TOXIC CHEMICALS IN THE

ENVIRONMENT
Basics of Toxicology

What are harmful or adverse effect?

Harmful or adverse effects are those that are damaging to either the survival or normal

function of the individual.

What is Toxicity?

The word "Toxicity" describes the degree to which a substance is poisonous or can cause injury.

The toxicity depends on a variety of factors ; dose, duration and route of exposure, shape and

structure of the chemical itself, and individual human factors.

Toxicity is a chemical property that refers to the ability of a substance to negatively destabilize

another chemical or biological environment. Any impurity that causes corrosion to occur on a

metallic surface essentially acts as a toxin relative to that substrate and environment.

What is Toxic?

This term relates to poisonous or deadly effects on the body by inhalation (breathing), ingestion

(eating), or absorption , or by direct contact with a chemical.

A toxic substance is a substance that can be poisonous or cause health effects. People are

generally concerned about chemicals like poly chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxin which

can be found at some hazardous waste site.

What is Toxicology?
Toxicology is the scientific study of adverse effects that occur in living organisms due to

chemicals.

Toxicology refers to the science of the study of toxic or poisonous chemicals and their modes of

action. It involves observing and reporting symptoms, mechanisms, detection and treatments

of toxic substances, in particular relation to the poisoning of humans.

Introduction

Toxic chemicals are substances which are poisonous and can even hurt living beings. Radon

prevalent in the air – both indoors and outdoors, lead in drinking water and lead-based paints,

car exhaust fumes and arsenic in rice, apples and grape juices are just a few examples of toxic

substances which can result in harmful health effects. Toxic substances don’t break down easily

in the environment and can enter or contact

the body anytime through the food we eat or

the water we drink. They can even get

accumulated in the food chain and damage the

organisms in it. Here are some instances which

prove the disastrous nature of toxic chemicals.

Nitrogen and sulfur oxide emissions from motor vehicles are responsible for causing acid rain

which mercilessly kills the trees and the fish in the rivers and lakes. Acid rains can create serious

problems for the environment.

Carbon dioxide gas causes the greenhouse effect which accounts for the global climate change.

Several human activities such as transportation, deforestation have attributed to rising levels of

carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

The toxic chemicals reside in the environment such as our soil, the water, the air, and can be

found in our bodies too. Exposure to these contaminants has threatened the health of humans

and wildlife everywhere. In fact, even human waste is full of harmful toxins and chemicals that

cannot be broken down by natural processes which results in the contamination of soil.

Environment testing labs can trace any toxic substances and pollutants present in the

environment.

Toxic Chemicals In The Environment

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines a toxic chemical as any substance

which may be harmful to the environment or hazardous to your health if inhaled, ingested or

absorbed through the skin.

Examples: Some chemicals are extremely toxic and are known primarily as acute toxins

(hydrogen cyanide), some are known primarily as chronic toxins (lead).

The well known toxic element are Hydrogen cyanide, Hydrogen sulfide, Al, Sb, Ba, Be,Bi, Cd, Co,

Ce, In, Pb Hg, Mo, g, Te, Sn, Ti,W,U and Zn.

The elements in the environment have important role. Some elements are required in trace

amount whereas some are required in a higher level. Some elements are essential for the
growth of animals in trace amount. These elements have been termed as essential/beneficial

elements for healthy growth.

TOXIC CHEMICALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Of the numerous chemicals present in the atmosphere, only some are toxic. The toxic chemicals

are released mostly from chemical activities. They get into human food chain and once they get

in there, they often lead to fatal consequences. An effort will be made here to study the mode

of action of these chemical in chemical toxicology. The list of these chemicals is very long and

even now, one is not sure whether a particular chemical is toxic or not, since non-toxicity has

not been adequately established. Any division of these basis can be misleading. Many of these

listed as environmental hazards are often essential ingredients for animal growth, viz. Al, Ba, B,

Co, Cu, Cr, etc. Sonwatz drew a concentration line, to show the demarkation: 1. Essential in

trace level for sustenance of life process, 2. Toxic in higher levels, causing adverse effects, and

3. Deficient in lower levels causing metabolic disorder. Thus, even well-known toxic elements as

Pb, Cu, Cd are required in trace quantities for animal growth. The well- known inert Al, causes

brain disorder. Toxic chemicals can be classified according to their environmental effect. The US

Environmental protective

agency has listed 24 extremely hazardous chemicals found in the atmosphere. Acetonitrile, As,

Asbestos, Benzene, Be, Ca, Chlorinated solvents are some of them.

CLASSIFICATION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES

Essential/Beneficial elements are classified in three groups:

Bulk Elements

A bulk element is a mineral substance which, in contrast to a trace element (microelement), is

present in a percentage by weight of more than 50 mg per kilogramme. Because bulk elements

in an aqueous environment are usually present in an ionised form, i.e. as positively (Na+, K+,

Ca2+, Mg2+) or negatively (Cl−, HPO42−, SO42−) charged particles, for this reason they are

referred to as electrolytes.

Examples: Calcium, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen

Trace Elements

Trace elements refer to any chemical element that is present in the body in very small amounts.

Trace elements can be classified as nutritionally essential,

probably essential, or potentially toxic. The nutritionally

essential elements are required for proper physiological and

metabolic functions. At least 21 trace elements have been

described in the human body and each one has different

functions. Deficiencies or excess of any of the trace elements can cause various clinical

manifestations and affect one’s growth and development.

Nutritionally essential trace elements are required parts of an individual’s nutrition. These

elements contribute to vital bodily functions, including metabolic function, tissue repair,

growth, and development. Because the human body cannot naturally synthesize these

elements, it is essential that people consume them through their diet or by using supplements.

Excess consumption of these elements can have potentially toxic effects. Nutritionally essential

trace elements include iron, copper, cobalt, zinc, selenium, chromium, iodine, and molybdenum.

Iron plays an important role in transporting oxygen throughout the body through the blood.

Iron deficiency can lead to anemia (deficiency of healthy red blood cells) and has also been

linked to upper alimentary tract cancers.

Copper, the third most abundant trace element in the human body, works with iron to form

healthy red blood cells and is an essential component of many enzymes involved in chemical

reactions throughout the body. It also plays an important role in maintaining the strength and

health of blood vessels, nerves, and bones.

Cobalt can be found in organic and inorganic forms. In the organic form it forms a vital part of

vitamin B12 (AKA cobalamin) and contributes to the formation of amino acids and

neurotransmitters. Conversely, inorganic forms of cobalt can be toxic to the human body.

Zinc contributes to many functions in the body but is most importantly associated with cell

division, cell growth, tissue repair, and metabolic function. It also aids the immune system in

fighting off viruses and bacteria.

Selenium plays an important metabolic role as an antioxidant (known to prevent or reduce

damage caused by oxidation in the body). Chromium also contributes to metabolic function, as

it plays a key role in regulating sugar, fat, and protein levels in the blood.

Iodine is a very important element within the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and

triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones are essential in metabolism, growth, and development

of the human body.

Finally, molybdenum is required for a few enzymatic functions involved in digestion and

excretion.

Ultra Trace Elements

The term ultratrace element has been defined as an element with an established, estimated, or

suspected requirement generally indicated by μg/day for humans. Between 1970 and 1984, it

was suggested that 11 elements should be added to the list of ultratrace elements that

included chromium, molybdenum, and selenium; these elements were arsenic, boron, bromine,

cadmium, fluorine, lead, lithium, nickel, silicon, tin, and

vanadium. Since 1984, it has been suggested that three more

elements, aluminum, germanium, and rubidium, should be

added to the list, and circumstantial evidence has continued

to accumulate which indicates that several of the ultratrace

elements in addition to iodine and selenium, particularly arsenic, boron, chromium, nickel,
silicon, and vanadium, are more important in nutrition than currently acknowledged. This

evidence includes findings from human studies suggesting that boron has an essential function

or beneficial effect in calcium metabolism, brain function, energy metabolism, and perhaps

immune processes; and that chromium has an essential function in potentiating insulin action in

the metabolism of glucose and lipids, and/or a beneficial effect on diabetes resulting from

inadequate synthesis of insulin or insulin resistance. The major shortcoming that has prevented

the unequivocal acceptance of the nutritional importance of any of the ultratrace elements

suggested as being essential since 1970 and chromium is that a specific biochemical function

has not been identified for any of these elements. The current status of the evidence suggesting

essentiality, the possible biological function, and speculated dietary need for each of the 15

elements without an identified biochemical function is reviewed.

Examples: V, Cr ,Ni, Si, Se,Br, W, Li, As, Pb, Cd, etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES

A. HEAVY METALS

The term heavy metal refers to any metallic chemical element that has a relatively high density

and is toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Examples of heavy metals include mercury

(Hg), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), thallium (Tl), and lead (Pb).
Heavy metals are natural components of the Earth's crust. They cannot be degraded or

destroyed. To a small extent they enter our bodies via food, drinking water and air. As trace

elements, some heavy metals (e.g. copper, selenium, zinc) are essential to maintain the

metabolism of the human body. However, at higher concentrations they can lead to poisoning.

Heavy metal poisoning could result, for instance, from drinking-water contamination (e.g. lead

pipes), high ambient air concentrations near emission sources, or intake via the food chain.

Heavy metals are dangerous because they tend to bioaccumulate. Bioaccumulation means an

increase in the concentration of a chemical in a biological organism over time, compared to the

chemical's concentration in the environment. Compounds accumulate in living things any time

they are taken up and stored faster than they are broken down (metabolized) or excreted.

Heavy metals can enter a water supply by industrial and consumer waste, or even from acidic

rain breaking down soils and releasing heavy metals into streams, lakes, rivers, and

groundwater.

B. Solvents and Vapors

The term solvent refers to a class of liquid organic chemicals of variable lipophilicity and

volatility, small molecular size, and lack of charge. Solvents undergo ready absorption across

the lung, skin, and gastrointestinal (GI) tract. In general, the lipophilicity of solvents increases

with increasing molecular weight, while volatility decreases. Solvents are frequently used to

dissolve, dilute, or disperse materials that are insoluble in water. Most solvents are refined
from petroleum. Many, such as naphthas and gasoline, are complex mixtures consisting of

hundreds of compounds. As such, they are widely employed as degreasers.

Solvents are classified largely according to molecular structure or functional group. Classes of

solvents include aliphatic hydrocarbons, many of which are halocarbons, aromatic

hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, esters/acetates, amides/amines, aldehydes, ketones, and

complex mixtures that defy classification. The main determinants of a solvent’s inherent toxicity

are (1) its number of carbon atoms; (2) whether it is saturated or has double or triple bonds

between adjacent carbon atoms; (3) its configuration (i.e., straight chain, branched chain, or

cyclic); (4) whether it is halogenated; and (5) the presence of functional groups. Subtle

differences in chemical structure can translate into dramatic differences in solvent toxicity.

Examples: Water.

Ethanol.

Methanol.

Acetone.

Tetrachloroethylene.

Toluene.

Methyl acetate.

Ethyl acetate.
C. Radiation and Radioactive Materials

Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels through space at the speed of light.

This energy has an electric field and a magnetic field associated with it, and has wave-like

properties. You could also call radiation “electromagnetic waves."

Examples: ultraviolet light from the sun.

heat from a stove burner.

visible light from a candle.

x-rays from an x-ray machine.

alpha particles emitted from the radioactive decay of uranium.

sound waves from your stereo.

microwaves from a microwave oven.

electromagnetic radiation from your cell phone.

Radionuclides (or radioactive materials) are a class of chemicals where the nucleus of the atom

is unstable. They achieve stability through changes in the nucleus (spontaneous fission,

emission of alpha particles, or conversion of neutrons to protons or the reverse). This process is
called radioactive decay or transformation, and often is followed by the release of ionizing

radiation (beta particles, neutrons, or gamma rays).

Examples: Cesium

Cobalt

Iodine

Ionizing Radiation

Plutonium

Radium

Radon

Strontium

Thorium

Uranium

D. Dioxin / Furans

Dioxins, furans, and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are the abbreviated names for

a family of chemicals that have similar toxicity and shared chemical characteristics. The dioxins

and furans are not manufactured or produced intentionally but are created when other

chemicals or products are made. These chemicals may be created during burning of forests or

household trash; chlorine bleaching of pulp and paper; or manufacturing or processing of

certain types of chemicals, such as pesticides. Until banned in 1979, PCBs were manufactured

as insulator fluids in heat-exchangers and transformers, as hydraulic fluids, and as additives to

paints, oils, and caulks. All of these chemicals remain in the environment even though they are

no longer manufactured. They enter the food chain and build up in larger animals.

How People Are Exposed to Dioxins, Furans, and Dioxin-Like PCBs

People can be exposed to these chemicals by eating high-fat foods such as milk products, eggs,

meat, and some fish. Workplace exposures can occur in industries that burn waste matter or

that manufacture other chemical products containing these substances.

How Dioxins, Furans, and Dioxin-Like PCBs Affect People’s Health

Human health effects from low environmental exposures are unclear. People who have been

unintentionally exposed to large amounts of these chemicals have developed a skin condition

called chloracne, liver problems, and elevated blood lipids (fats). Laboratory animal studies

have shown various effects, including cancer and reproductive problems.

E. Pesticides

Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests.

There are many different types of pesticides, each is meant to be effective against specific

pests. The term "-cide" comes from the Latin word "to kill."
Algaecides are used for killing and/or slowing the growth of algae.

Antimicrobials control germs and microbes such as bacteria and viruses.

Biopesticides are made of living things, come from living things, or they are found in nature.

Desiccants are used to dry up living plant tissues.

Defoliants cause plants to drop their leaves.

Disinfectants control germs and microbes such as bacteria and viruses.

Foggers (total release foggers) are used to kill insects that are in the open and touch the

pesticides.

Fungicides are used to control fungal problems like molds, mildew, and rust.

Herbicides kill or inhibit the growth of unwanted plants, aka weeds.

Illegal and Counterfeit Pesticides are imported or sold illegally.

Insecticides are used to control insects.

Insect Growth Regulators disrupt the growth and reproduction of insects.Minimum Risk

Pesticides are exempt from EPA

F. Plant Toxins
Plant toxins are toxic secondary plant metabolites which naturally occur in food, feed, weeds

and ornamental plants. The chemical diversity is tremendous.

Aromatic plants which are used as an ingredient in food (herbs, spices), scents and flavours

(essential oils) or traditional herbal remedies are examples of products in which plant toxins

abundantly occur. In herbal remedies a plant toxin can be the same substance as the ingredient

to which the pharmaceutical effect is attributed. In this case the difference between the toxic

and pharmaceutical effect is obviously the dose.

Common classes of plant toxins include alkaloids such as pyrrolizidine alkaloids and

glycoalkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides, lectins, saponins, and antinutrients.

G. Animal Toxins

Animal toxins are a complex mixture of polypeptides, enzymes and chemicals which can cause

cellular injury. Several mechanisms are involved in pathophysiology of venom poisoning. Direct

injury can be induced by chemicals, enzymes and polypeptides.

Venomous and poisonous animals both use toxins—substances that cause substantial, harmful

physiological effects at small doses—to defend themselves or subdue prey. ... But venomous

creatures, such as wasps, deliver their toxic cocktails by wounding another animal, often via a

fang, stinger, or spine.

References

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https://youtu.be/pQ8x0mu8lpo

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/

336739709_CHEMICAL_TOXICOLOGY_A_BRIEF_REVEIW
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