Emile Durkheim is one of the most influential figures in the field of sociology.

Here are some key points and

concepts that you may want to review for your test:
1. Division of Labor: Durkheim believed that the division of labor is a key feature of modern society, as it
allows individuals to specialize in specific tasks and roles. He argued that this specialization creates
interdependence and solidarity among members of society.
2. Mechanical and Organic Solidarity: Durkheim distinguished between two types of solidarity in society.
Mechanical solidarity refers to the social cohesion that arises when individuals perform similar tasks
and share similar values. Organic solidarity, on the other hand, arises when individuals perform diverse
tasks and rely on each other to fulfill their needs.
3. Anomie: Durkheim coined the term "anomie" to describe the breakdown of social norms and values in
modern society. He argued that rapid social change and the breakdown of traditional social institutions
can lead to a sense of normlessness, which can result in deviant behavior and social disintegration.
4. Collective Consciousness: Durkheim believed that individuals are socialized into a shared set of beliefs
and values, which he referred to as the collective consciousness. He argued that this shared
consciousness provides a sense of solidarity and cohesion in society.
5. Religion: Durkheim argued that religion plays an important role in creating and maintaining social
solidarity. He believed that religious rituals and beliefs provide a shared sense of purpose and meaning,
and that religion can serve as a source of social integration and cohesion.
6. Suicide: Durkheim conducted a groundbreaking study on suicide, in which he analyzed the social
factors that influence suicide rates. He argued that suicide is not simply an individual act, but is shaped
by social forces such as social integration and regulation.
7. Social Facts: Durkheim believed that sociology should focus on studying social facts - objective,
measurable phenomena that exist outside of individual consciousness. He argued that social facts are
the building blocks of society, and that sociologists should use empirical methods to study them.

Max Weber was another influential figure in the field of sociology. Here are some key points and concepts that
you may want to review for your test:
1. Verstehen: Weber emphasized the importance of understanding social behavior from the point of view
of the actors involved. He argued that sociologists should use a method of "verstehen" or "interpretive
understanding" to understand how people give meaning to their social actions.
2. Ideal Types: Weber developed the concept of "ideal types" to help sociologists understand complex
social phenomena. Ideal types are abstract models of social phenomena that help to highlight their key
features and allow for comparisons between different cases.
3. Bureaucracy: Weber is known for his analysis of bureaucracy, which he saw as a highly efficient form of
organization, but also as one that could lead to dehumanization and the loss of individual freedom. He
identified key features of bureaucracies, such as hierarchical authority, formal rules, and specialization
of tasks.
4. Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism: In one of his most famous works, Weber argued that the
Protestant work ethic played a key role in the rise of capitalism. He suggested that the values and
beliefs of Protestantism, such as a focus on hard work and thrift, created a cultural foundation for
capitalism.
5. Power: Weber developed a complex analysis of power, which he saw as the ability to influence the
behavior of others. He distinguished between different types of power, including economic, political, and
social power, and emphasized the importance of understanding power relations in society.
6. Rationalization: Weber argued that modern society is characterized by a process of rationalization, in
which traditional forms of social organization are replaced by highly rational and efficient systems. He
saw this as both a positive and negative development, as it allowed for the expansion of knowledge and
productivity, but also led to the loss of tradition and meaning.
Karl Marx was a major figure in the field of sociology and is known for his contributions to the development of
the theory of communism. Here are some key points and concepts that you may want to review for your test:
1. Historical Materialism: Marx's theory of historical materialism argues that the material conditions of
society, such as the mode of production and the class relations that result from it, determine the course
of human history. He saw historical development as a series of class struggles.
2. Class Struggle: Marx believed that the key driving force of historical change is the struggle between
different classes in society. He saw class conflict as inevitable and believed that it would eventually lead
to the overthrow of the ruling class and the establishment of a classless society.
3. Capitalism: Marx saw capitalism as a system based on the exploitation of the working class by the
capitalist class. He argued that capitalism leads to alienation, as workers are disconnected from the
products of their labor and from each other.
4. Labor Theory of Value: Marx believed that the value of goods and services is determined by the amount
of labor that goes into producing them. He argued that the surplus value created by the labor of workers
is appropriated by the capitalist class, leading to the exploitation of the working class.
5. Communist Society: Marx envisioned a communist society in which there is no private ownership of the
means of production and all individuals have equal access to the resources of society. He believed that
this would result in a classless society in which individuals are free to pursue their interests and develop
their potential.
6. Revolution: Marx believed that the only way to achieve a communist society was through revolution. He
argued that the working class must overthrow the capitalist class and take control of the means of
production.

Structural functionalism is a theoretical perspective in sociology that emphasizes the importance of social
structures and their functions in maintaining social order. Two prominent theorists associated with this
perspective are Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton. Here are some key points and concepts that you may
want to review for your test:
1. Social Systems: Parsons saw society as a system made up of interconnected parts that work together
to maintain social order. He emphasized the importance of understanding how different parts of society
function in relation to each other.
2. Function: Both Parsons and Merton emphasized the concept of function in understanding social
structures. They argued that social structures have functions that contribute to the overall stability of
society. For example, the family structure functions to reproduce and socialize new members of society.
3. Manifest and Latent Functions: Merton distinguished between manifest functions, which are intended
and recognized consequences of social structures, and latent functions, which are unintended and
unrecognized consequences. For example, the manifest function of education is to transmit knowledge
and skills, while a latent function may be to create social networks.
4. Social Roles: Parsons emphasized the importance of social roles in maintaining social order. He argued
that individuals occupy different roles in society, such as parent, teacher, or worker, and that these roles
are linked to social expectations and norms.
5. Social Control: Parsons and Merton both emphasized the importance of social control in maintaining
social order. They argued that social structures, such as laws and norms, provide a framework for
regulating individual behavior and preventing deviance.
6. Criticisms: Structural functionalism has been criticized for being overly conservative and for failing to
account for social conflict and change. Critics argue that the focus on social order can obscure power
relations and inequalities in society.
Talcott Parsons was an American sociologist who made significant contributions to the field of sociology. Here
are some key points and concepts that you may want to review for your test:
1. Action Theory: Parsons developed a theory of action that emphasizes the importance of understanding
the motivations and intentions behind social behavior. He argued that social behavior is driven by the
individual's efforts to achieve a specific goal, and that this goal-oriented behavior is influenced by social
norms and values.
2. Structural-Functionalism: Parsons is perhaps best known for his theory of structural-functionalism,
which emphasizes the importance of social structures and institutions in maintaining social order and
stability. He believed that society is composed of different subsystems, such as the economy, the family,
and the government, that must work together in a coordinated manner in order to function effectively.
3. Pattern Variables: Parsons developed the concept of pattern variables to help understand the different
dimensions of social action. These variables include, for example, affectivity versus affective neutrality,
and specificity versus diffuseness, and can be used to analyze different types of social behavior.
4. AGIL System: Parsons proposed the AGIL system as a framework for understanding the different
functions that must be performed in any society. The AGIL system stands for adaptation, goal
attainment, integration, and latency, and represents the different functions that must be performed in
order for society to function effectively.
5. Socialization: Parsons believed that socialization was a critical process in the development of the
individual and in the maintenance of social order. He argued that socialization involves the
internalization of social norms and values, which guide the individual's behavior and ensure social
conformity.
6. Criticisms: Parsons has been criticized for being too focused on maintaining social order and stability,
and for neglecting the role of power and conflict in society. Some critics have also argued that his
theories are too abstract and difficult to apply to concrete social problems.

Robert Merton was an American sociologist who made significant contributions to the field of sociology. Here
are some key points and concepts that you may want to review for your test:
1. Social Structure and Anomie: Merton is known for his theory of social structure and anomie, which
suggests that social structures can create strain or pressure that can lead to deviant behavior. He
argued that when there is a mismatch between cultural goals and institutionalized means to achieve
them, individuals experience strain or pressure, which can lead to deviance.
2. Strain Theory: Merton's strain theory explains the relationship between the goals and means of a
society and deviant behavior. He identified five modes of adaptation to this strain: conformity,
innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion.
3. Self-fulfilling Prophecy: Merton developed the concept of self-fulfilling prophecy to explain how beliefs
and expectations can influence behavior. He argued that when individuals believe something to be true,
their behavior may change in a way that reinforces the belief, even if the belief is initially untrue.
4. Reference Group Theory: Merton also developed the reference group theory, which suggests that
individuals compare themselves to reference groups and adjust their behavior accordingly. Reference
groups can influence an individual's goals, values, and attitudes, which can affect their behavior.
5. Role Model Theory: Merton also developed the role model theory, which suggests that individuals may
model their behavior after a role model they admire or respect. The behavior of the role model may
influence the behavior of the individual, particularly if the individual identifies strongly with the role
model.
6. Criticisms: Merton has been criticized for neglecting the role of power and conflict in society, and for
assuming that deviance is always a result of social strain. Some critics have also argued that his theory
is too focused on individual behavior and does not account for the broader social and cultural factors
that contribute to deviance.
Ralf Dahrendorf was a German-British sociologist who made significant contributions to the field of sociology.
Here are some key points and concepts that you may want to review for your test:
1. Conflict Theory: Dahrendorf's most influential contribution to sociology is his conflict theory, which
suggests that conflict is an inevitable part of social life. He argued that society is divided into groups
that have conflicting interests, and that social change is driven by conflicts between these groups.
2. Class and Power: Dahrendorf emphasized the importance of social class and power in understanding
social conflict. He argued that social class is a major source of conflict, and that those who hold power
are able to influence the actions of others.
3. Authority and Legitimacy: Dahrendorf also developed the concept of authority and legitimacy, which
refers to the power that is granted to individuals or groups in society. He argued that authority is only
legitimate if it is based on a shared belief in the legitimacy of the social order.
4. Change and Stability: Dahrendorf also emphasized the importance of both change and stability in
society. He argued that social change is necessary for progress, but that stability is necessary for social
order.
5. Criticisms: Dahrendorf has been criticized for neglecting the role of culture and ideology in society, and
for assuming that all conflict is the result of economic interests. Some critics have also argued that his
theory is too focused on macro-level social structures and does not account for the agency of
individuals.

Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on the meaning that individuals attach to
social phenomena and the ways in which they interact with one another. Here are some key points and
concepts associated with George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman, and Charles Cooley, who were influential in
the development of symbolic interactionism:
1. George Herbert Mead: Mead is considered to be the founder of symbolic interactionism. He
emphasized the importance of language and communication in the development of the self. Mead
argued that individuals construct their sense of self through social interaction, and that the self is a
product of social experience.
2. Self and Society: Mead also developed the concept of the "self" as a social product, and emphasized
the role of society in shaping individual behavior. He argued that individuals must take into account the
expectations of others when deciding how to act.
3. Erving Goffman: Goffman developed the concept of "dramaturgy," which suggests that social interaction
is like a performance on a stage. He argued that individuals engage in "impression management" by
presenting themselves in ways that will be viewed positively by others.
4. Presentation of Self: Goffman also developed the concept of the "presentation of self," which refers to
the ways in which individuals present themselves to others in social situations. He argued that
individuals use "sign vehicles," such as clothing and language, to convey information about themselves
to others.
5. Charles Cooley: Cooley developed the concept of the "looking-glass self," which suggests that
individuals construct their sense of self based on how they believe others perceive them. He argued
that individuals imagine how they appear to others and then develop their sense of self based on these
imagined perceptions.
6. Criticisms: Symbolic interactionism has been criticized for focusing too much on micro-level social
interactions and neglecting the broader social structures that shape individual behavior. Critics have
also argued that it places too much emphasis on the agency of individuals and neglects the impact of
social forces beyond individual control.

George Herbert Mead was an American philosopher and sociologist who made significant contributions to the
field of sociology. Here are some key points and concepts that you may want to review for your test:
 1. Symbolic Interactionism: Mead is known for developing the theory of symbolic interactionism, which
emphasizes the role of symbols and language in shaping human behavior and social interaction. He
argued that individuals use symbols to create meaning and interpret the world around them, and that
this process of interpretation is central to social interaction.
2. Self and Society: Mead also developed a theory of self and society, which suggests that the
development of the self is shaped by social interaction. He argued that individuals learn to see
themselves from the perspective of others, and that this process of perspective-taking is essential for
the development of a sense of self.
3. I and Me: Mead distinguished between the "I" and the "Me" in his theory of self and society. The "I"
represents the spontaneous and creative aspects of the self, while the "Me" represents the socialized
and conforming aspects of the self.
4. Role Taking: Mead also emphasized the importance of role-taking in social interaction. He argued that
individuals learn to take on the roles of others, and that this process of role-taking is essential for
understanding the perspective of others and for developing a sense of self.
5. Criticisms: Mead has been criticized for neglecting the role of social structure in society, and for
assuming that individuals have a great deal of agency in shaping their social interactions. Some critics
have also argued that his theory is too focused on micro-level social interaction and does not account
for the broader social and cultural factors that contribute to social behavior.

Erving Goffman was a Canadian sociologist and one of the most influential figures in the field of symbolic
interactionism. Here are some key points and concepts that you may want to review for your test:
1. Dramaturgical Analysis: Goffman's most influential concept is dramaturgical analysis, which suggests
that social life is like a theatrical performance. He argued that individuals perform different roles in
different social situations, and that they must manage their self-presentation in order to create a desired
impression on others.
2. Impression Management: Goffman emphasized the importance of impression management in social
interaction. He argued that individuals use a variety of techniques to manage the impressions they
create on others, including nonverbal cues, verbal cues, and the manipulation of props and settings.
3. Face-to-Face Interaction: Goffman also focused on face-to-face interaction, and he emphasized the
importance of nonverbal communication in shaping social interaction. He argued that individuals use a
variety of nonverbal cues, including facial expressions and body language, to communicate with others.
4. Stigma: Goffman developed the concept of stigma, which refers to a negative social label that affects a
person's social identity and can lead to social exclusion. He argued that stigmatized individuals must
manage their self-presentation in order to avoid negative reactions from others.
5. Criticisms: Goffman has been criticized for neglecting the role of social structure in shaping social
interaction, and for assuming that individuals have a great deal of agency in managing their
self-presentation. Some critics have also argued that his theory is too focused on micro-level social
interaction and does not account for the broader social and cultural factors that contribute to social
behavior.

Charles Cooley was an American sociologist who is best known for his development of the concept of the
"looking-glass self." Here are some key points and concepts that you may want to review for your test:
1. Looking-Glass Self: Cooley's most important concept is the "looking-glass self," which suggests that
individuals develop their sense of self based on the reactions of others. He argued that individuals
imagine how they appear to others, then imagine how others judge them, and then use these imagined
judgments to form a sense of self.
2. Primary and Secondary Groups: Cooley also developed the concepts of primary and secondary groups.
Primary groups are small, intimate groups, such as families or close friends, that provide individuals
 with a sense of belonging and identity. Secondary groups are larger, more impersonal groups, such as
bureaucracies or corporations, that individuals join for specific purposes.
3. Social Control: Cooley also emphasized the role of social control in shaping individual behavior. He
argued that individuals are socialized to conform to the norms and values of their society through a
process of social control, which can take the form of rewards and punishments.
4. Criticisms: Cooley's work has been criticized for neglecting the role of social structure in shaping
individual behavior, and for assuming that individuals have a great deal of agency in shaping their
sense of self. Some critics have also argued that his theory is too focused on micro-level social
interaction and does not account for the broader social and cultural factors that contribute to social
behavior.

Anthony Giddens is a British sociologist who is known for his contributions to the field of social theory,
particularly his theory of structuration. Here are some key points and concepts that you may want to review for
your test:
1. Structuration Theory: Giddens' most important contribution to sociology is his theory of structuration,
which suggests that social structures and individual agency are intertwined and mutually constitutive.
He argues that social structures are both the medium and outcome of human agency, and that
individuals must navigate these structures in order to exert agency.
2. Modernity: Giddens is also known for his work on modernity, which he argues is characterized by
increasing globalization, reflexivity, and uncertainty. He suggests that individuals in modern societies
are forced to constantly adapt to new situations and environments, and that this leads to a sense of
disembeddedness and fragmentation.
3. The Third Way: Giddens has also been involved in political theory, and he has advocated for a political
philosophy he calls the "Third Way." This approach seeks to balance the interests of capitalism and
social welfare, and emphasizes the importance of individual responsibility and social justice.
4. Criticisms: Giddens' work has been criticized for being too abstract and lacking empirical grounding,
and for neglecting the role of power and conflict in shaping social structures. Some critics have also
argued that his theory is too focused on individual agency and does not account for the broader social
and cultural factors that contribute to social behavior.

George Ritzer is an American sociologist who is known for his work on globalization, consumer culture, and
the McDonaldization of society. Here are some key points and concepts that you may want to review for your
test:
1. McDonaldization: Ritzer's most well-known concept is the McDonaldization of society, which refers to
the increasing rationalization and standardization of social and cultural processes. He argues that the
principles of efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control have become dominant in many aspects
of modern society, from fast food restaurants to education and healthcare.
2. Globalization: Ritzer has also written extensively about globalization, which he argues has led to the
spread of McDonaldization and consumer culture around the world. He suggests that globalization has
led to the homogenization of cultural practices and values, and has created a "global culture" that is
heavily influenced by Western capitalism.
3. Consumer Culture: Ritzer is also interested in the role of consumer culture in shaping social behavior.
He argues that individuals in consumer societies are encouraged to define themselves through the
products and services they consume, and that this leads to a culture of commodification and
materialism.
4. Criticisms: Ritzer's work has been criticized for being too deterministic and for neglecting the agency of
individuals in shaping social processes. Some critics have also argued that his theory of
McDonaldization is too simplistic and does not account for the diversity of cultural practices and values
around the world.
Pierre Bourdieu was a French sociologist and philosopher known for his work on social class, cultural capital,
and the nature of power in modern societies. Here are some key points and concepts that you may want to
review for your test:
1. Habitus: Bourdieu's concept of habitus refers to the set of dispositions, attitudes, and behaviors that
individuals develop as a result of their socialization within a particular cultural context. He argues that
habitus shapes individuals' perceptions and actions, and is a key mechanism through which social
structures are reproduced.
2. Cultural Capital: Bourdieu also developed the concept of cultural capital, which refers to the knowledge,
skills, and cultural assets that individuals possess and which give them social status and influence. He
suggests that cultural capital is unequally distributed in society, and that it plays a major role in
determining social class and access to power.
3. Field: Bourdieu's concept of field refers to the social spaces in which individuals and groups compete
for resources and power. He argues that fields are structured by specific rules and norms, and that
individuals must understand and navigate these structures in order to succeed.
4. Symbolic Violence: Bourdieu's concept of symbolic violence refers to the ways in which dominant
groups in society use their cultural capital to legitimize and naturalize their position of power. He
suggests that symbolic violence operates through language, discourse, and cultural practices, and that
it can be a subtle and insidious form of power.
5. Criticisms: Bourdieu's work has been criticized for being too abstract and for neglecting the agency of
individuals in shaping social processes. Some critics have also argued that his theories are too focused
on the French context and may not be applicable to other cultural contexts.

Immanuel Wallerstein was an American sociologist and historian known for his work on world-systems theory,
which seeks to explain global inequalities and patterns of economic and political development. Here are some
key points and concepts that you may want to review for your test:
1. World-Systems Theory: Wallerstein's theory of world-systems suggests that the world economy is
divided into three main zones: the core, the periphery, and the semi-periphery. The core consists of the
wealthiest and most developed countries, while the periphery consists of the least developed countries.
The semi-periphery is an intermediate zone between the core and periphery.
2. Dependency Theory: Wallerstein's work is often associated with dependency theory, which suggests
that the economic development of less developed countries is hindered by their dependence on more
developed countries for trade and investment. Dependency theorists argue that this relationship
perpetuates global inequalities and reinforces the dominance of the core over the periphery.
3. Historical Capitalism: Wallerstein also developed the concept of historical capitalism, which refers to the
specific form of capitalism that emerged in Europe in the sixteenth century and spread throughout the
world. He argues that historical capitalism is characterized by the commodification of labor and the
accumulation of capital, and that it has led to the development of a global economic system.
4. Criticisms: Wallerstein's work has been criticized for being too deterministic and for neglecting the
agency of individuals and groups in shaping social processes. Some critics have also argued that his
theory of world-systems does not account for the diversity of cultural practices and values around the
world.

Feminist theory is a diverse field of thought that seeks to understand and address the social, political, and
economic inequalities between men and women. There are many different varieties of feminist theory, each
with its own assumptions and emphases. Here are some key varieties of feminist theory that you may want to
review for your test:
 1. Liberal Feminism: Liberal feminism focuses on achieving gender equality through legal and political
reform. It emphasizes individual rights and freedoms, and seeks to eliminate discrimination based on
gender.
2. Marxist Feminism: Marxist feminism emphasizes the economic and class dimensions of gender
inequality. It argues that capitalism and patriarchy are interdependent systems that work together to
exploit and oppress women, and that a socialist revolution is necessary to achieve gender equality.
3. Radical Feminism: Radical feminism emphasizes the power of patriarchy as a system of oppression,
and seeks to fundamentally transform social relations between men and women. It argues that gender
inequality is deeply ingrained in society and culture, and that women must form their own communities
and create new social norms in order to achieve liberation.
4. Intersectional Feminism: Intersectional feminism emphasizes the ways in which gender intersects with
other forms of identity and oppression, such as race, class, and sexuality. It argues that social inequality
is complex and multifaceted, and that effective feminist activism must take into account the ways in
which different forms of oppression intersect and reinforce each other.
5. Postmodern Feminism: Postmodern feminism challenges the idea that there are fixed and universal
categories of gender identity and experience. It emphasizes the role of language, discourse, and
cultural norms in shaping gender and sexuality, and seeks to deconstruct and destabilize these
categories in order to create more fluid and inclusive understandings of gender.

The concept of "waves" of feminism is often used to describe different historical periods or movements within
feminist thought and activism. While the concept is somewhat contested and debated within feminist
scholarship, here is a commonly used framework for the three waves of feminism:
1. First Wave Feminism: The first wave of feminism refers to the women's suffrage movement of the late
19th and early 20th centuries. This wave focused primarily on gaining legal and political rights for
women, including the right to vote, own property, and receive an education.
2. Second Wave Feminism: The second wave of feminism emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, and focused
on a broader range of issues related to gender equality, including reproductive rights, workplace
discrimination, and sexual violence. This wave was characterized by a focus on consciousness-raising,
or collective self-awareness, among women, and saw the emergence of feminist theories and critiques
of patriarchal culture and institutions.
3. Third Wave Feminism: The third wave of feminism emerged in the 1990s and early 2000s, and
emphasized the intersectional nature of gender-based oppression, including the ways in which race,
class, sexuality, and other factors intersect with gender to shape experiences of inequality. This wave
also focused on issues related to globalization, transnational feminist movements, and queer and
transgender rights.
Some scholars have also identified a fourth wave of feminism, which focuses on digital media and online
activism. This wave is characterized by the use of social media and other digital platforms to organize and
mobilize feminist activism, as well as a focus on issues such as online harassment, revenge porn, and the
gendered impacts of technology.

It's worth noting that these waves are not mutually exclusive or definitive, and many scholars and activists work
within and across these different frameworks. Nevertheless, the concept of waves of feminism can be a useful
way to think about the historical and intellectual evolution of feminist thought and activism.