction, and in others only a very few are effective. The only collisions that are effective are
those in which the colliding particles have sufficient energy. This energy that is necessary for
effective collisions is called the activation energy.

Factors that control reaction rates:

1. Concentration. The frequency of collision between molecules that are reacting is

dependent
on the number of molecules present in a given volume. Since the concentration increases, more
reactant molecules collide with other reactant molecules in a given period of time, and more
product molecules are formed.

2. Temperature. Since temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules in a gas, as the temperature increases, the average kinetic energy increases. Since
Molecules have higher average kinetic energy, therefore the rateof reaction is more rapid. As a
general approximation, the rate roughly doubles for each 10 oC rise in temperature.

3. Catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that alters the speed of a reaction without being
consumed. Generally a catalyst is used to speed up a reaction, but there also catalyst s that slow
down a reaction (called a negative catalyst or inhibitor). A catalyst alters the speed of the
reaction by changing the activation energy, or the energy barrier.

Reaction Mechanisms

The mechanism of a reaction shows the path or steps by which the reaction takes place.
This is determined by the experimentally determined rate law or by the kinetics of the reaction.
For example, for the general reaction 2 A + B → C, the following two possible mechanisms
could be proposed.

1. A + B → AB (slow step)
AB + A → C (fast step)

2. A + B → AB (slow step)
AB + A → C (fast step)

Note that in both of these if the two steps are added together, they give the overall
equation,

A + B → AB
AB + A → C
__________________________
A + B + AB + A → AB + C
Which can be simplified to
2A + B→ C
 58

Reversible Reactions and Chemical Equilibrium

Some chemical reactions appear to go only in one direction or are said to go to

completion. For many reactions, however, there is also a reversible reaction that takes place, and
an equilibrium condition is established. Equilibrium is defined as the point at which the rate of
the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction. This is indicated by the ( ).

Equilibrium Constants

The equilibrium constant, called Keq , is always written as concentration of products

raised to the power of the coefficient in the balanced equilibrium reaction, divided by
concentration of reactants, raised to the proper power from the balanced equation. For a general
reaction, aA + bB → cC + dD, where A, B, C and D represent different molecular species
and a, b, c and d are coefficients in the balanced equation, the equilibrium constant is written as
[C]c [D]d
Keq =
[A]a [B]b

Factors that Cause a Shift in Equilibrium

The equilibrium constant for a given reaction at equilibrium must remain constant at a
given temperature. Therefore, if any change in conditions causes a change in the concentration
of any of the products or reactants, the others must also change in such a way as to compensate
for this; that is. the position of equilibrium will shift in order to compensate for the change. This
means that if more of one of the reactants is added to the system in equilibrium, the forward
reaction will speed up momentarily and for a short period of time the system is not in
equilibrium. As more of the products are formed, however, the rate of the reverse reaction also
increases. It soon establishes a new position of equilibrium in which there is a somewhat higher
concentration of products than there was originally. Thus, we say that the equilibrium has shifted
to the right.
Another way of stating this is by the Principle of Le Chatelier, which was formulated by
the French chemist Henry Louis Le Chatelier in 1888. This principle states that if a stress is
applied to a system at equilibrium, the system will shift, if possible, in such a way as to reduce
the stress. In the example given above, the stress can be reduced by using up some of the added
reactant and forming more product.

Two factors that can cause the equilibrium to shift:

1. Concentration. When the concentration of one of the substances in a system at

equilibrium is changed, the equilibrium will shift in such a way as to compensate for this change.
For example, if the concentration of one of the reactants is increased, the equilibrium will shift to
the right, or toward the products side.

2. Temperature. The shift caused by the change in temperature will depend on wether
the reaction is exothermic or endothermic. For an exothermic reaction, heat can be considered
as one of the products. If the temperature is increased, it will have the same effect as increasing
one or more of the products; the equilibrium will shift to the left in order to relieve the stress on
the system. If the temperature is decreased, it would cause the equilibrium to shift to the right to
form more heat and thus relieve the stress on the system. For an endothermic reaction, heat
could be considered as a reactant and the changes would just be the opposite for an exothermic
reaction; that is, an increase in temperature would cause a shift to the right and a decrease in
temperature would cause the shift to the left.

Name the following compounds. Name the following compounds.

Na2CO3 K2SO3
Zn(ClO3)2 Al(ClO3)3
Mg3(PO3)2 Na2SO4
(LiCa)2(SO4)3 (LiMg)2(CO3)3
 59

BaCr2O7 Ba(HSO3)2
Cu(OH)2 SnS2
Fe(NO2)2 Cu(NO2)2
Ca(HSO4)2 CaCr2O7
Al2(SO3)3 Al2(SO3)3
PbS2 Hg(CN)2
Mg(CN)2 Mg(OH)2
H2CO3 H2SO4
HNO2 HNO3
H3PO4 H3PO3
H2SO3 H2CO3

Name the following compounds. Name the following compounds.

Na2CO3 K2SO3
Zn(ClO3)2 Al(ClO3)3
Mg3(PO3)2 Na2SO4
(LiCa)2(SO4)3 (LiMg)2(CO3)3
BaCr2O7 Ba(HSO3)2
Cu(OH)2 SnS2
Fe(NO2)2 Cu(NO2)2
Ca(HSO4)2 CaCr2O7
Al2(SO3)3 Al2(SO3)3
PbS2 Hg(CN)2
Mg(CN)2 Mg(OH)2
H2CO3 H2SO4
HNO2 HNO3
H3PO4 H3PO3
H2SO3 H2CO3

Name the following compounds. Name the following compounds.

Na2CO3 K2SO3
Zn(ClO3)2 Al(ClO3)3
Mg3(PO3)2 Na2SO4
(LiCa)2(SO4)3 (LiMg)2(CO3)3
BaCr2O7 Ba(HSO3)2
Cu(OH)2 SnS2
Fe(NO2)2 Cu(NO2)2
Ca(HSO4)2 CaCr2O7
Al2(SO3)3 Al2(SO3)3
PbS2 Hg(CN)2
Mg(CN)2 Mg(OH)2
H2CO3 H2SO4
HNO2 HNO3
H3PO4 H3PO3
H2SO3 H2CO3
 60

Energy-Mass Relations

All changes in nature, whether physical or chemical, are accompanied by changes in

energy.
Energy may either be potential or kinetic.

Two general classification of energy:

1. Potential energy - is the energy possessed by a substance by virtue of its position in

space.

PE = mgh where: PE = potential energy

m = mass of substance
g = acceleration due to gravity ( on earth, g = 9.8 m/s2 )
h = distance from the ground

Example: the energy possessed by a book on top of the table

2. Kinetic energy - is the energy possessed by a substance by virtue of its motion.

KE = ½ mv2 where: KE = kinetic energy

m = mass of the substance
v = speed of motion

Example: the energy possessed by a book which falls to the floor from
the top
of the table. (The potential energy of the book decreases
and its
kinetic energy increases as it falls).
 61

Forms of Energy:

1. heat energy (thermal energy) - a form of energy that flows from one body to
another due to
temperature difference. The direction of heat flow is from hot substance
to cold
substance.

2. mechanical energy - energy possessed by objects that are moving.

3. electrical energy – energy which consists of charges moving in a conductor

4. chemical energy – energy possessed by atoms or molecules in a substance

5. light or radiant energy – it travels through space. It can be obtained from the sun

6. nuclear energy – energy released from the nucleus of atoms when they split. It is
also
known as atomic energy.

Like matter, there is a law of conservation of energy which states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed but can be changed from one form to another. For example, in starting a car,
the battery produce chemical energy, which produces an electric current (electrical energy)
which is transmitted to the spark plugs. These cause the compressed gas in the cylinders to ignite
and produce the mechanical energy that causes the car to move.

Some examples of energy transformations:

a. electrical to chemical when a battery is being charged

b. chemical to electrical in the battery of the flashlight

c. electrical to light energy in fluorescent lamps

d. electrical to heat energy in electric flat iron

e. electrical to mechanical energy in electric fans

It is now known that matter and energy are inter-convertible. This was shown by the
German-American physicist Albert Einstein (1879-1955) This relationship between matter and
energy is shown by the equation,

E = mc2 where: E - represents energy expressed in unit erg

(g.cm /s )
2 2

m - represents mass in or actually change in mass,

∆m
in the unit grams
c - represents the velocity of light (3.0 x 1010
cm/s)

The unit erg is a small unit of energy related to calories and joules as follows:

1 erg = 2.4 x 10-8 cal = 1 x 10-7 J

 62

According to the equation, E = mc2, if 1.0 g of mass were converted completely to

energy, it would produce 2.2x 1013 calories of heat, calculated as follows:

1.0 g (3.0 x 1010 cm/s)2 = 9.0 x 1020 g.cm2/s2 = 9.0 x 1020 ergs

a. x 1020 ergs (2.4 x 10-8 cal/erg = 2.2 x 1013 cal

This amount 2.2 x 1013 calories of heat would raise the temperature of 2 x 108 liters
(about 220,000 tons) of water from 0 o to 100 oC.

In ordinary chemical reactions the energy changes are relatively small and, hence, the
loss or gain in mass is quite small. For example, the maximum is about 5 x 105 cal, which
corresponds to about
2 x 10-8 g. This quantity is too small to be detected on most balances.

Measurements in Chemistry

1. Mass and Weight

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupy space.

Mass is the quantity of matter in a particular sample of matter. The mass of a body is
constant and does not change, regardless of where it is measured. Kilogram (kg) is the basic SI
unit for mass.

The weight of the body is the gravitational force of attraction between the body’s mass
and the mass of the planet on which the body is weighed. Thus, the weight of the body varies,
depending on where it is weighed, whereas the mass does not. For example, on the moon the
gravitational force of attraction is considerably less than it is on the earth and, therefore, a body
will weigh less on the moon than it is on the earth. The SI unit for weight is Newton (N).

The weight of a body is equal to its mass multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity, g
whose value on earth is 9.8 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2.

Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity or w = mg

The mass of a body can be measured on a balance.

2. Length and Volume

Length is simply measured with a ruler divided into inches or centimeters, or a meter
stick. Meter (m) is the SI basic unit for length.

The unit angstrom (A) is another unit of length that is often used to discuss size of atoms:
(1A = 10-8 cm = 10-10 m), or 1 m = 1010 A. The unit nanometer (nm), however, which is a
similar size unit (10 A = 1 nm) is preferred and is often used in place of A.

Volume is the space occupied by an object. It is measured in several ways. A liquid can
be measured in a graduated cylinder, in a volumetric flask, or with a buret or pipet. The SI unit
for volume is cubic meter (m3).
To find out the volume of a regular solid we can measure the dimensions of it and
multiply them together. For example, for a rectangular object, Volume is equal its length
multiplied by its width and its height (V = L x W x H).
 63

To find the volume of an irregular solid, we can place it in water, and measure the
amount of water that is displaced.
Volume of irregular object = Volume of water and the object – Volume of
water

A cube 1 cm on a side will hold a volume of exactly 1 ml. Therefore 1 ml = 1 cm3 or cc.
These units, since they are exactly the same, are often used interchangeably.

3. Temperature

Temperature is a quantity that is measured by assigning numbers to hot and cold. It is

related to the average value of the kinetic energy of motion of the molecules and atoms of a
body. It is that condition of a body which determines the transfer of heat to or from other bodies.

Thermometer is a device used to measure the temperature of a substance.

There are three commonly used temperature scales. These are the following:
a. Fahrenheit scale (oF)
b. Celsius scale (oC)
c. Kelvin scale (K) which is sometimes referred to as the absolute
scale.

The Fahrenheit scale, named after the German physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit
(1686 -1736)
is the scale where the freezing point of water is 32oF, and the boiling point of water is 212 oF.
The Celsius scale, named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701 – 1744) is
the scale where the freezing and boiling points of water are 0 and 100 oC respectively.

Comparison of the Fahrenheit and Celsius Temperature Scales:

o
C o
F

100 ----------- Boiling point of water at --------------------------- 212

1 atm. pressure

0 ------------ Freezing point of water at -------------------------- 32

1 atm. Pressure

-40 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- - 40

To convert the temperature from the Fahrenheit scale to the Celsius scale and vice versa,
the temperature difference between the freezing and boiling points of water in the two
temperature scales are used. And be ratio and proportion the following are the formulas obtained:
o
F = 9/5 oC + 32 or o
F = 1.8 (oC) + 32 → Conversion from oC to oF
o
C = 5/9 (oF – 32) or o
C = oF – 32 → Conversion from oF
to C o

1.8

Problem Example 1. Convert 25 oC to oF. Problem Example 2. Convert 200 oF to

o
C.
o
F = 1.8 (25) + 32 = 45 + 32 = 77 oF o
C = 200 - 32 = 168 = 93 oC
1.8 1.8

Comparison of the Celsius and Kelvin Temperature Scales:

o
C K
 64

0 -------------------------------------------- 273

-273 -------------------------------------------- 0

The Kelvin scale, named after the British physicist and mathematician William
Thompson (1824–
1907), who was later titled Lord Kelvin, is set up with a theoretical lower limit of zero. It is
called an absolute temperature scale since its zero (the lower limit) is called absolute zero. This
corresponds to
-273 oC. On the Celsius and Kelvin scales the size of the degree is the same; just the zero point is
different. Thus, to convert from oC to K just add 273.

K = oC + 273 → Conversion from oC to K

o
C = K - 273 → Conversion from K to oC

Problem Example 1. Convert 150 oC to K. Problem Example 2. Convert 500 K to oC.

K = 150 + 273 = 423 K o

C = 500 - 273 = 227 oC

ExercisesProblems: 1. Convert each of the following temperatures to oF and K:

(a) 40 oC (b) -80 o
C (c) 500 o
C (d) 120 oC
(e) -120 C
o

2. Convert each of the following temperatures to oC and K.

(a) 86 oF (b) -20 oF (c) -120 oF (d) 450 oF (e) -210 oF

4. Heat Energy and Specific Heat

Heat energy is the form of energy transferred from one body to another due to difference
in temperature. It is often measured in calories (cal) or kilocalories (kcal). A calorie is the
amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 oC (from 14.5o to 15.5
o
C for example).
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to produce a given change
in temperature for a given mass of a substance. In the metric system this is usually expressed as
the number of calories necessary to increase the temperature of one gram of a substance by one
degree Celsius.
Specific Heat = . calorie .
(gram) ( Celsius)
o

In the SI system this is usually expressed as the number of joules necessary to increase
the temperature of one kilogram of a substance by one Kelvin.

Specific Heat = . joule .

(kilogram) (K)

Specific Heat of Some Substances:

Specific Heat
Substance (cal/g.oC) (J/kg K)

Water (liquid) 1.00 4.18 x 103

Aluminum 0.217 9.07 x 102
Lead 0.031 1.30 x 102
Sugar 0.299 1.25 x 103
Silver 0.056 2.34 x 102
Sodium chloride (salt) 0.204 8.53 x 102
 65

To solve for the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a given mass of a
substance, the formula is: Q = mc ∆T where Q = amount of heat
m = mass of substance
c = specific heat of the substance
∆T = change in temperature = Tf – To

Problem Example 1. How many calories would be required to raise the temperature of 45.0
gram of sodium chloride from 25.0 oC to 85.0 oC?
Given: m = 45.0 g Required: Q in calories
To = 25.0 oC
Tf = 85.0 oC

Solution: c = 0.204 cal/g oC (from the table of specific heat)

∆T = 85.0 oC - 25.0 oC = 60.0 oC
Q = mc ∆T
= 45.0 g ( 0.204 cal/g oC) (60.0 oC)
= 551 cal

Exercise Problems: 1. Calculate the number of kilocalories and kilojoules required for each:
a. to raise the temperature of 100 g of liquid water from 12 oC to
85 oC.
b. to raise the temperature of 0.10 kg of water from 15 oC to 85
o
C.
2. Calculate the specific heat of each:
a. Exactly 150 cal of heat will raise the temperature of 18.5 g of a
liquid
from 22 oC to 44 oC.
b. Exactly 80 cal of heat will raise the temperature of 10 g of an
unknown metal from 20 oC to 60 oC.

5. Density and Specific Gravity

The density of a substance is defined as the mass of a substance occupying a unit

volume.

Density = mass / volume or density = m / V

In the metric system the density of liquids and solids is generally measured in grams per
milliliter or grams per cubic centimeter. In SI units, density is expressed in kilogram per cubic
meter. It is important that the units are included when expressing densities. For example, the
density of water at
4 oC is 1.00 g/ml. It can also be expressed, however , as 62.4 lb/ft3 or 8.35 lb/gal.
Problem Example 1. Calculate the density in gram per milliliter of a piece of metal that has a
mass of
12 g and occupies a volume of 1.6 ml.

Given: m = 12 g Required: density in g/ml

V = 1.6 ml

Solution: = m/V
= 12 g / 1.6 ml
= 7.5 g/ml

Problem Example 2. A cube measures 3.00 cm on each edge and has a mass of 308 g. Calculate
the
density in g/cm3.
Given: m = 308 g
V = s3 = 3.00 cm x 3.00 cm x 3.00 cm
= 27.0 cm3
Required: density in g/cm3
 66

Solution: density = m / V
= 308 g/ 27.0 cm3
= 11.4 g/cm3
The specific gravity of a substance gives the relative density of the substance as
compared to some standard. In general, water at 4 oC is taken as the standard, and thus the
specific gravity expresses the density of the substance as compared to water.
Specific gravity = . density of substance .
Density of water at 4 oC
Thus, if the specific gravity of the substance is 2, that substance has a density two times as great
as the density of water at 4 oC or its density is 2.00 g/ml.
Specific gravity is a ratio of two densities with the same unit so that it (specific gravity) is
unitless. To find the density of the substance in g/ml from the specific gravity, just multiply the
specific gravity by the density of water at 4 oC which is 1.0 g/ml. The specific gravity therefore
is numerically equal to the density in g/ml.
Density of the substance = specific gravity of substance x density of water at 4
o
C
or
Density of the substance = specific gravity of substance x 1.0 g/ml
Specific Gravity of Some Substances:

Substance Specific Gravity

Water 1.00
Ether 0.708
Benzene 0.880
Acetic acid 1.05
Chloroform 1.49
Carbon tetrachloride 1.60
Sulfuric acid (concentrated) 1.83
Bromine 3.12
Problem Example1. The specific gravity of an organic liquid is 1.3. Calculate the volume of 84
g of the
Liquid.

Given: specific gravity = 1.3

m = 84 g
Required: V

Solution: density = specific gravity x 1.0 g/ml

= 1.3 x 1.0 g/ml
= 1.3 g/ml
V = m/
= 84 g ÷ 1.3 g/ml
= 65 ml

Problem Example 2. If 2 mg of a substance occupy a volume of 15 ml, calculate the specific

gravity
Of the substance.

Given: m = 2 g
V = 15 ml

Required: specific gravity

Solution: density = m ÷ V
= 2 g ÷ 15 ml
= 0.133 g/ml

Specific gravity = 0.133 g/ml ÷ 1.0 g/ml

= 0.133
 67

Exercise Problems: 1. Calculate the density of each of the following in grams per cubic
centimeter.
a. a substance with a mass of 365 g and a volume of 62 ml.
b. a piece of metal measuring 1.0 cm by 2.5 cm by 10.0 cm having a
mass of 50 g.
c. a substance with mss of 425 kg occupying a volume of 230 liters.
2. Calculate the mass in grams of each of the following (use the table of
specific
gravity):
a. a 20 ml volume of ether
b. a 470 ml of benzene
c. a 0.1 liter of bromine
3. Calculate the volume, in milliliters , of each of the following (use table of
specific
gravity):
a. 80 g of carbon tetrachloride
b. 2.2 kg of benzene
c. 3.5 g of acetic acid
4. Calculate the specific gravity of each of the following:
a. a substance with a density of 3.75 g/ml
b. a substance with a volume of 50 ml and a mass of 20 g
5. Calculate the density in pounds per cubic foot of each of the following
(use the
table of specific gravity):
a. Ether b. bromine
 68

Name: _____________________________________Course,Year & Section: ______________

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the best answer and encircle the letter of your answer.

It is a homogeneous mixture of substances in variable proportions.

a. compound b. element c. solution d. matter
It is a pure substance composed of only one kind of atom.
a. compound b. element c. solution d. mixture
It is a mixture wherein the individual substances mixed together retain their identity as they were
before being ixed.
a. compound homogeneous c. heterogeneous d. solution
It may be an element or a compound.
 69

a. mixture b. solution c. substance d. heterogeneous

It is a combination of two or more substances in variable proportion.
a. compound b. element c. matter d. mixture
Which of the following describes air?
a. It is a homogeneous mixture. c. It is an element.
b. It is a heterogeneous mixture. d. It is a compound.
All matter is composed of tiny particles called
a. elements b. atoms c. molecules d. ions
It is an abbreviation for the name of an element.
a. chemical symbol b. chemical equation c. chemical formula d. chemical reaction
It is an abbreviation for the compound which gives the elements or atoms that the compound is
composed of and the relative proportions of the atoms.
a. chemical symbol b. chemical equation c. chemical formula d. chemical reaction
Which of the following is not a property of a metal?
a. malleable b. brittle c. ductile d. good conductor
It is the ability of a metal to be shaped or hammered into thin sheets.
a. malleable b. brittle c. ductile d. conductor
It is a liquid metal at room temperature.
a. sodium b. mercury c. bromine d. copper
Which of the following elements is a nonmetal?
a. tungsten b. potassium c. carbon d. gold
Compounds that produce hydrogen ions in solution are called
a. acids b. bases c. alkalies d. salts
They are considered neutral compounds.
a. acids b. bases c. salts d. organic compounds
They are compounds that turn red litmus paper to blue.
a. acids b. bases c. salts d. organic compounds
The state or form of matter that has definite volume but has no definite shape is the
a. solid b. liquid c. gas d. plasma
Hydrogen at room temperature is a
a. solid b. liquid c. gas d. plasma
To obey the law of conservation of matter (mass), a chemical equation representing a chemical
reaction must be balanced. Which of the following chemical equation for the formation of
water is correct?
a. 2H + O → H2O c. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
b. H2 + O2 → H2O d. H2 + O → H2O
It is the energy possessed by a substance by virtue of its motion.
a. potential energy b. kinetic energy c. heat energy d. electrical energy
It is the form of energy that consists of charges moving in the conductor.
a. nuclear energy b. mechanical energy c. heat energy d. electrical energy
It is the form of energy that travels through space,
a. heat energy b. electrical energy c. chemical energy d. radiant energy
It is the energy released from the nucleus of the atom when they split.
a. mechanical energy b. chemical energy c. nuclear energy d. heat energy
When a battery is being charged, what energy transformation occurs?
a. chemical energy to electrical energy c. electrical energy to nuclear energy
b. electrical energy to mechanical energy d. electrical energy to chemical energy
He was a German-American physicist who showed that matter and energy are inter-convertible.
a. Robert Boyle b. Albert Einstein c. John Dalton d. Joseph Priestly

Name: _____________________________________Course,Year & Section: ______________

 70

Matching Type. Match the element in column A with their Latin name in column B. Write the
letter of your answer in the space provided.

A B

_____ mercury a. argentum

_____ gold b. cuprum
_____ tungsten c. stannum
_____ iron d. ferrum
_____ silver e. stibium
_____ potassium f. natrium
_____ tin g. wolfram
_____ lead h. hydrargyrum
_____ copper i. kalium
_____ antimony j. plumbum
k. aurum

Classify the following into compound or mixture. If it is a mixture, further classify into
homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Vinegar ___________________ ____________________

Acetic acid ___________________ ____________________
Water ___________________ ____________________
Rubbing alcohol ___________________ ____________________
Salt dissolved in water ___________________ ____________________
Sugar ___________________ ____________________
Softdrink ___________________ ____________________
Carbon dioxide ___________________ ____________________
It has variable composition ___________________
It cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary
physical means ___________________

Classify if the element being described is a metal or a nonmetal.

____________________ It exhibit metallic luster.

____________________ It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
____________________ It is brittle.
____________________ It is malleable and ductile.
____________________ It can lose electron to form a positive ion.

Classify if physical property or chemical property. If it is a physical property, further classify

if intensive or extensive. Note that all chemical properties are intensive property.

Volume ____________________ ____________________

Odor ____________________ ____________________
Iron rusts ____________________ ____________________
Density ____________________ ____________________
Wood decays ____________________ ____________________

Classify if physical change or chemical change.

____________________ breaking of glass

____________________ Evaporation of water
____________________ rusting of iron
____________________ digestion of food
____________________ melting of ice
 71

Name: _____________________________________Course,Year & Section: ______________

Classify the following into compound or mixture. If it is a mixture, further classify into
homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Compound or Mixture Homogeneous or Heterogeneous

Sugar ___________________ ____________________

Halo-halo ___________________ ____________________

Vinegar ___________________ ____________________

Salicylic acid ___________________ ____________________

Water ___________________ ____________________

calcium hydroxide ___________________ ____________________

Rubbing alcohol ___________________ ____________________

Juice drink ___________________ ____________________

Complete the table below:

. Atom Atomic No. Atomic Mass Mass No. No. of p No. of e- No. of
n .

.Boron .

.Magnessium .

.Nickel .

.Bromine .

Sulfur dioxide ___________________ ____________________

Concrete hallow blocks ___________________ ____________________

Classify if the element being described is a metal, a nonmetal or a metalloid

____________________ It is malleable and ductile.

____________________ silicon

____________________ It can gain electron to form a negative ion

____________________ It exhibit metallic luster.

____________________ It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.

____________________ sodium
 72

____________________ It is brittle.

____________________ mercury

____________________ copper

____________________ fluorine

Classify if physical property or chemical property. If it is a physical property, further classify

if intensive or extensive. Note that all chemical properties are intensive property.

Iron rusts ____________________ ____________________

color ____________________ ____________________
volume ____________________ ____________________
boiling point ____________________ ____________________
wood decays ____________________ ____________________

Classify if physical change or chemical change.

____________________ melting of ice

____________________ evaporation of alcohol
____________________ rusting of iron
____________________ digestion of food
____________________ cutting of a piece of paper

Name: _____________________________________Course,Year & Section: ______________

Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer and encircle the letter of your answer.

It is a subatomic particle with a negative charge.

a. proton b. electron c. neutron d. ion
It is a neutral or uncharged particle.
a. proton b. electron c. neutron d. ion
They are subatomic particles having almost the same mass.
a. proton and electron c. proton and neutron
b. electron and neutron d. electron, proton and neutron
It is a subatomic particle having a negligible mass.
a. proton b. electron c. neutron d. all of the above
They are subatomic particles located outside the nucleus of the atom.
a. protons b. electrons c. neutrons d. protons and neutrons
It is the central part of the atom that is positively charged.
a. nucleus b. shells c. energy levels d. sublevels
An electrically neutral atom has the same number of
a. protons and electrons c. protons and neutrons
b. neutrons and electrons d. nucleus and protons
The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom is defined as the
a. mass number b. atomic number c. atomic weight d. atomic mass
The mass number is equal to
a. No. of protons + No. of electrons c. No. of protons + No. of neutrons
b. No. of electrons + No. of neutronsd. No. of electrons
They are atoms of the same element having different atomic masses or mass number but the
same atomic number.
a. isomers b. isotones c. isobars d. isotopes
The relative masses of atoms are given in relative units called
 73

a. grams or g b. kilograms or kg c. pounds or lbs. d. atomic mass unit or amu

It is the atomic number of carbon.
a. 6 b. 12.011 c. 4 d. 2
It is the mass number of sodium
a. 3 b. 22.990 c. 23 d. 11
It is the smallest particle of a compound which has the property of the said compound.
a. atom b. molecule c. ion d. element
It is the sum of the atomic weights of all atoms in a formula unit.
a. chemical formula c. formula weight
b. atomic mass d. mass number

Name: _____________________________________Course,Year & Section: ______________

Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer and encircle the letter of your answer.

It is a neutral or uncharged particle.

a. neutron b. electron c. proton d. ion
It is a subatomic particle with a positive charge.
a. neutron b. proton c. electron d. ion
It is a subatomic particle having a negligible mass.
a. proton b. electron c. neutron d. all of the above
They are subatomic particles having same charge but opposite in sign.
a. proton and electron c. proton and neutron
b. electron and neutron d. electron, proton and neutron
It is the central part of the atom that is positively charged.
a. shells b. sublevels c. energy levels d. nucleus
They are subatomic particles located inside the nucleus of the atom.
a. protons b. electrons c. neutrons d. protons and neutrons
The mass number is equal to
a. No. of protons + No. of electrons c. No. of electrons + No. of neutrons
b. No. of protons + No. of neutrons d. No. of electrons
An electrically neutral atom has the same number of
a. protons and neutrons c. nucleus and protons
b. neutrons and electrons d. protons and electrons
The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom is defined as the
a. atomic number b. atomic mass c. mass number d. atomic weight
The relative masses of atoms are given in relative units called
a. pounds or lbs. b. kilograms or kg c. atomic mass unit or amu d. grams or g
They are atoms of the same element having different atomic masses or mass number but the
same atomic number.
a. isotones b. isotopes c. isobars d. isomers
It is the mass number of potassium
a. 39.098 b. 39 c. 19 d. 4
It is the atomic number of oxygen.
a. 8 b. 15.999 c. 6 d. 2
It is the smallest particle of a compound which has the property of the said compound.
a. element b. ion c. atom d. molecule
 74

It is the sum of the atomic weights of all atoms in a formula unit.

a. chemical weight c. chemical formula
b. mass number d. atomic mass

Complete the table below:

. Atom Atomic No. Atomic Mass Mass No. No. of p No. of e- No. of
n .

.Fluorine .

.Calcium .

.Germanium .

.Argon .

.Iodine .

Name: _______________________________________ Course, Year & Section:

__________________
 75

Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer and encircle the letter of your answer.

1. It states that no two electrons in any given atom can have exactly the same set of quantum
numbers
or, within any given orbital there can be two electrons with opposite spins.
a. Hund’s Rule b. Octet Rule c. Pauli Exclusion Principle d.
Aufbau Order
2. It states that in filling a particular sublevel, electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy one at a
time
before there is any pairing.
a. Hund’s Rule b. Octet Rule c. Pauli Exclusion Principle d.
Aufbau Order
3. An element with an electron configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p3 belong to
a. Period 5, Group IVA c. Period 5, Group IVB
b. Period 4, Group VA d. Period 4, Group VB
4. The electron configuration in the last energy level of the atom of element in Period 5 and
Group IVA is
a. 5s2 5p3 b. 4s2 3d10 4p3 c. 4s2 3d10 4p4 d. 5s2 4d10 5p2
5. He devised a table of elements arranged according to increasing atomic number after he had
determined the charge of the nucleus.
a. Lothar Meyer b. Dmitri Mendeleev c. H.G. Moseley d. John Dalton
6. In the periodic table devised by Lothar Meyer, the element next to nickel in his arrangement
is
a. Copper b. cobalt c. rhodium d. palladium
7. The horizontal rows in the periodic table of elements are called the
a. periods b. groups c. subgroups d. series
8. The alkaline earth metals are located at
a. Period 1 b. Period 2 c. Group !A d. Group IIA
9. The noble gases are located at
a. Period 6 b. Group VIIIA c. Group VIIA d.
Group VIIIB
10. The elements in group VIIA are called the
a. Transition Elements c. Halogens
b. Lanthanide Series d. Actinide Series
11. The elements in IA through VIIA are called
a. Representative Elements c. Transition Elements
b. Noble Gases d. Inner Transition Elements
12. The elements having 8 valence electrons are the
a. Representative Elements c. Transition Elements
b. Noble Gases d. Inner Transition Elements
13. The elements having two energy levels incomplete with electrons are the
a. Representative Elements c. Transition Elements
b. Noble Gases d. Inner Transition Elements
14. The elements with atomic numbers 58-71 and 90-103 are members of
a. Representative Elements c. Transition Elements
b. Noble Gases d. Inner Transition Elements
15. The valence electrons are located in the
a. energy level 1 b. energy level 4 c. energy level 7 d. outermost energy
level
16. The electron dot notation of the carbon atom consist of the symbol of carbon surrounded by
a. 2 dots b. 3 dots c. 4 dots d. 5 dots
17. The differentiating electron of the K atom makes it different from the
a. Ca atom b. Na atom c. Ar atom d. Rb atom
18. The differentiating electron in the Na atom is located in the sublevel
a. 1s b. 2s c. 2p d. 3s
19. The amount of energy released when an atom gains an electron is called
a. first ionization energy b. second ionization energy c. electron affinity d.
electronegativity
20. The general tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself in a compound is called
 76

a. first ionization energy b. second ionization energy c. electron affinity d.

electronegativity
21. The element located in Period 4 and Group VIA is
a. chromium b. lead c. selenium d. hafnium
22. The atom of sodium is larger than the atom of magnesium because
a. sodium is less metallic c. sodium has more energy levels
b. sodium has greater nuclear charge d. magnesium has greater nuclear charge
23. The number of electrons in the outermost energy level of aluminum is
a. 2 b. 3 c. 13 d. 27
24. Which of the following elements is the most metallic?
a. sodium b. magnesium c. aluminum d. silicon
25. Which of the following elements is the most nonmetallic?
a. phosphorus b. sulfur c. arsenic d. selenium
26. Which of the following is the largest atom?
a. strontium b. calcium c. barium d. magnesium
27. Which of the following is the smallest ion?
a. F-1 b. Cl-1 c. Li+1 d. Al+3
28. Which of the following has the lowest electron affinity?
a. oxygen b. chlorine c. fluorine d. sulfur
29. Which of the following is the most electronegative?
a. rubidium b. calcium c. iodine d. bromine
30. Which of the following is an arrangement from the least metallic to the most metallic
element?
a. Ag, Cu, Cd, Zn b. Zn, Cd, Cu, Ag c. Cu, Zn, Ag, Cd d. Cd, Ag, Zn, Cu
 77

Name _______________________________________ Course, Year & Section

__________________

I. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the chemical bond formed when an electron or electrons are transferred from one
atom to another? Answer: _____________________________
2. How many electrons will be lost by an aluminum atom (Al) to become an aluminum ion
(Al+3)?
Answer: _____________________________
3. What is the charge of an ion that had gained two electrons?
Answer: _____________________________
4. In the Lewis structure or electron dot formula what are represented by the dots drawn around
the symbol of the elements? Answer: _____________________________
5 & 6. What are represented by the symbol of the element in the Lewis structure?
Answers: _____________________________ and
______________________________
7. What is the bond formed when a pair or pairs of electrons are not shared equally by atoms?
Answer: _____________________________
8. Of the following chemically bonded pair of atoms, which is the least polar? (N-O, C-O, S-O
or C-F)
Answer: _____________________________
Use the following compounds to answer question 9 and 10:
CO K2O N2O3 CaF2
MgS FeCl3 P2O5

9. What are the compounds whose atoms are held together by ionic bonds?
__________ __________ __________ __________

__________ __________ __________

10. What are the compounds whose atoms are held together by covalent bonds? Also indicate the
polarity whether polar or nonpolar.
_______________________________
______________________________

_______________________________
______________________________

II. Draw the Lewis Structure of the following Compounds: 1) PCl3 2) CO 3) O2