Paektu Mountain

Coordinates: 41°59′36.3″N 128°04′39.3″E

Paektu Mountain or Baekdu Mountain is an active

Paektu Mountain
stratovolcano on the Chinese–North Korean border.[3] It is
called in Chinese Changbai Mountain and in Manchu 백두산 / 白頭山 (Korean)
Golmin Šanggiyan Alin. At 2,744 m (9,003 ft), it is the tallest 长白山 (Chinese)
mountain in North Korea and Northeast China and the tallest
mountain of the Baekdu-daegan and Changbai mountain
ranges. The mountain notably has a caldera that contains a large
crater lake called Heaven Lake, and is also the source of the
Songhua, Tumen, and Yalu rivers. Korean and Manchu people
assign a mythical quality to the mountain and its lake, and
consider the mountain to be their ancestral homeland.

The mountain's caldera was formed by an eruption in 946 that

released about 100–120  km3 (24–29  cu  mi) of tephra. The
eruption was among the largest and most powerful eruptions on The summit caldera of Paektu Mountain,
Earth in the last 5,000 years. The volcano last erupted in 1903, with Heaven Lake
and is expected to erupt around every hundred years. In the
2010s, concerns over an upcoming eruption prompted several Highest point
countries to commission research into when the volcano might Elevation 2,744 m (9,003 ft)[1]
next erupt.
Prominence 2,593 m (8,507 ft)[1]
The mountain is considered culturally important to multiple Listing Country high point
groups in the area, including Korean, Chinese, and Manchu Ultra
people. The mountain is a major national symbol for both North Coordinates 41°59′36.3″N
and South Korea, and is mentioned in both national anthems
128°04′39.3″E
and depicted on the national emblem of North Korea. The
Manchu people also consider the mountain their ancestral Geography
homeland, and the Chinese Qing dynasty saw it as a symbol of
imperial power. The mountain has also been subject to
territorial disputes over the past few centuries that have Paektu
continued into the present. Mountain

Names
The mountain was first recorded in the Chinese Classic of
Mountains and Seas under the name Bùxián Shān (Chinese: 不
咸山 ). It is also called Shànshàn Dàlǐng (Chinese: 單單大嶺 )
in the Book of the Later Han. In the New Book of Tang, it was
called Tàibái Shān (Chinese: 太白山 ).[4] The current Chinese
name, Chángbái Shān ( 长白山 長白山
; , 'ever white mountain', Location in North Korea
was first used in the Liao dynasty (916–1125) of the Khitans[5]
and then the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) of the Jurchens.[6] The
Liao Shi recorded that chiefs of 30 Jurchen tribes from Mount
Changbai paid their tribute to the Liao in AD 985. According to
the Song dynasty travelogue Songmo Jiwen, it was named as
such because the mountain was "the abode of the white-robed
Guanyin" and its birds and beasts were all white.[7] The Paektu
modern Manchu name of the mountain, which is golmin Mountai
šanggiyan alin (ᡤᠣᠯᠮᡳᠨ ᡧᠠᠩᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᠠᠯᡳᠨ), also means 'ever white
mountain'.

The modern Korean name of the mountain, Paektusan or

Baekdusan ( 백두산 白頭山 / ), was first recorded in the 13th-
century historical record Goryeosa. It means 'white-head
mountain'. In other records from the same period, the mountain
was also called Taebaeksan ( 태백산 太白山 , ), which means
Paektu Mountain (China)
'great-white mountain'. An alternative Chinese name, Báitóu
Shān ( 白头山 白頭山
[8]
; ), is the transliteration of Paektu
Mountain.

The Mongolian name is Öndör Tsagaan Aula (Өндөр Цагаан

Уул), which means 'lofty white mountain'. In English, various
authors have used nonstandard transliterations.[9]

Geography and geology Paektu

Mountain

Mount Paektu is 2,744  m (9,003  ft) tall, making it the highest

mountain in North Korea and Northeast China and the highest Paektu Mountain (Jilin)
mountain of the Baekdu-daegan and Changbai mountain
ranges.[10] Location
Samjiyon, Ryanggang,
Mount Paektu is a stratovolcano whose cone is truncated by a DPR Korea (North
large caldera. The central section of the mountain rises about Korea)
3  mm (0.12  in) per year due to rising levels of magma below Fusong County and
the central part of the mountain. Sixteen peaks exceeding Antu County, Jilin, China
2,500  m (8,200  ft) line the caldera rim surrounding Heaven
Lake. The highest peak, called Janggun Peak, is covered in Parent range Changbai Mountains
snow about eight months of the year. The slope is relatively Geology
gentle until about 1,800 m (5,910 ft). The caldera is about 5 km
Mountain Stratovolcano
(3.1  mi) wide and 850 meters (2,790  ft) deep, and is partially
type
filled by the waters of Heaven Lake.[2]
Last March 1903[2]
Heaven Lake has a circumference of 12 to 14 kilometers (7.5 to eruption
8.7  mi), with an average depth of 213 meters (699  ft) and
maximum depth of 384 meters (1,260  ft). From mid-October to Paektu Mountain
mid-June, the lake is typically covered with ice. Water flows north
out of the lake, and near the outlet there is a 70-meter (230  ft) Chinese name
waterfall. The mountain is the source of the Songhua, Tumen and Simplified Chinese 长白山
Yalu rivers. The Tumen and the Yalu form the northern border
between North Korea and Russia and China.
Traditional Chinese 長白山
Literal meaning ever-white mountain
Transcriptions
Climate
Standard Mandarin
The weather on the mountain can be very erratic, sometimes Hanyu Pinyin Chángbáishān
severe. The annual average temperature at the peak is −4.9  °C Wade–Giles Ch'ang-pai-shan
(23.2 °F). During summer, temperatures of about 18 °C (64 °F) or
higher can be reached, and during winter temperatures can drop to Korean name
−48  °C (−54  °F). The lowest record temperature was −51  °C
(−60  °F) on 2 January 1997. The average temperature is about
Chosŏn'gŭl 백두산
−24 °C (−11 °F) in January, and 10 °C (50 °F) in July, remaining Hancha 白頭山
below freezing for eight months of the year. The average wind Literal meaning white head
speed is 42  km/h (26  mph), peaking at 63  km/h (39  mph). The
mountain
relative humidity averages 74%.
Transcriptions
Revised Romanization Baekdusan
Geological history
McCune–Reischauer Paektusan
The geological origin of Mount Paektu remains a mystery. Two Chinese Korean name
leading theories are first a hot spot formation and second an Chosŏn'gŭl 장백산
uncharted portion of the Pacific Plate sinking beneath Mount
Paektu.[11] Hancha 長白山
Literal meaning ever-white mountain
Beginning about 5 million years ago, Paektu Mountain erupted,
releasing a series of basaltic lava flows that formed a lava plateau. Transcriptions
The construction of the cone of the volcano began approximately Revised Romanization Jangbaeksan
1 million years ago, as the eruptive materials transitioned into McCune–Reischauer Changbaeksan
trachytic pyroclastic and lava flows. During the cone-construction
Manchu name
stage, major Plinian-type eruptions occurred in 448, 67.6, 85.8
and 24.5 thousand years ago (ka) and deposited ash in the Japan

ᡤᠣᠯᠮᡳᠨ ᡧᠠᠩᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᠠᠯᡳᠨ

Manchu script
sea.[12] The cone's growth was halted by two widely-recognized
major explosive eruptions: Tianwenfeng and
Millennium. [12][13][14]

Tianwenfeng eruption

The Tianwenfeng eruption was the formation of a widespread

thick layer of grey, yellow pumice preceding the Millennium
eruption.[12][13][14][15][16] The exact age of the eruption is Romanization Golmin Šanggiyan
uncertain, since different dating techniques have assigned 4, 51, Alin
61, and 74 ka to this deposit.[15][13] This eruption formed large
areas covered in yellow pumice and ignimbrite.[17] Proximal deposits of
pumice fall of the Tianwenfeng are thicker than those of the Millennium
eruption. This suggests that the eruption of the Tianwenfeng is
significant and maybe of similar magnitude to the Millennium eruption,
making the Tianwenfeng eruption also of VEI 6–7.[13]

Millennium eruption

The mountain's caldera was created in 946 by the colossal (VEI 6)[18]
Relief map
"Millennium" or "Tianchi" eruption, one of the most powerful eruptions
in the last 5,000 years, comparable to the 230 AD eruption of Lake
Taupō and the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora.[19] The eruption, whose tephra has been found in the southern
part of Hokkaidō, Japan, and as far away as Greenland,[20] destroyed much of the volcano's summit, leaving a
caldera that today is filled by Heaven Lake.

According to the Korean historical record Goryeosa, in 946 "thunders from heaven's drum" were heard in the
city of Kaesong, then the capital of Goryeo, about 450  km (280  mi) south of the volcano.[21] The event
reportedly terrified King Jeongjong so much, that convicts were pardoned and set free.[21] According to the
Heungboksa Temple's historical records, on 3 November, "white ash rain" fell in Nara, Japan, about 1,100 km
(680 mi) southeast from the mountain[21] Three months later, on 7 February 947, explosive noises were reported
in the city of Kyoto (Japan), about 1,000 km (620 mi) southeast of Paektu.[21]

Later history

After these major eruptions, Mount Paektu had at least three

smaller eruptions, which occurred in 1668, 1702, and 1903, likely
forming the Baguamiao ignimbrite, the Wuhaojie fine pumice, and
the Liuhaojie tuff ring.[22]

Research on upcoming eruption

In 2011, experts in North and South Korea met to discuss the

potential for a significant eruption in the near future, as the last Mount Paektu, April 2003
eruption was in 1903 and the volcano is expected to erupt around
every 100 years.[23][24] The Government of North Korea invited
several volcanologists, including James Hammond, Clive Oppenheimer, and Kayla Iacovino, to study the
mountain for recent volcanic activity.[25][26] Iacovino became the first foreign female researcher to conduct
research in North Korea.[27][28] The researchers began publishing their research in 2016 and in February 2020
formed the Mt. Paektu Research Center.[29]

Flora and fauna

There are five known species of plants in the lake on the peak, and some 168 have been counted along its
shores. The forest on the Chinese side is ancient and almost unaltered by humans. Birch predominates near the
tree line, and pine lower down, mixed with other species. There has been extensive deforestation on the lower
slopes on the North Korean side of the mountain.

The area is a known habitat for Siberian tigers, bears, wolves, and wild boars.[30] The Ussuri dholes may have
been extirpated from the area. Deer in the mountain forests, which cover the mountain up to about 2,000 meters
(6,600 ft), are of the Paekdusan roe deer kind. Many wild birds such as black grouse, owls, and woodpecker are
known to inhabit the area. The mountain has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area
(IBA) because it supports a population of scaly-sided mergansers.[31]

History
The mountain has been worshipped by the surrounding peoples throughout history. Both the Koreans and
Manchus consider it sacred, especially the Heaven Lake in its crater.[32][33]

Korea

The mountain has been considered sacred by Koreans throughout history.[33] According to Korean mythology,
it was the birthplace of Dangun, the founder of Gojoseon (2333–108 BC), whose parents were said to be
Hwanung, the Son of Heaven, and Ungnyeo, a bear who had been transformed into a woman.[34] The Goryeo
and Joseon dynasties also worshiped the mountain.[35][36]

The Goryeo dynasty (935–1392) first called the mountain Paektu,[37] recording that the Jurchens across the
Yalu River were made to live outside of Mount Paektu. The Joseon dynasty (1392–1910) recorded volcanic
eruptions in 1597, 1668, and 1702. In the 15th century, King Sejong strengthened the fortification along the
Tumen and Yalu rivers, making the mountain a natural border with the northern
peoples.[38] Some Koreans claim that the entire region near Mount Paektu and
the Tumen River belongs to Korea and parts of it were illegally given away by
Japanese colonialists to China through the Gando Convention.

Mount Paektu is mentioned in the national anthems of both North and South
Korea and in the Korean folk song "Arirang".

Dense forest around the mountain provided bases for Korean armed resistance
against the Japanese occupation, and later communist guerrillas during the
Korean War. Kim Il Sung organized his resistance against the Japanese forces
there, and North Korea claims that Kim Jong Il was born there,[39] although Mount Paektu on the
records outside of North Korea suggest that he was actually born in the Soviet national emblem of North
Union.[40][41] Korea.

The peak has been featured on the state emblem of North Korea since 1993, as
defined in Article 169 of the Constitution, which describes Mt. Paektu as "the
sacred mountain of the revolution".[42] The mountain is often referred to in
slogans such as: "Let us accomplish the Korean revolution in the revolutionary
spirit of Paektu, the spirit of the blizzards of Paektu!" [43] North Korean media
also celebrates natural phenomena witnessed at the mountain as portentous,[44]
and Korean Central Television's weather reports list Paektu behind only
Pyongyang.[45] The mountain's name is used for various products, such as the A painting of Kim Il Sung
Paektusan rocket, the Paektusan computer, and the Mt Paektu and Kim Jong Il standing at
handgun.[46][47][48] the peak of Mount Paektu

China

Mount Changbai was regarded as the most sacred

mountain in the shamanist religion of the Manchus,
and their ancestors Sushen and Jurchens.[49] The
Jin dynasty bestowed the title "the King Who
Makes the Nation Prosperous and Answers with
Miracles" (Chinese: 興國靈應王 ) on the mountain
in 1172 and it was entitled "the Emperor Who
Cleared the Sky with Tremendous Sagehood"
(Chinese: 開天宏聖帝 ) in 1193. A temple for the
mountain god was constructed on the northern
side.[7]

The Manchu clan Aisin Gioro, which founded the

Qing dynasty of China, claimed their progenitor
Bukūri Yongšon was conceived near Paektu Painting from the Manchu Veritable Records with the
Mountain. In 1682, 1698, 1733, 1754 and 1805, names of Mount Paektu in Manchu, Chinese and Mongolian
Qing emperors visited Jilin and paid homage to the
mountain. The rites at Mount Changbai were
heavily influenced by the ancient Feng Shan ceremonies, in which Chinese emperors offered sacrifices to
heaven and earth at Mount Tai. The Kangxi Emperor claimed that Mount Tai and Changbai belong to the same
mountain range, which runs from northeast to southwest but is partially submerged under the sea before
reaching Shandong. The geography and feng shui of Mount Changbai thus provided legitimacy to the Aisin
Gioro clan's rule over China.[49]
Baishan Heishui, "white mountain and black river", referring to Mount Changbai and the Heilongjiang, has
been a traditional name for Northeast China since the Jin dynasty.[50]

Sovereignty disputes

Historical

According to Annals of the

Joseon Dynasty, the Yalu
and Tumen Rivers were set
as the borders in the era of
the founder of Joseon
Dynasty, Taejo of Joseon
(1335–1408).[51] Because
of the continuous entry of
Korean people into Gando,
a region in Manchuria that
lay north of the Tumen,
Manchu and Korean
Map showing the Chinese-North Korean border region around Paektu Mountain
officials surveyed the area
and negotiated a border
agreement in 1712. To mark the agreement, they built a monument describing the boundary at a watershed, near
the south of the crater lake at the mountain peak.

Since the 19th century, interpretations of the inscription have been relevant in some territorial disputes.

The 1909 Gando Convention between China and Japan, when Korea was under Japanese rule, recognized the
north and east of the mountain as Chinese territory.[52]

Recent

In 1962 and 1964, China and North Korea negotiated two treaties in secret that outlined their modern borders.
Both treaties especially focused on the sovereignty of Paektu and Heaven Lake. As a result of the treaties, North
Korea received 280 km2 (110 sq mi)[53] of land on and around Paektu, and 54.5% of Heaven Lake.[54][55][52]
Neither treaty is recognized by the governments of Taiwan or South Korea.[52]

As of 2013, South Korea formally claimed the caldera lake and the inside part of the ridge.[56] However, some
South Korean groups argue that recent activities conducted on the Chinese side of the border, such as economic
development, cultural festivals, infrastructure development, promotion of the tourism industry, attempts at
registration as a World Heritage Site, and bids for a Winter Olympic Games, constitute attempts to claim the
mountain as Chinese territory.[57][58] These groups object to China's use of the name Mount Changbai.[6] Some
groups also regard the entire mountain as Korean territory that was given away by North Korea in the Korean
War.[58]
During the 2007 Asian Winter Games, which were held in Changchun, China, a group of South Korean athletes
held up signs during the award ceremony which stated "Mount Paektu is our territory". Chinese sports officials
delivered a letter of protest on the grounds that political activities violated the spirit of the Olympics and were
banned in the charter of the International Olympic Committee and the Olympic Council of Asia. Officials from
the South Korean athletic team apologized to China.[59][60][61]

Tourism
Most Chinese, South Korean, and international visitors climb the mountain from the Chinese side. The North
Korean side of the mountain is also popular among visitors to North Korea. The Chinese tourism area is
classified as a AAAAA scenic area by the China National Tourism Administration.[62]

There are a number of monuments on the North Korean side of the mountain. Paektu Spa is a natural spring and
is used for bottled water. Pegae Hill is a camp site of the Korean People's Revolutionary Army (Korean: 조선인
민혁명군 ) allegedly led by Kim Il Sung during their struggle against Japanese colonial rule. Secret camps are
also now open to the public. There are several waterfalls, including the Hyongje Falls which splits into two
about a third of the way from the top. In 1992, on the occasion of the 80th birthday of Kim Il-sung, a large sign
with the words "Holy mountain of the revolution" written in metal letters was erected on the side of the
mountain. North Koreans claim that there are 216 steps leading to the top of the mountain, symbolizing Kim
Jong Il's 16 February birth date, but this claim is disputed.[63] On the North Korean side of the mountain, there
is a funicular system with two cars.[64] This was updated with new funicular cars built by the Kim Chong-t'ae
Electric Locomotive Works, with the new cars successfully running on the funicular from October 30.[65][66]

Mount Paektu's location in Cairns Waterfall Hot springs

Korea

River Heaven Lake in winter North slope

In popular culture
In the 2019 South Korean disaster film Ashfall, the mountain erupts and causes severe earthquakes in the
Korean peninsula.

See also
Mountains portal

China portal
North Korea
portal

Geography of North Korea

Changbai Mountain Range
Jong-il Peak
List of ultras of Northeast Asia
List of mountains in Korea
List of volcanoes in Korea
List of volcanoes in China
Geography of China
Mt. Paektu (poem)
Sacred mountains
Five Mountains of Korea

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Further reading
Hetland, E.A.; et al. (2004). "Crustal structure in the Changbaishan volcanic area, China,
determined by modeling receiver functions". Tectonophysics. 386 (3–4): 157–75.
Bibcode:2004Tectp.386..157H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Tectp.386..157H).
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2004.06.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tecto.2004.06.001).

External links
"Changbaishan" Global Volcanism Program. (Smithsonian Institution)
Global Volcanism Program (http://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=305060)
Virtual Tour: 360 degree interactive panorama of Mount Paektu (http://www.dprk360.com/360/pa
ektu_mountain/) (DPRK 360, September 2014)
The Scenery of Mt. Paektu (http://naenara.com.kp/en/book/new_window.php?10+10008) at
Naenara
A slide show about Paektusan (http://www.bis-ans-ende-der-welt.net/Nko-2012-Dia.htm?Paektu
san) (in German)
Paektu/Changbai documentary (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3C2HVOB-g5s) on YouTube

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