NORMAL CELL STRUCTURE

I. Fundamentals of Normal • Schwann also cofounded the cell

Histology theory
Normal Cell Structure: Basic
• In 1855, a German medical doctor
Structure of a Cell named Rudolph Virchow observed,
under the microscope, cells dividing
• He reasoned that all cells come from
other pre-existing cells by cell division
CELL THEORY

• All living things are made of cells

First to View Cells:
• In 1665, Robert Hooke used a
microscope
examine a thin slice of cork (dead plant
cells)
• What he saw looked like small boxes
• Hooke is responsible for naming cells
• Hooke called them “CELLS” because
they looked like the small rooms that
monks lived in called Cells
• Cells are the basic unit of structure and
function in an organism (basic unit of
life)
• Cells come from the reproduction of
existing cells (cell division)
Simple or Complex Cells:
• Cells that lack a nucleus or membrane-
bound organelles
to
• Includes bacteria
• Simplest type of cell
• Single, circular chromosome
Prokaryotes
• Nucleoid region (center) contains the
DNA

Anton van Leeuwenhoek • Surrounded by cell membrane & cell

wall (peptidoglycan)
• In 1673, Leeuwenhoek (a Dutch
microscope maker), was first to view • Contain ribosomes (no membrane) in
organism (living things) their cytoplasm to make proteins

• Leeuwenhoek used a simple, handheld

microscope to view pond water &
scrapings from his teeth
Beginning of the Cell Theory
• In 1838, a German botanist named
Matthias Schleiden concluded that all
plants were made of cells
• Schleiden is a cofounder of the cell
theory
• In 1839, a German zoologist named
Theodore Schwann concluded that all
animals were made of cells

Eukaryotes
• Cells that HAVE a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles
• Includes protists, fungi, plants, and
animals
• More complex type of cells
Eukaryotic Cell
Contain 3 basic cell structures:
• Nucleus
• Cell Membrane
• Cytoplasm with organelles
Two Main Types of Eukaryotic Cells
• Plant Cell
• Animal Cell
Organelles
• Very small (Microscopic)
• Perform various functions for a cell
• Found in the cytoplasm
• May or may not be membrane-bound
NORMAL CELL STRUCTURE
Cell or Plasma Membrane
• Composed of double layer of
phospholipids and proteins
• Surrounds outside of ALL cells
• Controls what enters or leaves the cell
• Living layer
Phospholipids
• Heads contain glycerol & phosphate
and are hydrophilic (attract water)
• Tails are made of fatty acids and are
hydrophobic (repel water)
• Make up a bilayer where tails point
inward toward each other
• Can move laterally to allow small
molecules (O2, CO2, & H2O to enter)
The Cell Membrane is Fluid
Molecules in cell membranes are constantly
moving and changing
 NORMAL CELL STRUCTURE

Cell Membrane in Plants Nuclear Envelope

• Lies immediately against the cell wall • Double membrane surrounding
in plant cells nucleus
• Pushes out against the cell wall to • Also called nuclear membrane
maintain cell shape • Contains nuclear pores for materials
to enter & leave nucleus
Cell Wall
Inside the Nucleus
• Found outside of the cell membrane
• Nonliving layer • The genetic material (DNA) is found
• Supports and protects cell
• Found in plants, fungi, & bacteria

Cytoplasm of a Cell

• Jelly-like substance enclosed by cell

membrane
• Provides a medium for chemical
• DNA is spread out and appears as
reactions to take place
CHROMATIN in non-dividing cells
More on Cytoplasm • DNA is condensed & wrapped around
proteins forming as CHROMOSOMES
• Contains organelles to carry out
in dividing cells
specific jobs
What Does DNA do?
The Control Organelle - Nucleus
• DNA is the hereditary material of the
• Controls the normal
cell
activities of the cell
• Genes that make up the DNA molecule
• Contains the DNA in chromosomes
code for different proteins
• Bounded by a
nuclear envelope (membrane) with Nucleolus
pores
• Inside nucleus
• Usually, the largest organelle
• Disappears when cell divides
More on the Nucleus • Makes ribosomes that make proteins

• Each cell has fixed

number of chromosomes that carry
genes
• Genes control cell characteristics

Cytoskeleton

• Helps cell maintain cell shape

• Also help move organelles around
• Made of proteins
• Microfilaments are threadlike &
made of ACTIN

• Microtubules are tubelike & made
of TUBULIN
Centrioles
• Found only in animal cells
• Paired structures near nucleus
• Made of bundle of microtubules
• Appear during cell division forming
mitotic spindle
• Help to pull chromosome pairs apart
to opposite ends of the cell
Mitochondrion (plural = mitochondria)
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Generate cellular energy (ATP)
• More active cells like muscle cells
have MORE mitochondria
• Both plants & animal cells have
mitochondria
• Site of CELLULAR RESPIRATION
(burning glucose)
MITOCHONDRIA
• Surrounded by a DOUBLE membrane
• Has its own DNA
• Folded inner membrane called
CRISTAE (increases surface area
for more chemical Reactions)
• Interior called MATRIX
NORMAL CELL STRUCTURE
Interesting Fact:
Mitochondria Come from cytoplasm in the
EGG cell during fertilization. Therefore, you
inherit your mitochondria from your mother!
Endoplasmic Reticulum – ER
• Network of hollow membrane tubules
• Connects to nuclear envelope & cell
membrane
• Functions in Synthesis of cell products
& Transport
• Two kinds of ER ---ROUGH & SMOOTH
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)
• Has ribosomes on its surface
• Makes membrane proteins and
proteins for export out of cell
• Proteins are made by ribosomes on ER
surface
• They are then threaded into the
interior of the Rough ER to be modified
and
transported
Functions of the Smooth ER
• Makes membrane lipids (steroids)
• Regulates calcium (muscle cells)
• Destroys toxic substances (Liver)

Endomembrane System
• Includes nuclear membrane
connected to ER connected to cell
membrane (transport)
Ribosomes
• Made of PROTEINS and rRNA
• “Protein factories” for cell
• Join amino acids to make proteins
through protein synthesis
• Can be attached to
Rough ER or Be free (unattached) in
the cytoplasm
Golgi Bodies
• Stacks of flattened sacs
• Have a shipping side (cis face) & a
receiving side (trans face)
• Receive proteins made by ER
• Transport vesicles with modified
proteins pinch off the ends
• Look like a stack of pancakes
• Modify, sort, & package molecules
from ER for storage OR
transport out of cell
• Materials are transported from Rough
ER to Golgi to the cell membrane by
VESICLES
NORMAL CELL STRUCTURE
Lysosomes
• Contain digestive enzymes
• Break down food, bacteria, and worn-
out cell parts for cells
• Programmed for cell death
(APOPTOSIS)
• Lyse & release enzymes to break
down & recycle cell parts)
Lysosome Digestion
• Cells take in food by phagocytosis
• Lysosomes digest the food & get rid of
wastes
Cilia & Flagella
• Function in moving cells, in moving
fluids, or in small particles across the
cell surface
• Cilia are shorter and more numerous
on cells
• Flagella are longer and fewer (usually
1-3) on cells
Chloroplasts
• Found only in producers (organisms
containing chlorophyll)
• Use energy from sunlight to make own
food (glucose)
• Energy from sun stored in the
Chemical Bonds of Sugars
Vacuoles
• Fluid filled sacks for storage
• Small or absent in animal cells
• Plant cells have a large Central Vacuole
 NORMAL CELL STRUCTURE

• In plants, they store Cell Sap Selective Permeability

• Includes storage of sugars, proteins, • The plasma membrane allows some

minerals, lipids, wastes, salts, water, materials to pass while excluding
and enzymes others

Chloroplasts • This permeability includes movement

into and out of the cell
• Surrounded by DOUBLE membrane
Passive Transport Processes
• Outer membrane smooth
• Diffusion
• Inner membrane modified into sacs
called Thylakoids – Particles tend to distribute
themselves evenly within a
• Thylakoids in stacks called Grana &
solution
interconnected
– Movement is
• Stroma – gel like material surrounding
from high
thylakoids
concentration
Cellular Physiology: Membrane Transport to low
concentration,
• Membrane Transport – movement of or down a
substance into and out of the cell concentration
• Transport is by two basic methods gradient

– Passive transport • Types of diffusion

• No energy is required – Simple diffusion

– Active transport • Unassisted process

• The cell must provide • Solutes are lipid-

metabolic energy soluble materials or
small enough to pass
Solutions and Transport through membrane
• Solution – homogeneous mixture of pores
two or more components – Osmosis – simple diffusion
– Solvent – dissolving medium of water

– Solutes – components in • Highly polar water

smaller quantities within a easily crosses the
solution plasma membrane

• Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and – Facilitated diffusion

cytosol • Substances require a
• Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior protein carrier for
of the cell passive transport

Diffusion through the Plasma Membrane
• Filtration
– Water and solutes are forced
through a membrane by fluid,
or hydrostatic pressure
– A pressure gradient must exist
• Solute-containing
fluid is pushed from a
high-pressure area to
a lower pressure area
Active Transport Processes
• Transport substances that are unable
to pass by diffusion
– They may be too large
– They may not be able to
dissolve in the fat core of the
membrane
– They may have to move
against a concentration
gradient
• Two common forms of active
transport
– Solute pumping – chemical
exchanges
– Bulk transport – exocytosis
Exocytosis
NORMAL CELL STRUCTURE
Endocytosis
Extracellular - engulfs substances by enclosing
in a membranous vescicle
2 types
1. Phagocytosis – cell eating
2. Pinocytosis – cell drinking
The Cell Cycle, Mitosis and Meiosis
• Actively dividing eukaryote cells pass
through a series of stages known
collectively as the cell cycle: two gap
phases (G1 and G2); an S (for
synthesis) phase, in which the genetic
material is duplicated; and an M
phase, in which mitosis partitions the
genetic material and the cell divides.
• G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare
the cell for division. At a certain point
- the restriction point - the cell is
committed to division and moves into
the S phase.
• S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the
genetic material. Each chromosome
now consists of two sister chromatids.
• G2 phase. Metabolic changes
assemble the cytoplasmic materials
necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis.
• M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis)
followed by a cell division
(cytokinesis).
Protein Synthesis
• Gene – DNA segment that carries a
blueprint for building one protein
• Proteins have many functions
– Building materials for cells
– Act as enzymes (biological
catalysts)
• RNA is essential for protein synthesis
 NORMAL CELL STRUCTURE

Cell Life Cycle – Results in the formation of

two daughter nuclei
• Cells have two major periods
• Cytokinesis
– Interphase
– Division of the cytoplasm
• Cell grows
– Begins when mitosis is near
• Cell carries on completion
metabolic processes
– Results in the formation of
– Cell division
two daughter cells
• Cell replicates itself Meiosis
• Function is to produce • Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell
more cells for growth
division that produces haploid sex cells
and repair processes or gametes (which contain a single
DNA Replication copy of each chromosome) from
diploid cells (which contain two copies
• Genetic material duplicated and of each chromosome).
readies a cell for division into two
cells • The process takes the form of one DNA
replication followed by two successive
• Occurs toward the end of interphase nuclear and cellular divisions (Meiosis
• DNA uncoils and each side serves I and Meiosis II).
as a template • As in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a
process of DNA replication that
converts each chromosome into two
sister chromatids.
Stages of Mitosis
• Interphase
– No cell division occurs
– The cell carries out normal
metabolic activity and growth
• Prophase
– First part of cell division
– Centromeres migrate to the
poles
• Metaphase
– Spindle from centromeres are
attached to chromosomes
that are aligned in the center
Events of Cell Division
of the cell
• Mitosis
• Anaphase
– Division of the nucleus – Daughter chromosomes are
pulled toward the poles
 NORMAL CELL STRUCTURE

– The cell begins to elongate

• Telophase
– Daughter nuclei begin forming
– A cleavage furrow (for cell
division) begins to form
NORMAL CELL STRUCTURE