Advantages:

Increased efficiency: OR can help organizations to optimize their operations and resources, leading to
increased efficiency, reduced costs, and improved performance.

Better decision-making: OR provides a structured approach to decision-making, based on rigorous

analysis and modeling, leading to more informed and evidence-based decisions.

Improved resource allocation: OR can help organizations to allocate their resources in the most effective
way, maximizing their impact and minimizing waste.

Strategic planning: OR can support strategic planning by providing insights into the likely outcomes of
different scenarios and options, allowing organizations to plan for the future with greater confidence.

Enhanced communication: OR can help to enhance communication and collaboration within

organizations, by providing a common language and framework for discussing complex issues and
problems.

However, OR also has some limitations, including:

Limitations:

Data availability: OR models require accurate and reliable data, which may not always be available or
may be costly to obtain.

Model complexity: OR models can be complex and difficult to understand, requiring specialized
knowledge and expertise to develop and use.

Assumptions and limitations: OR models are based on assumptions and simplifications of the real world,
which may not always reflect the complexity and variability of real-world situations.
Human factors: OR models may not always take into account the human factors involved in decision-
making, such as emotions, values, and biases.

Implementation challenges: OR recommendations may face implementation challenges, such as

resistance to change, lack of resources, or unforeseen external events.

In summary, OR has many advantages that can support decision-making and improve organizational
performance. However, it also has limitations that need to be carefully considered, such as data
availability, model complexity, and implementation challenges. OR should be used as a complementary
approach to decision-making, taking into account the specific needs and characteristics of each problem
and situation.

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explain unbounded solution. how will you identify unbounded solution in a simplex table?

An unbounded solution in linear programming occurs when the objective function can be improved
indefinitely without violating any of the constraints. In other words, there is no upper limit on how much
better the objective function can become.

In a simplex table, an unbounded solution can be identified by the presence of one or more variables
with a positive coefficient in the objective row (i.e., the bottom row of the table) and a non-negative
coefficient in the pivot column (i.e., the column selected for pivoting in the current iteration). This
indicates that the objective function can be improved by increasing the value of the variable associated
with the pivot column, without violating any of the constraints.

To illustrate, consider the following simplex table for a maximization problem:

Basic Variable x1 x2 x3 RHS

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z | 0| 1| 2| 0
x1 | 1 | -1 | 1 | 1

x2 | 3 | 2 | -1 | 5

x3 | 1| 1| 2| 4

In this table, x2 is the entering variable (i.e., the variable selected for pivoting in the current iteration),
and x1 is the leaving variable (i.e., the basic variable that will be replaced by the entering variable). The
pivot element is 2, which is located at the intersection of the pivot column (x2) and the row for x1.

To check for unboundedness, we need to examine the coefficients of the objective row and the pivot
column. In this case, the coefficient of x2 in the objective row is 1, which is positive, and the coefficients
of x2 in the pivot column are 2 (for x1) and -1 (for x3), which are both non-negative. This indicates that
we can increase the value of x2 indefinitely, without violating any of the constraints, and therefore the
solution is unbounded.

In summary, an unbounded solution in linear programming occurs when the objective function can be
improved indefinitely without violating any of the constraints. In a simplex table, an unbounded solution
can be identified by the presence of a positive coefficient in the objective row and a non-negative
coefficient in the pivot column of the entering variable.

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what is an activity in a network? mention different types of activities involved in a network

An activity in a network refers to a specific task or operation that needs to be completed as part of a
larger project or process. Activities are connected by logical dependencies and are represented as nodes
in a network diagram.

There are different types of activities involved in a network, including:

Immediate Predecessor (IP) activity: An activity that must be completed immediately before another
activity can begin.
Immediate Successor (IS) activity: An activity that cannot begin until the preceding activity is completed.

Concurrent activity: An activity that can be performed simultaneously with other activities.

Dummy activity: A placeholder activity used to show the logical relationship between two activities,
without representing an actual task.

Critical activity: An activity that has no slack or float time, meaning that any delay in its completion will
directly impact the overall project schedule.

Non-critical activity: An activity that has slack or float time, meaning that its completion can be delayed
without impacting the overall project schedule.

Burst activity: An activity that has more than one immediate successor.

Merge activity: An activity that has more than one immediate predecessor.

Hammock activity: An activity that spans multiple phases of a project and has a variable duration
depending on the completion of other activities.

By identifying and understanding the different types of activities involved in a network, project managers
can create more accurate and realistic project plans, allocate resources more effectively, and manage
project risks more efficiently.

gayathryskartha@gmail.com

explain modi's method of solving a transportation problem

MODI (Method of Distribution of Incumbency) is a popular optimization technique used to solve
transportation problems. It is an iterative method that is based on the principle of optimality and is used
to find the optimal solution of a transportation problem.

The MODI method involves the following steps:

Step 1: Find the initial basic feasible solution (BFS) using any of the methods such as the North-West
Corner Rule, Vogel's Approximation Method (VAM), or Least Cost Method (LCM).

Step 2: Calculate the opportunity cost (also known as reduced cost) for each non-basic variable (i.e., cell)
in the BFS using the following formula:

Opportunity cost of a cell (i,j) = C(i,j) - Ui - Vj

Where, C(i,j) is the cost of shipping one unit from the i-th source to the j-th destination, Ui and Vj are the
dual variables (or multipliers) associated with the i-th source and j-th destination, respectively.

Step 3: Identify the cell with the highest opportunity cost. This cell is known as the pivot cell.

Step 4: Create a closed loop by starting from the pivot cell and following a path that goes only through
basic variables. A basic variable is a variable that has been assigned a value in the current solution. This
path is called the "cycling path."

Step 5: Calculate the minimum value among the unoccupied cells along the cycling path. This value is the
amount by which the units can be moved from the cells in the forward direction of the cycling path to
the cells in the backward direction of the cycling path.

Step 6: Adjust the solution by moving the units along the cycling path in the opposite direction of the
minimum value calculated in Step 5. This adjustment will result in a new BFS.

Step 7: Update the dual variables (Ui and Vj) using the following formula:
Ui = Ui + min [Opportunity cost of cells in the forward direction of the cycling path]

Vj = Vj + min [Opportunity cost of cells in the backward direction of the cycling path]

Step 8: Repeat Steps 2-7 until there are no negative opportunity costs.

The MODI method is an efficient and effective way to solve transportation problems, as it minimizes the
total cost of transportation while satisfying all the supply and demand constraints. It also provides
information on the shadow prices of the resources (i.e., the dual variables), which can be useful for
decision-making.

gayathryskartha@gmail.com

explain linear programming problem?what are components of linear programming problem

Linear programming is a mathematical optimization technique that is used to determine the best
solution to a problem, given a set of linear constraints. It involves maximizing or minimizing a linear
objective function, subject to a set of linear constraints. Linear programming problems can be used to
model a wide range of real-world problems, including production planning, resource allocation,
transportation, and finance.

The components of a linear programming problem include:

Objective function: This is a linear equation that represents the goal of the problem, whether it is to
maximize or minimize a certain quantity. The objective function is usually denoted as Z.

Decision variables: These are the variables that represent the quantities that need to be determined in
order to achieve the objective. Decision variables are usually denoted by x1, x2, ..., xn.

Constraints: These are linear equations or inequalities that represent the limitations or restrictions on
the decision variables. Constraints are usually denoted as Ax <= b or Ax >= b, where A is a matrix of
coefficients, x is a vector of decision variables, and b is a vector of constants.
Non-negativity constraints: These are constraints that require the decision variables to be non-negative,
i.e., x >= 0.

The general form of a linear programming problem can be written as:

Maximize Z = c1x1 + c2x2 + ... + cnxn

Subject to:

a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1nxn <= b1

a21x1 + a22x2 + ... + a2nxn <= b2

...

am1x1 + am2x2 + ... + amnxn <= bm

x1, x2, ..., xn >= 0

In this formulation, c1, c2, ..., cn are the coefficients of the objective function, aij represents the
coefficients of the i-th constraint and j-th decision variable, and bi represents the right-hand side of the i-
th constraint.

The solution to a linear programming problem can be obtained using various algorithms, such as the
simplex method, interior point method, or the primal-dual method. These methods iteratively search for
the optimal solution by moving from one feasible solution to another, until the best solution is found.

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explain three different approaches of OR model

Operational Research (OR) models are mathematical representations of real-world systems that are used
to analyze and solve complex problems. There are three different approaches to building OR models:
Deterministic models: In deterministic models, all parameters are assumed to be fixed and known with
certainty. These models are based on the assumption that there is no uncertainty or randomness in the
system being modeled. Deterministic models are used when the system being modeled is well
understood and there is little or no variation in the input parameters. Examples of deterministic models
include linear programming, integer programming, and network models.

Stochastic models: In stochastic models, some or all of the parameters are assumed to be random
variables. These models are used when there is uncertainty or variation in the system being modeled.
Stochastic models can be used to analyze the impact of uncertainty on the system's performance and to
identify the most robust or resilient solutions. Examples of stochastic models include Markov decision
processes, queuing models, and simulation models.

Heuristic models: In heuristic models, problem-solving techniques that are not based on mathematical
optimization are used to find good solutions to complex problems. These models are used when the
problem is too complex or the optimization methods are too time-consuming or expensive to apply.
Heuristic models can be used to explore alternative solutions quickly and to identify promising solutions
that can be further optimized using more sophisticated methods. Examples of heuristic models include
genetic algorithms, simulated annealing, and ant colony optimization.

Each approach to building OR models has its advantages and limitations, and the choice of approach
depends on the characteristics of the problem being modeled and the resources available for the
analysis.

gayathryskartha@gmail.com

what is purpose of a mathematical model? how does a model achieve this purpose?

The purpose of a mathematical model is to provide a simplified representation of a real-world system or

problem that can be used to gain insights, make predictions, and guide decision-making. A model is a set
of mathematical equations, rules, and assumptions that describe the behavior of the system being
modeled in a simplified and tractable way.

A model achieves its purpose by allowing us to:

Understand the system: By constructing a mathematical representation of a system, we can gain a
deeper understanding of how it works and how its different components interact with each other.

Make predictions: By simulating the model under different scenarios and assumptions, we can predict
how the system will behave in the future and how it will respond to changes in the input parameters.

Optimize performance: By using the model to identify the best course of action or decision under
different constraints and objectives, we can optimize the performance of the system and achieve the
desired outcomes.

Test hypotheses: By using the model to test different hypotheses or assumptions about the system, we
can evaluate their validity and identify the ones that are most consistent with the available data.

To achieve its purpose, a model must be based on a clear understanding of the system being modeled
and the available data. The model must also be validated and verified using empirical data to ensure that
it accurately reflects the behavior of the real-world system. Once validated, the model can be used to
explore different scenarios and optimize performance under different constraints and objectives.

gayathryskartha@gmail.com

mention types of constraints used in a linear programming problem. explain terms slack and surplus
variable involved in a linear programming problem. illustrate their economic importance

In a linear programming problem, there are typically two types of constraints:

Resource constraints: These are constraints that limit the availability of resources that are required to
produce the goods or services being considered in the problem. Examples of resource constraints
include limits on the availability of raw materials, labor, or manufacturing capacity.
Demand constraints: These are constraints that limit the demand for the goods or services being
considered in the problem. Examples of demand constraints include limits on the amount of product
that can be sold or the maximum amount that a customer is willing to pay.

Slack and surplus variables are introduced in a linear programming problem to help identify unused
resources or unmet demands. A slack variable is a variable that is added to a resource constraint to allow
for unused capacity. The value of the slack variable represents the amount of unused resources that are
available. A surplus variable is a variable that is added to a demand constraint to allow for unmet
demand. The value of the surplus variable represents the amount of unsatisfied demand.

The economic importance of slack and surplus variables lies in their ability to provide insight into the
efficiency and effectiveness of the system being modeled. If the value of a slack variable is large, it
suggests that the system is not using all of its available resources efficiently and that there may be
opportunities to increase production without increasing costs. On the other hand, if the value of a
surplus variable is large, it suggests that the system is not meeting all of the demand for its products and
that there may be opportunities to increase revenue by increasing production.

In summary, slack and surplus variables are important tools for analyzing the performance of a system in
a linear programming problem. They allow for the identification of unused resources and unmet
demand, which can be used to guide decision-making and improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
the system.

gayathryskartha@gmail.com

what is condition for an assignment problem to have feasible solution?how will you solve an assignment
problem which there are impossible assignments?

The condition for an assignment problem to have a feasible solution is that the number of rows and
columns in the cost matrix must be equal, and the matrix must not contain any negative elements. In
other words, each task must be assignable to exactly one agent, and each agent must be able to perform
exactly one task.
If there are impossible assignments in an assignment problem, meaning that some tasks cannot be
assigned to any agents or some agents cannot perform any tasks, then the problem is said to be
infeasible. In such cases, it is not possible to find a feasible solution to the problem.

To solve an assignment problem with impossible assignments, one approach is to introduce dummy tasks
or dummy agents to balance the problem. A dummy task is a task with a zero cost that is added to the
cost matrix to balance the number of rows and columns. Similarly, a dummy agent is an agent with a zero
capacity that is added to the cost matrix to balance the number of tasks and agents. By adding dummy
tasks or agents, the problem can be transformed into a balanced assignment problem, which can then be
solved using standard techniques.

For example, suppose we have an assignment problem with three tasks and two agents, where task 3
cannot be assigned to either agent:

markdown

Copy code

Agent 1 Agent 2

Task 1 5 8

Task 2 9 6

Task 3 INF INF

To balance the problem, we can add a dummy agent with a cost of zero:

markdown

Copy code

Agent 1 Agent 2 Dummy

Task 1 5 8 0

Task 2 9 6 0

Dummy 0 0 0

Now we have a balanced assignment problem with three tasks and three agents, which can be solved
using the Hungarian algorithm or any other method for solving assignment problems. Once a solution
has been found, we can simply ignore the assignments involving the dummy tasks or agents, as they do
not represent any actual tasks or agents.

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give a definition for operational research?

Operational Research (OR) is a scientific approach to decision-making that uses mathematical and
statistical methods to model complex systems and optimize the allocation of resources. It involves the
application of advanced analytical methods to help solve complex problems in a wide range of industries
and organizations, including business, government, healthcare, engineering, and the military. The goal of
OR is to help decision-makers make better decisions by providing them with rigorous, quantitative
analyses that take into account the complexities and uncertainties of real-world situations.

gayathryskartha@gmail.com

mention the method to identify alternate optimal solution in LPP using simplex method

To identify alternate optimal solutions in a linear programming problem using the simplex method, we
can follow these steps:

Solve the problem using the simplex method to obtain the optimal solution.

Check the final tableau to see if there are any non-basic variables with a coefficient of zero in the
objective function row. These variables are called "degenerate variables".

For each degenerate variable, select it as the entering variable and apply the simplex method again to
obtain a new optimal solution.
If the new optimal solution has the same objective function value as the previous one, it is an alternate
optimal solution. Repeat step 3 with other degenerate variables if necessary.

If there are no degenerate variables, we can introduce an artificial variable with a zero cost coefficient
and apply the simplex method again to obtain a new optimal solution. If the new optimal solution has a
non-zero value for the artificial variable, the problem is infeasible. If the value of the artificial variable is
zero, we have found the unique optimal solution.

Note that in some cases, there may be an infinite number of alternate optimal solutions. This can
happen when there is a redundant constraint or when the objective function has multiple optimal values
along a line or plane. In such cases, we may need to use sensitivity analysis or other techniques to
determine the range of values for which each optimal solution is optimal.

gayathryskartha@gmail.com

how would you solve a maximisation problem in a transportation problem?

To solve a maximization problem in a transportation problem using the transportation simplex method,
we can follow these steps:

Formulate the problem as a transportation matrix, where the rows represent sources, the columns
represent destinations, and the cells represent the quantities to be transported.

Add slack variables to convert the inequality constraints into equality constraints.

Set up the initial tableau by assigning a cost to each cell based on the unit cost of transportation and
filling in the supply and demand constraints.

Apply the transportation simplex method to the tableau to obtain an optimal solution. This involves
selecting a non-basic variable with the most negative reduced cost as the entering variable and finding
the pivot element by dividing the corresponding supply or demand constraint by the coefficient of the
entering variable.

Use the pivot element to perform row and column operations to convert the entering variable into a
basic variable and update the tableau.

Repeat steps 4 and 5 until all reduced costs are non-negative, indicating that an optimal solution has
been reached.

If the problem is a maximization problem, we can obtain the maximum total profit by subtracting the
total transportation cost of the optimal solution from the sum of the original profits of the cells.

Note that in some cases, the transportation problem may have degenerate solutions, where one or more
variables have a value of zero in the optimal solution. In such cases, we may need to use methods such
as the MODI method or stepping stone method to obtain a non-degenerate solution and the maximum
profit.

gayathryskartha@gmail.com

explain terms free float and independent float in network analysis

In network analysis, free float and independent float are two types of time available for an activity that
can help to identify the critical path and potential delays in a project.

Free Float:

Free float is the amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying the early start of its
successor activities. In other words, it represents the amount of time an activity can be delayed without
affecting the start time of the next activity. The free float for an activity is calculated as the difference
between the early start of its successor activity and the early finish of the activity itself, minus any
required lag time between the activities. Free float can help to identify activities that have some
flexibility in their scheduling, and can help to optimize the project schedule by delaying non-critical
activities to make better use of available resources.
Independent Float:

Independent float is the amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying the overall project
completion date, taking into account any required lag time between activities. It represents the amount
of flexibility in scheduling an activity, while still meeting the project deadline. Independent float can help
to identify activities that have more flexibility in their scheduling, and can help to optimize the project
schedule by delaying non-critical activities to make better use of available resources.

Both free float and independent float can be used to help identify the critical path in a project network,
which is the longest path of activities that must be completed on time in order to meet the project
deadline. Activities on the critical path have zero free float and independent float, meaning that any
delay in these activities will delay the project completion date. Activities with non-zero free float and/or
independent float are not on the critical path and can be delayed without delaying the project
completion date, but they still need to be completed before the next dependent activity can start.

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explain different types of calling population in a queuing system

In queuing theory, the calling population refers to the group of potential customers who could arrive at a
service system. The characteristics of the calling population can have a significant impact on the
performance of the queuing system, including factors such as the arrival rate, service time distribution,
and queue length.

There are three main types of calling populations in a queuing system:

Finite population: A finite population is one in which the total number of potential customers is known
and fixed. This type of calling population is typically found in situations where the customers are well-
defined, such as a hospital emergency room or a bank with a fixed number of account holders. In a finite
population, the arrival rate may change over time as customers arrive and depart from the system.
Infinite population: An infinite population is one in which the total number of potential customers is so
large that it is considered infinite for practical purposes. This type of calling population is typically found
in situations where the customers are not well-defined, such as a retail store or a restaurant. In an
infinite population, the arrival rate is typically assumed to be constant over time, as there is always a
new supply of potential customers.

Bulk arrival population: A bulk arrival population is one in which multiple customers arrive at the same
time, rather than individually. This type of calling population is typically found in situations such as the
arrival of a bus or train at a station, or the arrival of a group of people for a meeting. In a bulk arrival
population, the arrival rate is typically higher than in a single arrival population, and the service system
must be able to handle the simultaneous arrival of multiple customers.

The type of calling population in a queuing system can have a significant impact on the performance of
the system, and different queuing models may be used depending on the characteristics of the calling
population. For example, a queuing model for a finite population may need to take into account the
number of potential customers, while a queuing model for an infinite population may need to focus on
the arrival rate and service time distribution.

gayathryskartha@gmail.com

mention the method to identify infeasible solution in linear programming problem using graphical
method

To identify an infeasible solution in a linear programming problem using the graphical method, we need
to follow these steps:

Graph the constraints: Draw the graph of each constraint equation, including any non-negativity
constraints. The feasible region will be the area that satisfies all of the constraints.

Check if the feasible region exists: If the feasible region does not exist (i.e., the constraints are
contradictory), then the problem has no solution and is infeasible. This can be identified by looking for a
region where no feasible solutions exist.
Check if the objective function intersects the feasible region: If the feasible region exists, then we need
to check whether the objective function intersects the feasible region. If the objective function does not
intersect the feasible region, then the problem has no feasible solution and is infeasible. This can be
identified by checking if the objective function line is parallel to any of the constraint lines and does not
intersect the feasible region.

Check if the feasible region is unbounded: If the feasible region is unbounded (i.e., extends infinitely in
one or more directions), then the problem may be feasible but unbounded. This means that the
objective function can be increased or decreased without limit, and there is no optimal solution. This can
be identified by looking for a region where the constraints do not fully enclose the feasible region.

By following these steps, we can identify whether a linear programming problem is feasible or infeasible
using the graphical method. If the problem is infeasible, we need to either revise the constraints or the
objective function to make the problem feasible. If the problem is feasible, we can then use optimization
techniques to find the optimal solution.

gayathryskartha@gmail.com

how to identify and obtain alternate optimal solution in assignment problem?

To identify and obtain alternate optimal solutions in an assignment problem, we can use the following
method:

Solve the problem using the Hungarian algorithm or any other suitable method to obtain the optimal
solution.

Calculate the opportunity cost matrix: Subtract the smallest value in each row or column from every
element in that row or column.

Identify the non-basic variables with a zero opportunity cost: Look for cells in the opportunity cost matrix
with a zero value that correspond to non-assigned cells in the original problem. These cells are the non-
basic variables that can be changed without affecting the objective function value.
Perform sensitivity analysis: For each of the non-basic variables with a zero opportunity cost, calculate
the impact on the objective function value if the variable is changed by a small amount. This can be done
by adding or subtracting a small value (e.g., 0.01) to the cell and re-solving the problem.

Identify the alternate optimal solutions: If the objective function value remains unchanged after
changing one of the non-basic variables with a zero opportunity cost, then that variable can be changed
to obtain an alternate optimal solution. Repeat this process for all the non-basic variables with a zero
opportunity cost to identify all the alternate optimal solutions.

Obtain the alternate optimal solutions: To obtain the alternate optimal solutions, we need to modify the
original assignment to reflect the new variable assignments. This can be done by swapping the assigned
and unassigned cells in the rows and columns corresponding to the non-basic variables that have been
changed.

By following these steps, we can identify and obtain all the alternate optimal solutions in an assignment
problem.

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write the standardised form of linear programming problem

The standard form of a linear programming problem is as follows:

Maximize (or Minimize) Z = c1x1 + c2x2 + ... + cnxn

subject to the constraints:

a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1nxn ≤ b1

a21x1 + a22x2 + ... + a2nxn ≤ b2

............................................

am1x1 + am2x2 + ... + amnxn ≤ bm

and

x1, x2, ..., xn ≥ 0

Where:

Z is the objective function that needs to be maximized or minimized.

c1, c2, ..., cn are the coefficients of the variables in the objective function.

aij are the coefficients of the variables in the ith constraint and jth variable.

bi is the right-hand side value of the ith constraint.