GNED 02 – ETHICS
REVIEWER – Midterm Examination
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
What is Philosophy?
 Coined by Pythagoras, a Greek Philosopher
 Came from Greek words “philos”- love and
“sophia”- wisdom ---- “lover of wisdom”
Three classifications of love
 Eros – passionate/intense love for
something, sexual desire
 Agape – love of God for men
 Philia – love that seeks
truth/appreciation of the other, of
person or of reality
 Philosophy, then, is the love that devotes
itself in attaining what is true of reality, like
a lover aspiring and upon possessing
clenches it in the heart that which is so
precious, the truth (Agdalpen et al., 2011).
 In its broadest, philosophy is human's
attempt to think most speculatively
reflectively, and systematically about the
universe and their relationship to that
universe.
 Therefore, the most significant task of
philosophy is to evaluate the totality of the
human experience. Philosophy does not
create nor invent to discover new facts but
instead, takes an in-depth and
comprehensive view about the given ideas,
facts, or events.
 In other words, philosophy is an
examination of life upon which one will
formulate a fundamental principle as a
standard for a more organized ideas where
human life and experience is based upon.
 Philosophy is a study that seeks to
understand the mysteries of existence and
reality.
Three classifications of men during the time of
Pythagoras:
▪ The lovers of pleasure
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▪ The lovers of success
▪ The lovers of wisdom
- The lovers of wisdom were the
most superior of all for it pertains
to the human endeavour of
seeking the truth for its own sake,
hence attaining wisdom.
Other essential definition of philosophy
 Search for meaning
 Science of all sciences
 Mother of all sciences
 Search for the ultimate meaning of reality
Philosophy and other sciences
 Philosophy and Science – both discusses
truths about the universe
 Philosophy and History – the latter serves
as the breeding ground of philosophy while
the former defines history and interprets it
 Philosophy and Mathematics – both are
logical bodies of knowledge
 Philosophy and Religion – that one justifies
the other
Why philosophy is important?
 Provides students with fundamental views in
coping the changing demands and ethical
problems
 Develops students' ability to comprehend,
systematic learning and enhance critical
thinking skills
Major discipline in Philosophy
1. Logic as the study of right and sound
reasoning
2. Epistemology as the study of the validity of
knowledge
3. Metaphysics seeks to explain the
fundamental concepts of being
4. Aesthetics as the philosophical study of
beauty
5. Cosmology deals with the study of real
things in the universe
6. Theodicy is the study of God and his nature
 7. Social philosophy as the study of human and
their relation to society
8. Ethics as the science of the morality of
human acts
IMPERATIVES OF ETHICS
– Emerita Quito (2008)
1. Human Freedom
2. Existence of God
3. Immortality of the Soul
Ethics
 From Greek word “ethos” or “ethikos”–
character
Rule/s
 It is an instruction that tell what we are
allowed to do and not to do
Why rule/s is important?
1. It organize relationship between individuals.
2. Rules make it clear on what is right to do/follow
in a society and what re wrong to refrain from.
3. It provides opportunity to achieve personal and
societal goals/
4. It regulates various social institution to fulfill
their integral roles for the common welfare.
Moral
 From Latin word “mos” – custom
 Refers to social, cultural and religious
beliefs/values practiced overtime by
individual/group to do what is right and
refrain from doing what is wrong
Moral Standard
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o these are set of norms in society in accord to
moral principles that supposed to determine
about the kind of actions people believe are
morally and deter them from doing what is
considered as wrong Moral standards,
o Therefore, are those laws or commands that
allow specifies actions to be committed or
those that disallow actions contrary to these
norms.
o Moral standards are precepts to follow based
on mores or traditional norms and practices
that allow actions as good in specific time
and place. Hence, failure to submit to these
principles, one may be subjected to an
appropriate sanction.
Ethical Standards
o are principles that when followed, promote
values such as honesty, patience, respect,
and kindness. However, there is not one set
of these standards that is imposed to every
setting/sector.
Ethical principles
 Truthfulness/Honesty – among the basic
principle of natural moral law
 Loyalty – the willing, practical, and
thoroughgoing devotion of a person to a
cause
 Respect – “respect for person”
 Fairness – equity, respect, justice and
stewardship of the shared world
 Integrity – imposes an obligation on all
individuals to be straightforward and honest
in all professional and business relationship.

Characteristics of Moral Standard
1. It involves serious wrong/significant
benefits (ex. Following/violating rules in a
game)
2. It ought to be preferred to other values (ex.
White lies, following ones dream but leaving
one's family, unbearable laws)
3. It is not established by authority figure
4. It has a trait of universality (Golden rule)
5. It is based on impartial consideration
6. It is associated with special emotions and
vocabulary
CHAPTER 2 – DILEMMA AND
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY
Dilemma
 It is a difficult situation in which an
individual is confronted to choose between
two or more alternative actions to resolve
the problem.
Moral Dilemma
 It is defined as any situation in which the
person making the decision experiences a
conflict between the moral rightness of a
decision and the quality of the results it
produces.
 Many times, it involves a morally wrong
decision that produces a desirable result, or
vice versa.
 Other times it involves a decision in which
the person is forced to choose only one of
two good things.
Types of Moral Dilemma
1. Personal dilemma – These are situations in
which an individual has a choice to be made
between two options, neither of which
resolves the situation in an ethically
acceptable fashion.
2. Organizational Dilemma – Organizational
ethics are the principals and standards by
which businesses operate, according to
Reference for Business. They are best
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demonstrated through acts of fairness,
compassion, integrity, honor, and
responsibility.
3. Systematic Dilemma – The process of
systematic moral analysis is predicated on
moral rule violations, which result in harm to
another person or persons.
Foundation of Morality:
1. Freedom as requisite on Moral Responsibility
➢ Freedom as the power or right to act,
speak, or think as one wants without
hindrance or restraint; “we do have some
freedom of choice.”
➢ Freedom, in politics, consists of the social,
political, and economic freedoms to which
all community members are entitled. In
philosophy, freedom involves free will as
contrasted with determinism.
➢ Kant claims that freedom is the source of all
value
➢ Saint Augustine showed that human is free
physically, yet bound to obey the law
➢ Moral freedom involves freedom over the
things that matter most.
➢ Quito (2008) explains that no ethics is
likewise possible without human freedom.
(Human beings are accountable for their
actions)
2. Reason and impartiality
➢ Immanuel Kant argued that “morality was
based on reason alone, and once we
understood it, we would see that acting
morally is the same as acting rationally.”
➢ Reason enables us to think and reflect over
actions that we intend to do and decide
which of them to take.
➢ A mere knowledge of morality will not
make human moral (there must be an
application of it, by obeying the rules)
➢ Impartiality is a principle of justice holding
that decisions or judgment on something or
someone should be objective not based on
bias or prejudice to favor someone
irrationally
 CHAPTER 3 - Moral agent and CULTURE
Moral Agent
➢ “Being who is capable of acting with
reference to right and wrong.”
➢ expected to meet the demands of morality
(choosing between good and evil)
➢ must also be capable of conforming to at
least some of the demands of morality.
➢ should have the capacity to rise above their
feelings and passions and act for the sake of
the moral law.
➢ someone who is capable of doing things
rightly or wrongly.
➢ a person who has the ability to discern right
from wrong and to be held accountable for
his or her own actions.
➢ have a moral responsibility not to cause
unjustified harm
➢ those who can be held responsible for their
actions.
Culture
➢ It is an aggregate of beliefs, attitudes etc.
which can be viewed as a “blessing” and a
preserver of values, heritage, arts and good
behavior.
➢ It can also be a “baggage” when we
consider that it transmits some irrational and
out-of-date attitudes included in it as
custom.
➢ It changes with time.
TYPES OF CULTURE
1. High Culture – is linked with the elite, upper class
society, those families and individuals with an
ascribed status position. It is often associated with the
arts such as opera, ballet and classical music, and
sports such as polo.
2. Cultural Diversity – is a concept relating to
culturally embedded differences within society, it’s
the fact that different cultures exist alongside each
other.
3. Subculture – culture enjoyed by a small group
within society. In this sense it is a minority part of
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majority culture. They have distinct norms and
values which make them sub-section of society.
4. Popular Culture – it borrows the idea from high
culture and popularizes it, making it available for the
masses; a product of the media dominated world; it
is a positive force for it brings people of different
backgrounds together in a common culture.
5. Multiculturalism – it is depicted to be very similar
to cultural diversity, other definitions align
multiculturalism with different ethnic groups living
alongside each other.
6. Global Culture – A global culture is a key feature
of globalization, they emerged due to patterns of
migration, trends in international travel and the
spread of the media, exposing people to the same
images of the same dominant world companies.
IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE
1. Culture affects perceptions.
2. Culture influences behavior.
3. Culture shapes personalities.
4. Our culture shapes our value and belief systems.
Moral behaviors
➢ are what one believes to be the right things to
do.
➢ For example, following your society’s (or
other social group’s) rules of good behavior
where honesty is highly valued, telling the
truth is important.
Role of Culture in Moral Behavior
➢ play a significant pseudo role within shaping
moral behavior and extends even further to
social norms.
➢ influences human behavior at any given
society’s belief system, laws, mores,
practices, language and attitudinal variables
which make a people unique from others
(Victor, 2017).
➢ has a great impact in the development of the
human person in varied ways; may it be in
physical, knowledge, thought, relationship,
religious or moral development.
➢ to mold and establish a social identity that
brings people as well to provide the
 knowledge of common objectives which
members would try to achieve
➢ the principle that surrounds the moral
development of the people that may not
always promote what is good and just for all
Cultural relativism
➢ is the principle of regarding the beliefs,
values, and practices of a culture from the
viewpoint of that culture itself. Factor as
diverse geography is the primary shaper of
one’s culture.
➢ It is an affirmation that holds that societies
are dissimilar in their moral standards, their
laws and culture protocols.
Ethical relativism
➢ is the theory that holds that morality is
relative to the norms of one’s culture. That
is, whether an action is right or wrong
depends on the moral norms of the society in
which it is practiced.
➢ It denies the existence of one universal moral
law. It supports the idea that cultures of
society are dissimilar in astronomical ways
they accept, it follows that there is not one
correct set of precepts everyone should adopt.
Moral relativism
➢ is the view that moral judgments are true or
false only relative to some standpoint (for
instance, that of a culture or a historical
period) and that no standpoint is uniquely
privileged over all others
➢ There is no universal or absolute set of moral
principles.
➢ It is an ethical judgment which claims that no
ethical system is better than another (Jeff
Landauer and Joseph Rowlands, 2001)
➢ Believes that values are subjective
➢ Believes there is no objective morality; that
there is no such thing as right or wrong, good
or evil.
➢ Believes the denial of truth in ethical
questions
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➢ holds that ethical systems are subjective, it
claims that none is better or worse than
another, that any system that claims to be true
or absolute is evil, it falls ironic for it still
maintains a distinct moral principle leading to
the possibility of truth in ethics.
Moral relativism can be understood in the
following ways:
a. Descriptive moral relativism/cultural relativism -
says that moral standards are culturally defined,
which is generally true.
b. Meta-ethical moral relativism - there are no
objective grounds for preferring the moral values of
one culture over another.
c. Normative moral relativism - idea that all societies
should accept each other’s differing moral values,
given that there are no universal moral principles.
CHAPTER 4 - ASIAN MORAL CHARACTER
Buddhism Character
➢ Buddhism shapes character in Southeast Asia
as Christianity does in Europe.
➢ Theravada Buddhism encourages its
practitioners to keep their emotions and
passions in check and stresses karma over
determination, which often means people are
more willing to accept their lot in life and is
sometimes viewed by Westerners as a lack of
ambition or unwillingness to work hard to
improve their positions in life.
Buddhism Five Basic Moral Prohibitions
1) refrain for taking life.
2) don’t steal.
3) avoid illicit sexual activity.
4) don’t speak falsely; and
5) refrain from consuming inebriating substances.
Confucian Character: Five Cardinal Virtues:
1) benevolence in terms of sympathy for others (jen).
2) duty reflected in the shame felt after doing
something wrong (yi).
3) manners, propriety and feelings of deference (li).
4) wisdom, in terms of discerning right and wrong
(chih) and
5) loyalty and good faith (hsin).
Filipino Moral Character
➢ friendly, outgoing, sensitive, easily offended,
nosy, garrulous, direct, hospitable, feisty,
irreverent, good natured, clever, witty,
gregarious, happy, generous, easy to laugh,
gracious, easy to befriend, casual, fun loving,
sensitive and hospitable.
➢ Value education, has shame (hiya)
➢ Filipinos as “the easiest people in Asia to get
along with.”
Strength of Filipino Moral Values
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao - basic sense of justice
and fairness, concern for others and ability to
empathize with others.
2. Strong Family Ties - possess a genuine and
deep love for family - source of personal
identity, emotional and material support. Has
honor to elder and care to children.
3. Joy and Humor – being cheerful and fun
loving.
4. Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity - We
can adjust and to adapt to circumstances and
the surrounding environment, both physical
and social.
5. Hard Work and Industry - We have the
capacity for hard work given proper
conditions; to raise one’s standard of living
and to possess the essentials of a decent life
for one’s family.
6. Faith and Religiosity
Weaknesses of Filipino Moral Values
1. Extreme Personalism - We tend to give
personal interpretations to actions, i.e., “take
things personally”.
2. Extreme Family Centeredness results to a
lack of concern for the common good and
acts as a block to national consciousness.
3. Lack of Discipline - being impatient and
unable to delay gratification or reward
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative
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5. Colonial mentality
6. Kanya-Kanya Syndrome
7. Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection -
There is a tendency in the Filipino to be
superficial and even somewhat flighty.
Filipino Positive Values
➢ Hospitability
➢ Helpful to others/Bayanihan
➢ Respectful (mano, po and opo, halik sa
kamay)
➢ Bravery
➢ Jolliness and sense of humor
➢ Discretion and dignity
➢ Gratefulness
➢ Honesty and commitment (palabra de honor)
➢ Helpfulness
➢ Family-oriented
➢ Adaptability and resilience
➢ Resourcefulness and creativity
➢ Faithfulness
➢ Thriftiness
Filipino Negative Values
1. Fatalism - An attitude of “what goes around,
comes around” or “come what may.”
2. Crab mentality - people tend to push each
other down to clear the way for their own
gain.
3. Ningas-Kugon - leaving our work either half-
baked or unfinished.
4. Filipino Time - known to be minutes or hours
behind the standard time. Thus, we tend not
to observe punctuality at all.
5. Colonial Mentality - preference for all things
foreign over our own
6. General Disregard for Rules - Filipinos are
known law abiding individuals but with
stronger inclination to disregard these laws
7. Procrastination or “Mañana Habit”
8. Corruption
9. Gossiping - talking about others’ business.
10. Passivity (lack of leadership) - lack of
initiative for change
 LESSON 5- MORAL AGENT: DEVELOPING
VIRTUE AS A HABIT
Value/s
➢ From Latin word “valere” which means “to
be of worth”
➢ means to price, to esteem, to appraise, to
estimate (John Dewey)
Human values
➢ are the virtues that guide us to take into
account human element when one interacts
with one other human being.
➢ our feelings for the human essence of others.
Moral values
➢ help us distinguish between what’s right and
wrong, good, or bad for you as well as
society.
➢ principles that govern our lives and beliefs
that make us realize the importance of life,
the goals that we want to attain or
accomplish in life.
Types of Moral Values (Kathy Slattengren, 2018)
a. Acceptance: having an objective attitude toward
others‘ ideas and practices that differ from your
own
b. Compassion: understanding the suffering of
others or self and wanting to do something about it
c. Courage: willingness to do difficult things.
d. Equality: believing everyone deserves equal
rights and to be treated with respect.
e. Fairness: acting in a just way, sharing
appropriately
f. Generosity: willingness to give resources, help or
time to others
g. Honesty: being truthful and sincere
h. Integrity: sticking to your moral and ethical
principles and values
i. Kindness: being considerate and treating others
well
j. Perseverance: persisting in a course of action,
belief or purpose
k. Politeness: using good manners, acting in
socially acceptable ways
l. Respect: showing consideration for the worth of
someone or something
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m. Responsibility: being reliable in your obligations
n. Self-control: staying in control of your words
and behavior
Virtues and Its Formation
Cardinal Virtues
✓ Prudence is the virtue of knowing what to
do under peculiar circumstances which
enables one to see the best means to
approach a given situation.
✓ Justice is a virtue of giving anyone his/her
due under no condition.
✓ Fortitude is a virtue of keeping resolute in
the face of overwhelming odds. Temperance
is the virtue of curbing or managing the
sensitive appetites.
Theological Virtues
✓ Faith is the virtue of believing in God’s
word without seeing.
✓ Hope is the virtue of keeping trust in Divine
Providence.
✓ Charity is the virtue of loving God and His
creatures
Moral Character
➢ a function of whether he/she has or lacks
various moral virtues and vices.
➢ formed by one’s actions -- habits, actions,
and emotional responses of the person of
good character
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
• The theory of Lawrence Kohlberg states that
the moral development of most people
begins with a desire to avoid personal
punishment and may evolve over time to a
desire to make the world a better and more
just place for all people.
• Kohlberg used Piaget’s storytelling
technique to tell people stories involving
moral dilemmas.

Conscience-Based Moral Decision
➢ Conscience from its Latin origin known as
cum alia scientia; it means the application
of knowledge.
➢ an act of reason
➢ an act of the practical moral judgment
➢ an act guided by reason
➢ The best way to educate our conscience is to
always obey laws.
Acts and Character
➢ Acts that Build Character
➢ Character is developed through time
and experiences
➢ It will determine our success
➢ Acts that Emanate from Character
➢ Character is what we are, it is inside
us, hidden, and shaped through
times, while acts are outward
manifestation of who we are
LESSON 6 – THE ACT
The Act
➢ an activity that is attributed to human being.
Human Act
➢ refers to any activity, either external or
mental that is performed by a person
Constituents of Human Act
1. Knowledge -the agent is aware upon performing
the act as well its consequences.
2. Freedom - the agent/doer is not constrained in
doing the act.
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3. Voluntariness - an agent must know and free to
choose which act to perform or not to perform.
APPROACHES TO MORAL DECISION
1. Utilitarian Approach – this answers the
dilemma of which option will produce the
greatest benefits and least harm.
2. Rights Approach – this follows the belief
that individuals have the ability to make
their decisions freely (if the act does not
respect everyone’s moral rights, it is wrong
to act)
3. Fairness/Justice Approach – this gives the
individual the opportunity to reflect if the
action is fair to the people. (“equals should
be treated equally and unequal unequally.”-
Aristotle)
4. Common Good Approach – this helps drive
our choice to decide if the action taken will
be good for ourselves and the community.
5. Virtue Approach – reflects what kind of
person you should be and what it will do to
your character.
Reason is the capacity for consciously making
sense of things, establishing, and verifying facts,
applying logic, and changing or justifying practices,
institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing
information.
• Reasoning is associated with thinking,
cognition, and intellect.
• Practical reason is reasoning, which is used
to guide action, and is contrasted with
theoretical reason, which is used to guide
thinking.
Impartiality (also called evenhandedness or fair
mindedness) is a principle of justice holding that
decisions should be based on objective criteria,
rather than based on bias, prejudice, or preferring
the benefit to one person over another for improper
reasons
• The Principle of Impartiality - all persons
are considered equal and should be treated
accordingly.
 • Kant’s Categorical Imperative is universal
and impartial -- universal because all people,
in virtue of being rational, would act in
precisely the same way, and impartial
because they respect the dignity and
autonomy of every human being and do not
put their own personal ambitions above the
respect that others deserve.
Reason and will
➢ On a Kantian view of the practical, if reason
is practical, the will, guided by reason, can
affect, or cause, action.
➢ He says that “a good will is not good
because of what it affects or accomplishes, it
is good through its willing alone – that is
good in itself.”
➢ According to Aquinas, will is the rational
appetite, which basically means that will as
‘appetite’ is the form of desire, but, as
rational, will is guided by intellect/reason.

Moral courage is the courage to take action for

moral reasons despite the risk of adverse
consequences.
➢ More so, morally courageous individuals
act upon their ethical values to help others
during difficult ethical dilemmas, despite the
adversity they may face in doing so.
➢ To be morally courageous means standing
up for what you believe even when it means
that you do so alone (Murray, 2015).

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