BRM unit -2 Research Design Re ign is the Research design 7 the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher to Preeti: The design allows researchers to sharpen the research methods suitable forthe subject matter and set up their studies for success. Creating a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey research, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and its sub-type (experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study) Research design is a blueprint of a scientific study. It includes research methodologies, tools, and techniques to conduct the research. It helps to identify and address the problem that may rise during the process of research and analysis, A researcher usually chooses the research methodologies and techniques at the start of the research, The document that contains information about the technique, methods and essential The Process of Research Design The research design process is a systematic and structured approach to conducting research. The process is essential to ensure that the study is valid, reliable, and produces meaningful results. Y Consider your aims and approaches: Determine the research questions and objectives, and identify the theoretical framework and methodology for the study. Y Choose a type of Research Design: Select the appropriate research design, Such as experimental, correlational, survey, case study, or ethnographic, based on the research questions and objectives Y Identify your population and sampling method: Determine the target population and sample size, and choose the sampling method, such as random, stratified, or convenience sampling. ; Choose your data collection methods: Decide on the methods, such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments, and select the appropriate instruments or tools for collecting data. : Y Plan your data collection procedures: Develop a plan for data collection, including the timeframe, location, and personnel involved, and ensure ethical iderations. . : : v pana 7 our data analysis strategies: Select the appropriate data analysis techniques, such as ‘statistical analysis, content analysis, or discourse analysis, 5 interpret the results. and plan how to it lesign is a critical step in conducting research. By Y The process of research desitn © Ae archers can ensure that ther study is following the steps of reseal well-planned, ethical, and rigorous.BRM unit PS Research Design Elements Impactful research usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the slightest margin of error in experimental research is generally considered the desired outcome. The essential elements are: Accurate purpose statement Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research ‘The method applied for analyzing collected details ‘Type of research methodology... Probable objections to research Settings for the research study Timeline Measurement of analysis SKANK NARS Features of good Research Desi ign A proper design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets all of the main characteristics of a design. There are four key characteristics: Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data you expect to collect. The results projected in the research should be free from bias and neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusions from multiple individuals and consider those who agree with the results, Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher expects similar results every time. You'll only be able to reach the desired results if your design is reliable. Your plan should indicate how to form research questions to ensure the standard of results. Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the research. The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid, Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a restricted sample. A generalized method implies that your survey can be conducted on any part of a population with similar accuracy. ‘The above factors affect how respondents answer the research questions, so they should balance all the above characteristics in a good design.Uses of good research design © Itmay result in the preferred kind of study with helpful conclusion. © It cuts down on inaccuracy. * Allows you get optimum efficiency and reliability. . Reduce wastage of time. Reduce uncertainty, confusion and practical haphazard related to any research problem. Of great help for collection of research material and testing of hypothesis. Itis a guide for giving research the right path. Gets rid of bias and marginal errors. Provides an idea concerning the type of resources needed in terms of money, effort, time, and manpower. Smooth & efficient sailing (sets boundaries & helps'prevent blind search) Maximizes reliability of results, Provides firm foundation to the endeavor. ~ Research Design Types A researcher myst clearly understand the various types to select which model to implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your analysis can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative, * + Qualitative research It determines relationships between collected dafg and observations based on mathematical calculations. Statistical methods gan prove or disprove theories related to a naturally existing phenomenon. Researchers rely on qualitative reggaych methods that conclude “why” a particular theory exists and “what” respondents have to say aban it + | Quantitative research Itis for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide better perspective for making critical business decisions. Quantitative research methods Are necessary for the growth of any organization. Insights drawn from complex numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective when making decisions about the business’s future.BRM unit -2 SS Qu: ¢ Research vs Quantitative Research Here is a chart that highlights the major differences between qualitative and quantitative research: Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Focus on explaining and understanding experiences and perspectives. Focus on quantifying and measuring phenomena. Use of non-numerical data, such as words, images, and observations. Use of numerical data, such as statistics and surveys. Usually uses small sample sizes. Usually uses larger sample sizes. Typically emphasizes in-depth exploration and interpretation. Typically emphasizes precision and objectivity. Data analysis involves interpretation and narrative analysis. Data analysis involves statistical analysis and hypothesis testing. Results are presented descriptively. Results are presented numerically and statistically. In summary, qualitative research is more exploratory and focuses on understanding the subjective experiences of individuals, while quantitative research is more focused on nhiactiva data and ctatictinal analvcieSe Benefits of Research Design ‘There are several benefits of having a well-designed research plan. Including: «Clarity of research objectives: Research design provides a clear understanding of the research objectives and the desired outcomes. Increased validity and reliability: To ensure the validity and reliability of results, research design help to minimize the risk of bias and helps to control extraneous variables. Improved data collection: Research design helps to ensure that the proper data is collected and data is collected systematically and consistently. + Better data analysis: Research design helps ensure that the collected data can be analyzed effectively, providing meaningful insights and conclusions. Improved communication: A well-designed research helps ensure the results are clean and influential within the research team and external stakeholders. Efficient use of resources: reducing the risk of waste and maximizing the impact of the research, research design helps to ensure that resources are used efficiently. ‘A well-designed research plan is essential for successful research, providing clear and meaningful insights and ensuring that resources must be practical.Research methodology ( unit -2) Exploratory Research Expe ental Research Design is the research design implied in case of exploratory research. In this ‘type of research, researchers try to uncover the hidden and unknown facts and phenomena. This kind of research is helpful in exploring the information for problems which have not been defined precisely. it is also called as formative research. It tries to answer the questions with appropriate reasons. For example, in order to find out the reasons behind the continuous growth of cases of Ebola infection, 1n providing the reasons is hidden in this case. exploratory research is used as the inform: Exploratory research design is suitable for those cases, where no prior studies or background knowledge is available for reference. The major focus of these studies is to gain knowledge so that further investigations can be carried-out. Basically.this research is the initial stage of future in-depth investigations. Sometimes, exploratory research is conducted to know the suitable methodology for certain research problem. A general exploratory research design attempts to provide maximum information in minimum time with least, possible effort and money. Final decisions or results cannot be prepared with the help of exploratory research. Using this research, the researcher is able to develop the hypotheses regarding various research problems. Types of Exploratory Research Design Exploratory research designs often help create qualitative data. Qualitative data is that which is derived from events, behavioral patterns, interpretations, and other such descriptive matter, rather than numbers, text, and visuals. Exploratory research designs seldom create quantitative data. Projective Techniques Projective techniques are used in those areas of qualitative research where the researcher aims to achieve a greater understanding of a subject. Under this technique, individuals are asked to express their opinions and feelings on a situation or behavior of another individual. Hypothetical situations and/or behavioral patterns of individuals are created, which are ambiguous and vague in nature, and respondents are requested to express their beliefs and feelings on the same.Research methodology ( unit -2) Types of Projective Techniques Projective techniques can be classified into the following types : 1) Sentence Completion: Under this technique, participants are provided with incomplete sentences, that are referred to as ‘slams’, and encouraged to complete these sentences their own way. This provides insight into the thoughts and motivations of the respondents, 2)Word Association: Word association is another commonly used technique of projective qualitative research. Under this technique, participants are provided with a list of words, one by one, and requested to state the first thing that comes to their mind in response to each of these words. 3) Story Completion: Here, participants are given an incomplete story which, though subtly leads to a pre-determined topic, does not in any way provide an insight into the ending, Participants are required to conclude the story in their own way. 4) Verbal Projection Tests: In these tests, a situation is described to the participants either orally, or by exploiting simple methods of visual presentation. Participants are then required to provide their thoughts and opinions on the effects the situation could have on others, not themselves. However, in doing so, respondents provide an insight into their own altitudes. 5) Pictorial Techniques: Pictorial technique was essentially adopted to make photography a part of fine art. In this technique, respondents are requested to describe the artistic quality of an image, rather than the contents of the image itself. 6) Play Techniques: Play techniques are a well known stimulating form of research where each participant is assigned a role and then asked to improvise and enact the character. This technique may be used by a researcher to ance, sympathy, sub observe various behavioral traits of participants, such as dot fairness, etc. Play technique is usually adopted in understanding the behavior of children. ‘D Quizzes, Tests and Examinations: A quiz may be defined as a game wherein participants attempt to answer questions correctly. A test may be defined as an examination to evaluate the characteristics, aptitudes, capabilities, and level of skill of —eeee———sxX——Research methodology (unit -2) participants. Tests are conducted under reablife or simulated conditions. An examination may be defined as a general inspection or investigation of products and/or services. in conjunction with pre-set requirements. Such examinations do not need the use of special laboratory or scientific equipment and processes. 8) Socio-metric Analy: Socio-metric analysis is used to observe and understand the relationships among individuals of a group- ‘This technique helps analyse the attractions and repulsion's between persons under varied circumstances, by encouraging them to decide who they would or would not choose under said conditions and circumstances. Significance of Projective Techniques The significance of projective techniques has been listed below : 1) Additional Means of Gathering Information: Projective techniques are often used in conjunction with other techniques of research. In researcher is able to achieve deeper understanding of a subject and gather more information which his manner, a helps analyse situations better. For example, a researcher may use projective techniques of research along with the method of depth interviews. 20 One of the crucial significance of projective techniques is that it helps the researcher in obtaining responses from participants which they otherwise may not be comfortable in providing, had they been irpose of the research. Respondents who are reluctant in nature can also be encouraged projective techniques make research more participative. 's Response: aware of the pi to elicit responses quietly. Additionally, 3) Helps In Addressing Issues: Projective techniques are beneficial in situations where the issues that need to be addressed are sensitive and personal, and participants may not otherwise be willing to respond. Its also helpful in ‘cases where a researcher aims to study the underlying beliefs and motivations of respondents that cannot be observed through more direct and formal means of research. 44) Helps in Viaking Research Sessions More Interactive and Interesting: ‘The methods of projective research, such as, play techniques, story completion, etc., can make sessions more interesting and make participants more responsive. They are a unique form of research methodology that can help obtain data where no other form of research methodology may be successful, In today's time and age, information is available promptly and abundantly. Hence, unless —— nnn3) Other Limitations: These may include the following: ges of other unstructured direct techniques, but, to a greater extent. This methodology requires highly trained interviewers to conduct the research and make noteworthy observations. Interpreters of information must also be highly skilled to clearly understand the motive of the research and analyse results in the same direction. Being a subjective technique, dependent on the feelings of the observer himself/herself, projective techniques run the risk of an unjust or unfair bias in interpretation. Itis an expensive method of research. 'n order to derive at results, projective techniques may require respondents to act in an unusual manner, which may not always be achievable.= nt tir Research methodology ( unit -2) Depth Interview ews | When a small group of respondents is intensively interviewed on individual basis so as to measure their \ perception about a particular event, concept, idea or situation, its called 'Depth interview. ‘taffec For example, a depth interview can be conducted to explore the reviews of participants of an * sia organisational event about the nature of operations, activities, its usefulness or changes required if any. Numerous topics or issues like strategic planning, program improvement, problem identification, need analysis, etc,, can be facilitated with the help of depth interviews. itis very helpful for getting in-depth information from relatively small number of participants, with the help of asking only open-ended questions. As depth interviews allow researchers to intensely recognize the attitudes and perceptions of the respondents over a given issue, they are majorly used for designing and evaluating extension programs. Characteristics of Depth Interview 1) Open-Ended Questions : Researchers use open ended questions in such interviews so as to allow respondents to illustrate their response other than saying only 'yes' or ‘no’. As majority of open ended questions include ‘how’ and, ‘why’, it enables the respondents to use their own words so as to answer the researcher's questions. © 2) Semi-Structured Format : Depth interviews also contain responsive questions which arise due to previous responses of the interviewee. This is called semi-structured formal. No fixed pattern of sequencing of questions is s cricket, the very next question from the. followed. For example, if an interviewee claims that he interviewer would be "Which is your favorite cricket player?" 3) Clear Listening and Interpretation: PLOPESOKOV ALK!)Research methodology ( unit -2) ‘Aclear insight of the respondent can be developed with depth interviews as it involves significant time and one-on-one approach. 2)Helps in Developing Relationship ‘Astrong relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee is developed in such interviews. It helps in collecting revealing and personal information from the respondents. 3) Responses are Free from Peer Pressure: Depth interviews enable the respondents to deliver right and proper information without being affected by peer pressure or group norms. 4) Easier to Schedule: It is very easy for the researcher to schedule a depth interview with the respondent: There is no such system of arranging twelve people for a single interview like in a focus group study. Limitations of Depth Interview 1) Costly: Large amount of time and money is consumed in depth interviews. Arranging different interviews with different respondents for a specified time period costs lot of money. 2)Time-Consuming: ually, it takes lot of time. At a time only one individual is ‘As respondents are to be interviewed indi interviewed, therefore, significant time is consumed in depth interviews. 3) Need of Skilled and Qualified interviewers: One of the limitations of depth interviews is the need of qualified interviewers for the purpose. It is not possible for the ordinary interviewer to collect in-depth information from the respondents, 4) Small Sample Si Sample size is relatively small as only one indi representative-ness of these samples as these are very small. Therefore, ual is interviewed at a time. There is issue of very difficult to reach accurate results. 5) Unscier ‘The depth interviews are unscientific in nature 8.5 the pattern is unstructured. It affects the validity of the information collected by the researcher. llResearch methodology ( unit -2) NS ee Experience Survey When experts or individuals having significant information on the concerned topic are approached for collecting relevant information, itis called Experience Survey’. Individuals from within or outside the research organization who are familiar with research problem may be involved in experience surveys. This is the reason experience surveys are also called ‘expert opinion surveys’. The only purpose here is to utilize the experience of these experts in gaining valuable insight of the problem. 1g executive would be For example, in order to deal with a consumer product problem, a marke sufficient to provide required information as he is having experience in the field of consumer marketing. The information provided by him may.be very useful for the research problem. Information can also be taken from sales executives,, sales manager, product manager or any senior officer of the organisation. Significance of Experience Survey 1) Gaining Additional Knowledge: Generally, in order to collect expert information on a particular research topic, experience surveys are inal information for the research. used. It helps in collecting add 2) Collecting Vital Information: Experience surveys are very helpful in getting vital information about any topic. It is not possible to collect such information without experience surveys. 3) Information from Expert/Experienced People : Experience surveys are also important because it includes information from expert or experienced people. This information is very reliable. Limitations of Experience Survey 1) Difficulty in Obtaining Views and Perception: One of the major limitations of the experience surveys is the difficulty in obtai perceptions of the experts about the crucial aspects of the research topic under study. 2) Only Used When Secondary Data is Difficult to Obtain: In practice, experience surveys are only used in cases where, itis not possible for the researcher to ing the views and collect secondary data for the research. 3) inflexible Questionnaire:Research methodology ( unit -2) Another limitation of the experience surveys is the inflexibility of the questionnaire used in the surveys. For a proper research study itis very important to have flexibility in the questionnaire used as it helps in studying several other dimensions important for the study. 4) Possibility of Altering Perception: Sometimes, experience surveys en: perception of people towards a particular concept or event Focus Groups Focus group is a method in which a group of respondents is selected so as to collect desired information through a formal interactive session. It is also called 'group interviewing method’. In this, the respondents response to the questions of a moderator (sometimes researcher himself/herself) to discuss about the given topic or research problem. Moderator asks specially designed questions so as to explore in depth information. The information explored here is not possible to collect from other generating such statements/questions which affect the techniques like - surveys, observations or interviews. Focus group method is characterized by the use of ed. It significant methods and strategies so as to collect and or the analyse the information generated here. This makes focus group method a reliable source of data collection. This type of method is used in areas like Vital new product concept or new product development, improvement of production-tine in an organisation, motivation program for new employees, etc, This method results in behavioral observations of the respondents, list of ideas and few recommendations from the moderator. These observations and ideas are inter quantitatively tested. Focus group is applied to different research areas and the most popular research area is consumer research, Significance of Focus Groups 1) Cost-effective : {As generally six to twelve respondents are interviewed collectively in a focus group method, most cost-effective method of exploratory research collecting significant information. 2) Time Saving : ‘Another point proving the significance of the focus group method is that it is time saving. Group of respondents is interviewed in one attempt, thus, lot of time is saved. 3) Recording of Session : The whole interview session is recorded in focus group method so as to observe the behavioral or verbal responses of the respondents at later stages of the research. aResearch methodology ( unit -2) 4) Group Interaction Focus group method is also significant because different respondents in the group interact with each other and it helps in generating useful information and ideas. 5) Controllable : Focus group is also useful because it is controllable. The flow of the interaction can be directed by the moderator so as to maintain the discussion in the right direction. It is the duty of the moderator that required topics are covered in the session so as to explore useful information. 6) In-Depth Exploration of Topics : Focus groups are popularly used for in-depth exploration of the research topic with the help of different respondents. It helps in describing unclear concepts and issues. Limitations of Focus Groups 1) Non-representative Sample: Generally few individuals are selected for the process and they may argue over a particular issue. Thus, they are not the true representative of the population. 2) Embarrassment Factor: Ina focus group method, embarrassment factor is very much active. Respondents may hesitate to express their true thoughts over a particular issue due to fear of embarrassment or rejection from peer members. This affects the reliability of the collected information. 3) Effect of Dominance: Dominance factor is also active in few focus group sessions. Few dominant respondents rule over introvert and affect their opinion or response. It leads to poor quality of information. 4) Moderator Effect: ‘Sometimes, moderators spoil the flow of the interaction due to poor management. It leads to loss of quality information from the respondents. 5) Inconclusive Results: The information collected from such focus group methods needs to be processed and analysed in order to be effective. The information collected cannot be used at itis.Research methodology (unit -2) Observation ‘The method involving the systematic recording and assessment of behavioral forms of a particular individual (or group of individual), object or event so as to collect desired information about a research problem alled ‘Observation’. Here, the observer observes the object from a suitable distance or through audio video recordings. The information is recorded for ature use. The respondents may be observed in thelr natural environment Or & contrived environment is designed for the purpose. The approach for observation may be direct or indirect, structured or e observation method is very popular for behavioral science researches. unstructured. Th {tit cannot be termed as scientific F but blem is the focus of here a particular research pro! ig such observations. | observes certain things around him/he ion wi lling is required for recordin ro collect accurate information. Every individual observation. Scientific observation is the observat the observation. A systematic planning and contro! bifferent validity and reliability check measures are used here soas tt Methods of Observation 4) Structured and Unstructured Observation: ts are clearly described to the ob: the observer is free to observe w! When the research area or object server, itis called ‘structured observation’. On the other hand, hatever he/she thinks important. in ‘unstructured observation’. 2) Direct and Indirect Observation: respondent's behavior directly by the observer. On fers to the observation of the ‘erved by the observer SO servation, the previous irrent research topic ‘Direct observation’ refé the other hand, in ‘indirect o! |y recorded behavior is obs as to finds any relevant pattern for the cur 3) Natural and Contrived Observation: cerver prefers to observe th fected by cert he object in laboratory wnt economic measureme! alistic environment, itis called al or re iables, . In order to eliminate such vari lied ‘contrived observation’. In jon of information. .e object in his/her natur. tain extraneous variables setting. Itis cal nts aroused for effective collecti When the obs upatural observation’. It is a observer prefers to observe tl contrived observation differer 4) Disguised Observation: rmants d because generally resP easy to perform such observation due ethical Je without describing them the purpose). he observation process, itis called ‘disguised 1 when they are sare not informed about t (itis ethically wrong ondents modify their behavior When the objects or infor norms observation’. Itis preferres informed. Although itis no! to observe behavior of peop! oe ‘Research methodology (unit -2) ———— rey Cun) 5) Human-Mechanical Observation: When a person is assigned to observe the behavior of a respondent, it s called human observation’. ‘Whereas observation done by a machine or instrument (like audiometers, eye cameras, etc.) is called mechanical observation’. Generally, human observations are preferred as it uses trained observers who are reliable, Mechanical observations do not have this much reliability and validity. Significance of Observation 1) Suitable for Non-verbal Behavior: Generally, survey method is used to collect the verbal information from different respondents, but in «case of collecting information through non verbal behavior, observation method is useful. In-depth information about the respondent can be collected through observing his/her behavior. 2) In-depth Informati Due to prolonged closeness between the observer and the respondent, a healthy and informal relationship is developed between them. The closeness increases with the time. It leads to exploration of in-depth and private information from the respondent. 3) Free from Biasness: As the behavior of the respondent is observed in natural setting, itis free from biasness. Genuine and reliable information is generated through observation method. 4) Useful in Longitudinal Analysis: Observation method is very useful for longitudinal analysis as the observation may be continued to prolonged period Limitations of Observation 1) Lack of Control: In observation method, the most critical point is the nature of control. It is not possible for the observer to control the natural variables affecting the behavior of the respondent. 2) Difficulties of Quantification: Another limitation of observation method is the absence of quantification of data. The beh respondents cannot be quantified, only the nature of their behavior may be described for research purpose.Observation method is Bisson eral edmpied tifa het may not be the representative of the total population. Uses of Exploratory Research J Allavestigating an issue ; ‘without incurring large amount of money or effort For example, pilot studies can be used for collecting information about developing a questionnaire, Priorities can be easily established through exploratory research, when Competing issues or objects, For example, priorities for organisational Products or services can be developed through customer Complaint letters, 4) Clarifying Concepts Different typical concepts may also be clarified through exploratory research, For example, management of an organisation aims to enhance dealer satisfaction through modifying its Service policies; an exploratory research can be conducted to explain the term dealer satisfaction, InResearch methodology ( unit -2) SS 1 another example, customers of a particular bank, i, retail and commercial customers, can be clarified through exploratory research. 5) Framing Problems : Exploratory research is also used to frame different typical problems. For example, through collecting information about the level of water in certain areas, a water crisis Problem can be framed by exploratory research. Different techniques like observations, personal interviews, focus groups, etc., may be used for this purpose. 6) Knowing Market Trend: Exploratory research is also useful in knowing the trends prevalent in the target market so as to help ‘management decide its strategy. Sometimes, management is not able to design a suitable strategy for the market due to unavailability of required information. Exploratory research may be very useful in this, situation. For example, different crucial information about the market can be collected through exploratory research in order to develop product modifications. Significance / Importance of Exploratory Research 1) New Discoveries 2) Enhances Knowledge 3) Wide Range of Techniques 4) Directs Future Research 5) Strategic Planning Limitations of Exploratory Research 1) Leads to Wrong Decisions 2) Incorrect Information 3) Cannot, be generalized 4) CostlyResearch methodology (unit -2) Descriptive Research When the objective of the research is to describe the characteristics of a phenomenon or population, the researchers select descriptive research. It can provide and describe the critical features and information about the target population or environment. It describes the answers for questions like what, who, how, when, where, etc. The objective of descriptive research is to reveal the already present data or feature in the given population. in other words, it can be said that descriptive research seeks to explain phenomenon and the reasons and assumptions behind the specific behavior. For example, archaeologists explained the Harappan civilization and described many significant findings such as urban planning, baked brick houses, drainage system, water supply system, etc., which has influenced modern society to a great extent. Descriptive research emphasizes an explaining the phenomenon by providing factual and accurate information, but does not discuss the variables responsiblé for a situation. Also the effect of a particular variable cannot be measured; it can only be described. Therefore, it cannot be used for describing the cause and effect relationship among the variables. Descriptive research focuses on the status of a given environment. Its very suitable for research in education, management, epidemiology, and social sciences, behavioral sciences, etc. Both qualitative and quantitative data are produced through descriptive research that helps in describing the state of nature at a given time. ‘Types of Descriptive Research Designs In order to derive answers to the questions like who, what, when, ‘where, and how, researchers take the help of descriptive research. It helps in determining who the buyers are, what products they buy, the time or situation when they buy, the place where they buy, and how they buy. Descriptive research also used to explore findings of a given research project. Descriptive research is of two types. Descriptive research method are as follows : Ceara Dea Ly eae 5 alpen eee)Research methodology ( unit -2) 1) Cross-Sectional Research : Using sample of a given population to explore its features is called ‘cross-sectional research’, only if the sample is used once in a time, Different entities like individuals, retail stores, dealers or households can be used as samples. Generally, cross-sectional study is used for descriptive research purposes. For example, in order, to determine the attitude of different scholars on the issue of adding an internship curriculum to the course of a degree program, cross sectional study would be helpful as the attitude of scholars are measured once. Cross sectional research is also called 'snapshot' of the target. population as measurement is done only once. Most of the organisations use cross-sectional studies to test their advertising and its effect. For example, a ‘storyboard’ is prepared by organisations to test their advertisements. Storyboard is made-up of proposed advertisement copy and drawings of major clips of the proposed ad. After showing the storyboard to a small group of customers, few relative questions are asked to determine if the ad is clearly understood by them or not. Their level of interest is also measured. Customers’ reactions help organisations in determining the effectiveness of ad copy, ad appeal or its creative contents. A.typical question intended to measure the intention of customers to purchase the proposed product is also asked. ‘Small as well as very large samples can be used for cross-sectional research. These samples may or may not necessarily be representatives of any larger population. When large-sized samples being representative of any larger population are used in cross-sectional research, these are called "sample surveys". Types of Cross-Sectional Research ‘Two types of cross-sectional researches are found : i) Single Cross-Sectional Research : In this a single sample of the larger population is used only once for data collection. Multiple Cross-Sectional Research : In this, more than one samples are selected from the larger population and data is collected only once from each of the samples. Often, a long time gap is taken in collecting data from different samples. 2- Longitudinal Research When a sample (or group of samples) of a larger population is repeatedly measured over a period of time, it is called longitudinal research. Longitudinal research is also called 'movies' (with reference to cross-sectional research being called 'snapshot of the population). of the target population as samples are measured multiple times. Generally, panel methods and panel data are used in such researches. AResearch methodology (unit -2) panel is a group of entities being interviewed again and again and panel data represents the repeated ‘measurements of such panel. For example, when a group of families is asked to record its purchases of different kinds of products at regular intervals like, weekly, monthly or quarterly, il is called longitudinal research and it helps in identifying the changes in buying behavior of the target families. It is very necessary for the researchers to measure same samples for repeated measurements so as to bring effectiveness in the process of longitudinal research. The most crucial task in such research is to ‘maintain the panel of the respondents. There are numerous research firms in the market which maintain different consumer panels to be used in different longitudinal researches. Almost fifty per cent of the business researches are based on longitudinal research. ‘Types of Longitudinal Research ‘Two types of panel are used in longitudinal research : i) Traditional Panel : Here, a same variable is measured repeatedly at regular intervals. ii) Omnibus Panel : Here, the nature of information is different each time it is collected from the respondents. Uses of Descriptive Research Designs 1) Highlighting Social Problems : Descriptive research highlights the prevalent social problems in a region. It helps in designing related policies as well as social actions so as to combat such problems. For example, different social problems like poverty, drug addiction, hunger, child abuse/ child labour, public education, environment pollution, crime, medical issues, etc., are described with the help of descriptive research only. 2) Real Life Situations : Descriptive research is also used in exploring real life situations or issues. It helps in identifying problems, taking decisions or formulating theories about what other people do in the similar situation. 3) Identification of Retationshi Itis also used in identifying relevant relationships between different factors. For example, relation between a disease and risk factors can easily be described by descriptive research. A relation may be described between the data collected and the situational variables of the study or between data collected and the behavioral variables of the participants.Research methodology (unit -2) ing program of a given retail institution or the qualities of successful salespersons can For example, ti be easily explored by the descriptive research design. 4) Acquiring Knowledge : In case a particular situation or topic is not researched earlier or very small amount of information is, available ona particular issue, descriptive research is used to acquire knowledge about such events. It ‘generates need for or acts as a basis for further research on such topics in the future. 5) Observing Natural Behaviors : In order to observe natural behaviors of respondents, descriptive research is used by researchers. Different social scientists, psychologists.anthropologists, etc., use descriptive study to. collect natural behavior of the target object. For example, organisations aiming to analyse the morale of the staff or the marketers wishing to identify the buying habits of customers, use descriptive research design. Importance of Descriptive Research Designs 1) Wider Scope les Life Experiences 2) Pro\ 3) Provides Relevant Data 4) Reduces Risk Limitations of Descriptive Research Designs 1) Unwillingness to Answer 2) Manipulation of Responses 3) Errors 4) Requires More Skills 5) Unreliable and Unscientific