• A hormone is a chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the blood, which alters

the activity of one or more specific target organs

• A different kind of coordination is brought about by the endocrine system.

• It depends on chemicals, called hormones, which are released into the bloodstream from
special glands, called endocrine glands

• (a) the adrenal glands – produce adrenaline

• (b) the pancreas – produces insulin and glucagon

• (c) the pituitary gland – produces follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone
(LH)

• (d) the testes – produce testosterone

• (e) the ovaries – produce oestrogen and progesterone

• Adrenal glands are attached to back of the abdominal cavity, above each kidney and produce
the hormone adrenaline.

• Adrenaline has effects on the body, including liver and heart:

• In response to a stressful situation,

nerve impulses are sent which

releases adrenaline into the blood.

• Its causes breathing to become faster and deeper.

• The heart beats faster, resulting in an increase in pulse rate.

• The pupils of our eyes dilate, making them look much blacker.
• In the liver it stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose.

• The glucose passes into the bloodstream.

• Its increased concentration increases the heart rate.

• Increased levels of glucose available to cells enable them to respire faster, making more energy
available.

• These effects all make us more able to react quickly and strongly in dangerous situations (known
as ‘fight or flight’ situations) .

• When adrenaline is no longer needed, it is quickly converted by the liver to a less active
compound, which is excreted by the kidneys.

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

• Homeostasis literally means staying similar.

• One example of this is the way the endocrine system maintains levels of glucose in the blood

• Homeostasis keeps the composition of tissue fluid in the body within narrow limits.

• The concentration, acidity and temperature of body are being adjusted all the time to prevent
any big changes.

• Enzymes→→optimal pH & temperature

• kidneys →level of salts, water and acids in the blood.

• liver→glucose metabolism

• Homeostasis works through a system of control called negative feedback .

• For example, a rise in blood glucose levels triggers responses that counteract the rise (e.g.
through the release of insulin).

•
• If the level of sugar in blood falls, the islets in the pancreas release a hormone called glucagon
into the bloodstream.

• Glucagon acts on the cells in the liver and causes to convert stored glycogen into glucose. This
restores blood sugar level.

• Insulin has the opposite effect to glucagon. If the concentration of blood sugar increases (e.g.
after a meal rich in carbohydrate), insulin is released from the islet cells of the pancreas.

• When the insulin reaches the liver, it stimulates the liver cells to take up glucose from the blood
and store it as glycogen

• If the concentration of glucose in the blood falls below about 80 mg 100 cm–3 blood, some of
the glycogen stored in the liver is converted by enzyme action into glucose,

• A blood glucose level below 40 mg 100 cm–3 9 (called as hypoglycemia) affects the brain cells
badly, leading to convulsions and coma.

• By helping to keep the glucose concentration between 80 and 150 mg, the liver prevents these
undesirable effects.

• If blood glucose levels remain too high for long periods, serious health problems can develop.
The condition is called hyperglycemia.

• Effects include damage to vessels that supply blood to vital organs, which can increase the risk
of heart disease and stroke, kidney disease, blurred vision and nerve problems.

• If anything goes wrong with the production or function of insulin, the person will show the
symptoms of diabetes

• TYPE 1(also called insulin dependant diabetes or Juvenile diabetes)

• There are two types of diabetes and Type 1 is the less common form.

• It happens when the islet cells of the pancreas do not produce enough insulin. As a result blood
is low in insulin and the person needs regular injections of hormone in order to control blood
sugar level .

• This form of the disease is called insulin dependent diabetes.

• The signs of diabetes include increased blood glucose concentration and the presence of glucose
in urine.

• The symptoms include feeling tired, feeling very thirsty, frequent urination and weight loss.

• The weight loss is because the body starts to break down muscle and fat.

• Regular injections of insulin & blood tests to monitor their blood sugar levels.

• In addition to above; they need a carefully controlled diet and must do regular exercise.