GE1702

APPLICATIONS ON OTHER BRANCHES OF MATHEMATICS

Throughout Calculus, we learned different applications of differential and integral calculus.

• Finding the Slope of a curve – Calculus gave us a generalized method of finding the slope of a curve. Calculus allows
us to find out how steeply a curve will tilt at any given time. This can be very useful in any area of study.

• Calculating the Area of Any Shape – We have standard methods to calculate the area of some shapes. Calculus allows
us to do much more. Trying to find the area of a shape like this would be very difficult if it weren’t for calculus.

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• Calculate Complicated 𝑥𝑥-intercepts – Without the Intermediate Value Theorem, it would be exceptionally hard to
find or even know that a root existed in some functions. Using tools in Calculus, we can also calculate an irrational
root to any degree of accuracy, something our calculator would not be able to tell us if it wasn’t for calculus.

• Visualizing Graphs – Using calculus, we can practically graph any function or equation we would like. We can find
out the maximum and minimum values, where it increases and decreases, and much more without even graphing a
point, all using calculus.

• Finding the Average of a Function – A function can represent many things. One example is the path of an airplane.
Using calculus, you can calculate its average cruising altitude, velocity, and acceleration. Same goes for a car, bus,
or anything else that moves along a path.

• Calculating Optimal Values – By using the optimization of functions in just a few steps, you can answer very practical
and useful questions such as: “You have a square piece of cardboard, with sides 1 meter in length. Using that piece
of cardboard, you can make a box, what are the dimensions of a box containing the maximal volume?” These types
of problems are a wonderful result of what calculus can do for us.

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• Indefinite integrals also have applications in mathematical economics.

Definition 4.1
Marginal cost is the change in total cost resulting from one unit change of production. If 𝐶𝐶(𝑥𝑥) is the total cost
function for producing 𝑥𝑥 units, then the marginal cost function is given by 𝐶𝐶’(𝑥𝑥). Overhead cost is the cost when
no units are produced, that is, 𝐶𝐶(0).

Example 4.1
The marginal cost function for a commodity is given by 𝐶𝐶’(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 5, where 𝑥𝑥 is the number of units
produced. Suppose the overhead cost is P 1,000. Find
a. the total cost function, and
b. the cost of producing ten (10) units.

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Solution:
a. Recall by definition of antiderivative that since 𝐶𝐶 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 5, or 𝑑𝑑�𝐶𝐶(𝑥𝑥)� = (3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 5)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
where 𝐶𝐶(𝑥𝑥) is the total cost function, then
𝐶𝐶(𝑥𝑥) = �(3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 5)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘,
for some constant 𝑘𝑘. Now, the overhead cost is 𝐶𝐶(0) = 𝑘𝑘. But it is given that the overhead cost is P 1,000.
Therefore, 𝑘𝑘 = 1,000 and
𝐶𝐶(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 1,000.
b. Let 𝑥𝑥 = 10, then
𝐶𝐶(10) = 103 + 2(102 ) + 5(10) + 1,000 = 2,250.
Therefore, the cost of producing ten (10) units is P 2,250.

• In life sciences, calculus is applied in predicting population growth.

Example 4.2
The growth rate of a city’s population after 𝑡𝑡 years is modeled by 𝑃𝑃′ (𝑡𝑡) = 500𝑡𝑡1.06. If the city’s current
population is 50,000, what will be its population after 10 years?
Solution:
We first want to find the function 𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡) which gives the population after 𝑡𝑡 years. Since 𝑃𝑃′ (𝑡𝑡) = 500𝑡𝑡1.06, then
500 2.06
𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡) = 500 � 𝑡𝑡1.06 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶.
2.06
To solve for 𝐶𝐶, we use the fact that the city’s current population is 50,000, that is, 𝑃𝑃(0) = 50,000. But
500
𝑃𝑃(0) = ⋅ (0)2.06 + 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶.
2.06
Hence, it follows that 𝐶𝐶 = 50,000 and
500 2.06
𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑡𝑡 + 50,000.
2.06
Therefore, after ten (10) years, the population of the city will be
500
𝑃𝑃(10) = ⋅ 102.06 + 50,000 ≈ 77,868.
2.06

Note: The answer is rounded off since population is a counting number.

PROBABILITY THEORY
The 𝑧𝑧-table is a very useful tool in probability theory. There are times when we are interested to know the probability of
randomly selecting a data 𝑋𝑋 which is at most 𝑥𝑥, that is, Prob(𝑋𝑋 < 𝑥𝑥). This value is equal to the probability that the 𝑧𝑧-score
𝑥𝑥−𝜇𝜇
of the randomly selected data is at most 𝑧𝑧 = , where 𝜇𝜇 is the mean and 𝜎𝜎 is the standard deviation of the data set.
𝜎𝜎
Equivalently, Prob(𝑋𝑋 < 𝑥𝑥) = Prob(𝑍𝑍 < 𝑧𝑧). This is where the 𝑧𝑧-table becomes useful.

To use the 𝑧𝑧-table, we firstly compute for the 𝑧𝑧-score that corresponds to 𝑥𝑥, using the formula
𝑥𝑥 − 𝜇𝜇
𝑧𝑧 = .
𝜎𝜎
Secondly, we locate Prob(𝑍𝑍 < 𝑧𝑧) using the 𝑧𝑧-table. This then is value of Prob(𝑋𝑋 < 𝑥𝑥).

Example 4.3
Suppose 𝜇𝜇 = 3 and 𝜎𝜎 = 4. Find the probability that we select a data 𝑋𝑋 that
is less than 5.
Solution:
Solving for the 𝑧𝑧-score,
5−3
𝑧𝑧 = = 0.5.
4
Locating 0.5 in the 𝑧𝑧-table (see Figure 4.1), we see that Prob(𝑍𝑍 < 𝑧𝑧) = 0.6915.
Hence,
Figure 4.1
Prob(𝑋𝑋 < 5) = 0.6915.
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But how were the entries in the table derived? Every set of data produces different mean and standard deviation. For easier
analysis, we standardize them into what we know as the standard normal distribution
1 −𝑧𝑧2
𝑃𝑃(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑒𝑒 2 ,
√2𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥−𝜇𝜇
where 𝑧𝑧 = 𝜎𝜎 is the corresponding 𝑧𝑧-score for the value 𝑥𝑥 within the range of the data set having mean 𝜇𝜇 and standard
deviation 𝜎𝜎. The probability of randomly selecting a data 𝑋𝑋 that is at most 𝑥𝑥 is equal to Prob(𝑍𝑍 < 𝑧𝑧), which is actually equal
to the area of the shaded region below.

Consider again Example 4.3. This time, let us use integral calculus and not the 𝑧𝑧-table. Since 𝑧𝑧 = 0.5, then
0.5
1 −𝑧𝑧2
𝑃𝑃(𝑍𝑍 < 0.5) = � 𝑒𝑒 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ≈ 0.6914624612740131 ≈ 0.6915.
−∞ √2𝜋𝜋
The indefinite integral cannot be expressed in terms of finite additions, subtractions, multiplications, and root extractions.
Hence, 0.6915 is computed through numerical approximations. This makes it clearer that the entries of the 𝑧𝑧-table are
actually computed using calculus.

SOLID GEOMETRY

Definition 4.2
If a region on a plane is revolved about a line, the resulting solid is called a solid of revolution, and the line is called its
axis of revolution.

Example 4.4
The images below show some solids of revolution with their corresponding regions on a plane and axes of revolution.
Region and Axis of Symmetry Resulting Solid of Revolution

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The methods of solving the volume of a solid of revolution are all founded on integral calculus.

Theorem 4.1 (The Disc Method)

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) be a nonnegative continuous function and 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 be real numbers such that 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑏𝑏. Let 𝑅𝑅 be the plane region
bounded by the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), the lines 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏, and the 𝑥𝑥-axis. Suppose we revolve 𝑅𝑅 about the 𝑥𝑥-axis.
The volume of the resulting solid of revolution is given by
𝑏𝑏
𝜋𝜋 � 𝑓𝑓 2 (𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
𝑎𝑎

Proof:
Let us visualize the region 𝑅𝑅 using Figure 4.2a. When we revolve 𝑅𝑅 about the 𝑥𝑥-axis, the resulting solid of revolution is
shown in Figure 4.2b.

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Figure 4.2a Figure 4.2b

Consider the 𝑖𝑖 th rectangular strip which is perpendicular to the axis of revolution, which is the 𝑥𝑥-axis. Along with the
revolution, a corresponding disc is formed from this rectangular strip.

The disc formed is a cylinder of height ∆i 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 and with base of radius 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ).

Thus, the volume of the cylinder is 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = 𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓 2 (𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥.

By the concept of the Riemann sums, the volume of Figure 4.2b is given by
𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏
𝑉𝑉 = lim � 𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓 2 (𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = 𝜋𝜋 � 𝑓𝑓 2 (𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑛𝑛→+∞ 𝑎𝑎
𝑖𝑖=1

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Example 4.5
√9−𝑥𝑥 2
Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 3 and let 𝑅𝑅 be the region bounded by 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and the 𝑥𝑥-axis. Find the volume of the solid obtained
by revolving the region 𝑅𝑅 about the 𝑥𝑥-axis using disc method.

Solution:
We see that 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is the upper portion of the ellipse 𝑥𝑥 2 + 9𝑦𝑦 2 = 9. Revolving the region about the 𝑥𝑥-axis therefore
produces a solid with a surface called ellipsoid. Let 𝑉𝑉 be the volume of the solid, then
𝑏𝑏
𝑉𝑉 = 𝜋𝜋 � 𝑓𝑓 2 (𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎
𝑏𝑏
9 − 𝑥𝑥 2
= 𝜋𝜋 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 9
𝑏𝑏
1
= 𝜋𝜋 � �1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 9

To determine the limits of integration 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏, we solve for the intersection of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and the 𝑥𝑥-axis, that is, the line
𝑦𝑦 = 0. When 𝑦𝑦 = 0, then
√9 − 𝑥𝑥 2
0 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = .
3
Solving for 𝑥𝑥,
0 = �9 − 𝑥𝑥 2
0 = 9 − 𝑥𝑥 2
𝑥𝑥 2 = 9
𝑥𝑥 = ±3.

Hence, it follows that 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑦𝑦 = 0 intersect at 𝑥𝑥 = −3 and 𝑥𝑥 = 3. Taking these as the limits of integration,
3
1
𝑉𝑉 = 𝜋𝜋 � �1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−3 9
3
1
= 𝜋𝜋 �𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 3 ��
27 −3
1 1
= 𝜋𝜋 ��3 − ⋅ 33 � − �−3 − (−3)3 ��
27 27
= 4𝜋𝜋.

Therefore, the solid has a volume of 4𝜋𝜋 cubic units.

Theorem 4.2 (The Washer Method)

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) be nonnegative continuous functions such that for all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏], 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ≤ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). Let 𝑅𝑅 be the plane
region bounded by the graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥), and the lines 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏. Suppose we revolve 𝑅𝑅 about
the 𝑥𝑥-axis. The volume of the resulting solid of revolution is given by
𝑏𝑏
𝜋𝜋 � [𝑓𝑓 2 (𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔2 (𝑥𝑥)]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
𝑎𝑎

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Proof:
Let us visualize the 𝑅𝑅 using Figure 4.3a. When we revolve 𝑅𝑅 about the 𝑥𝑥-axis, the resulting solid of revolution is shown
in Figure 4.3b.

Figure 4.3a Figure 4.3b

Let 𝑅𝑅1 be the region bounded by 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), the 𝑥𝑥-axis, and the lines 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏. Let 𝑅𝑅2 be the region bounded by
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥), the 𝑥𝑥-axis, and the lines 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏. When revolved about the 𝑥𝑥-axis, by Theorem 4.3, the solids
generated will have the volume
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
𝜋𝜋 � 𝑓𝑓 2 (𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝜋𝜋 � 𝑔𝑔2 (𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
When the solid obtained from 𝑅𝑅2 is removed from the solid obtained from 𝑅𝑅1 , the solid in Figure 4.3b is therefore formed.
Thus, its volume is
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
𝑉𝑉 = 𝜋𝜋 � 𝑓𝑓 2 (𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝜋𝜋 � 𝑔𝑔2 (𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
= 𝜋𝜋 �� 𝑓𝑓 2 (𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − � 𝑔𝑔2 (𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
𝑏𝑏
= 𝜋𝜋 � [𝑓𝑓 2 (𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔2 (𝑥𝑥)]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
𝑎𝑎

Example 4.6
2 𝑥𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑥+4
Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 + 2) and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = . Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the 𝑥𝑥-axis the
3 3
region bounded by the parabola 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and the line 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥). To which real number does it

Solution:
To obtain the limits of integration, we locate the value/s of 𝑥𝑥 where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥), that is,
𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 4 2
= (𝑥𝑥 + 2)
3 3
2
𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 4 = 2(𝑥𝑥 + 2)
𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 4 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 4
𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 − 4) = 0.
This implies that 𝑥𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥𝑥 − 4 = 0 or 𝑥𝑥 = 4, which can be verified by the graphs of 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔. Therefore, the volume
of the solid obtained is
4
𝑉𝑉 = 𝜋𝜋 � [𝑓𝑓 2 (𝑥𝑥) − 𝑔𝑔2 (𝑥𝑥)]𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0

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4 (𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 4)2

4
= 𝜋𝜋 � � (𝑥𝑥 + 2)2 − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 9 9
𝜋𝜋 4
= � (−𝑥𝑥 4 + 4𝑥𝑥 3 − 8𝑥𝑥 2 + 32𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
9 0
4
𝜋𝜋 1 8
= �− 𝑥𝑥 5 + 𝑥𝑥 4 − 𝑥𝑥 3 + 16𝑥𝑥 2 ��
9 5 3 0
2,048
= 𝜋𝜋.
135
2,048
Therefore, the volume of the solid is 𝜋𝜋 cubic units.
135

Theorem 4.3 (The Shell Method)

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) be a nonnegative continuous function. Let 𝑅𝑅 be the plane region bounded by the graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), the 𝑥𝑥-
axis, and the lines 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 with 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑏𝑏. Suppose we revolve 𝑅𝑅 about the 𝑦𝑦-axis. The volume of the resulting solid
of revolution is given by
𝑏𝑏
2𝜋𝜋 � 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
𝑎𝑎

Proof:
Consider the similar way of visualization below.

Consider the 𝑖𝑖 th rectangular strip perpendicular to the 𝑥𝑥-axis. Along with the revolution about the 𝑦𝑦-axis, a corresponding
cylindrical shell is formed from this rectangular strip.

The cylindrical shell has inner radius 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 , outer radius 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 , and height 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ).

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Thus, the volume of the 𝑖𝑖 th cylindrical shell is

𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = 𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖2 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ) − 𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1
2
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )
2 2
= 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )�𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 �
= 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 )(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 ).
𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 +𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1
Let 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 = 2 , which is the midpoint of the interval [𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ]. We see that 2𝑚𝑚 = 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 + 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 and since 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖−1 = ∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥,
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = 2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥.
By the concept of the Riemann sums, the volume of the solid is
𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏
𝑉𝑉 = lim � 2𝜋𝜋𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )∆𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝜋𝜋 � 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
𝑛𝑛→+∞ 𝑎𝑎
𝑖𝑖=1

Example 4.7
Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −𝑥𝑥 2 + 10𝑥𝑥 − 16. Find the volume of the solid obtained when the region bounded above by 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and
below by the 𝑥𝑥-axis is revolved about the 𝑦𝑦-axis.

Solution:
First, we find the limits of integration by finding the values of 𝑥𝑥 where 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑦𝑦 = 0 intersect, that is,
−𝑥𝑥 2 + 10𝑥𝑥 − 16 = 0.
By the quadratic formula,
−10 ± �102 − 4(−1)(−16)
𝑥𝑥 =
2(−1)
−10 ± √36
=−
2
10 ± 6
=
2
= 5 ± 3.
Thus, the limits of integration are 5 − 3 = 2 and 5 + 3 = 8. Hence, by the shell method, the volume 𝑉𝑉 of the solid is
8
𝑉𝑉 = 2𝜋𝜋 � 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
8
= 2𝜋𝜋 � (−𝑥𝑥 3 + 10𝑥𝑥 2 − 16𝑥𝑥)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
8
1 10
= 2𝜋𝜋 �− 𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 3 − 8𝑥𝑥 2 ��
4 3 2
4
8 10(83 ) 24 10(23 )
= 2𝜋𝜋 ��− + − 8(82 )� − �− + − 8(22 )��
4 3 4 3
= 360𝜋𝜋.
Therefore, the solid is 360𝜋𝜋 cubic units in volume.

PHYSICS (KINEMATICS)
An application of calculus in physics, particularly in kinematics, comes in the study of rectilinear motion, which is the motion
of a particle on a line. Recall that if a particle moves along a coordinate line and its distance traveled at time 𝑡𝑡 is given by
𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡), then its velocity and acceleration functions are

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑠𝑠′(𝑡𝑡) and 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑣𝑣 ′ (𝑡𝑡),

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 GE1702

respectively. Hence, it follows that

𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) = ∫ 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = ∫ 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

Note that when acceleration is negative, this means that the particle is decelerating (slowing down).

Example 4.8
Determine the distance function (in inches) of a particle moving along a straight line with velocity 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 4𝑡𝑡 + 1 at 𝑡𝑡
seconds given that after a second, the particle moved a distance of 5 inches.

Solution:
Let 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) be the distance function at time 𝑡𝑡. Then
𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) = �(4𝑡𝑡 + 1)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶.
Solving for 𝐶𝐶, since 𝑠𝑠(1) = 5, then
2(12 ) + 1 + 𝐶𝐶 = 5
3 + 𝐶𝐶 = 5
𝐶𝐶 = 2.
Therefore, 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) = 2𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑡𝑡 + 2.

Motion along a vertical line can also be considered. A falling object is subject to the force of the earth’s gravity and speeds
up with a constant acceleration of 9.8 m/s 2 or 32 ft/s 2. On the other hand, an object thrown directly upward from a certain
height slows down because of the pull.

Example 4.9
A ball is thrown vertically upward from the ground with an initial velocity of 49 m/s. Assuming that gravity is the only
force acting on the body, find the maximum height attained by the ball.

Solution:
Let 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) be the distance of the ball from the ground 𝑡𝑡 seconds after being thrown vertically. Let 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) be the velocity of
the ball at t seconds. Since the acceleration of the object due to gravity is 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡) = – 9.8 m/s2, the velocity at time 𝑡𝑡 is
given by
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −9.8 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −9.8𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶1 .
To find the constant 𝐶𝐶1 , we use the fact that the initial velocity is 49 m/s. Hence,
𝑣𝑣(0) = −9.8(0) + 𝐶𝐶1 = 𝐶𝐶1 = 49.
Therefore, 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = −9.8𝑡𝑡 + 49. Thus, the distance function is
𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −4.9𝑡𝑡 2 + 49𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶2 .
To find the constant 𝐶𝐶2 , we use the fact that the object is thrown from the ground. Hence, at 𝑡𝑡 = 0, its distance from the
ground is 0, that is,
𝑠𝑠(0) = −4.9(02 ) + 49(0) + 𝐶𝐶2 = 𝐶𝐶2 = 0.
Therefore, 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) = −4.9𝑡𝑡 2 + 49𝑡𝑡. The ball reaches maximum height when 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 0, that is
−9.8𝑡𝑡 + 49 = 0
−9.8𝑡𝑡 = −49
𝑡𝑡 = 5.
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 GE1702

At 𝑡𝑡 = 5, the height is
𝑠𝑠(5) = −4.9(52 ) + 49(5) = 122.5.

Therefore, the ball attains a maximum height of 122.5 m.

Example 4.10
A stone is dropped from a height of 400 ft. If the stone is initially at rest and assuming gravity is the only force acting on
the stone, how long will it take the stone to reach the ground and at what speed will it hit the ground?

Solution:
Since the gravity is the only force acting on the stone, then 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡) = 32 ft/s2. Therefore, velocity (ft/s) at time 𝑡𝑡 is
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑎𝑎(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 32 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 32𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶1 .

Solving for the constant 𝐶𝐶1 , since the stone is initially at rest, then
𝑣𝑣(0) = 32(0) + 𝐶𝐶1 = 𝐶𝐶1 = 0.
Hence, 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 32𝑡𝑡. Therefore, the distance (ft) travelled after 𝑡𝑡 seconds is
𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 32 � 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 16𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝐶𝐶2 .

Solving for 𝐶𝐶2 ,

𝑠𝑠(0) = 16(02 ) + 𝐶𝐶2 = 𝐶𝐶2 = 0.
Therefore, 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) = 16𝑡𝑡 2. The stone hits the ground at 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) = 400, that is,
16𝑡𝑡 2 = 400
𝑡𝑡 2 = 25
𝑡𝑡 = 5.
Hence, the stone hits the ground after 5 seconds. At 𝑡𝑡 = 5, velocity is
𝑣𝑣(5) = 32(5) = 160,
that is, the speed of impact is 160 ft/s.

REFERENCES
Leithold, L. (1996). The calculus 7. Singapore: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Minton, R. & Smith, R. (2016). Basic calculus. Philippines: McGraw Hill Education.

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