Operational Amplifiers 2.

DE TTK

Elektronika 2.

Electronics 2. 1
2.5 Effect of finite open-loop gain and bandwith
A real op amp is very close to an ideal model. Altought we should know what are the limits of ideal
behaviour.
Frequency dependence:

General porpose op amp: pl.uA741

Single Time Constans (STC) model.

STC model: A0
A(s) = ,
1+ s /ω b
ωb = 1R C ,
b b
A0
A( jω ) = ,
1+ jω /ω b
€
€
Ha ω ›› ωb, akkor
€ A0ω b
A( jω ) ≈ ,
jω

A0ω b
Electronics 2. A( jω ) ≈ , 2
ω
€
 Egységnyi erősítés sávszélesség (unity-gain bandwith)

When will become the gain unity (0dB)?

A0ω b
With substituting: A( jω ) = 1 A( jω ) ≈ ,
ω
ω = ω t = A0ω b ,
€ € ωt : The fr. where the gain becomes 1.
(Unity gain banwidth)
ωt : Substituting this to A:
€
A0ω b ω t €f t Increasing f by a factor10,
A( jω ) ≈ = = ,
ω ω f results in reducig amplitude by a factor 10.
€
Comment: The name of the unity gain bandwidth: Gain-Bandwith Product (GB, GBW)

Exercise€2.18

Electronics 2. 3
 Nonideal Op Amp 2.
Frequency Response of Closed-Lopp amplifiers
Invering config. Noninverting config.

vo −R2 /R1 vo 1+ ( R2 /R)1

G= = , G= = ,
v I 1+ (1+ R2 /R1 ) / A v I 1+ (1+ R 2 /R1 )
A
A0
Substituting the amplifier gain: A(s) = , A0››1
1+ s /ω b
€
vo −R2 /R1 € vo 1+ R2 /R1
G= = , G= = ,
v I 1+ s € v I 1+ s
ω t /(1+ R2 /R1 ) ω t /(1+ R2 /R1 )
1
Each result are STC networks: Au = ( Bode plots os an STC circuit)
1+ jωτ
€ €
1
At both cases: = ω−3dB = ω t /(1+ R2 /R1 ), ωt: decreases
τ
€

€
Electronics 2. 4
Example 2.4

Interesting observation: Inverting case f(-3dB) = ft/2

Noninverting case f(-3dB) = ft

Electronics 2. 5
Exercise 2.19

Electronics 2. 6
2.6 Large –signal operation of op amps
Limitations related to large output signals

1. Output Voltage Saturation

Basic nonlinearity: The effect of power supply

Secondary effect: Saturation of otput transistors

e.g.: +/- 15V supply:

L-=-13V, L+=+13V

2. Output Current Limits

The ouput current is limited. e.g: uA 741 erősítő: +/-20mA

All the current (load, feedback, etc) shouldbe less then the limit value.

Electronics 2. 7
Exercise 2.5
Limits:
vO=+/-13V
IO= +/-20mA

Questions:
1.  VP=1V, RL=1kOhm, vO=?
2.  VP=1.5V, RL=1kOhm, vO=?
3.  RL=1kOhm, if vO is distortionless
What is VP ?
4.  VP=1V , if vO is distortionless
What is the smallest value of Rl ?

Answer:
1.  vOmax=10V,
IL=10mA, IF=1mA, There is no limiting.

2.  vOmax=15V should be, but limit at +13V !

IL=13mA, IF=1.3mA,

3.  VP=1.3V (vO=13V), IO=14.3mA

4.  vO=10V (sine),

10V 10V RL min = 526Ohm,
iO max = 20mA = + ,
RL min 9k + 1k
Electronics 2. 8
€
€
Slew Rate

Not only Iout, but its rate of change is limited. dvO V 

SR = max   Parameter in catalog.
dt  µs 

If the rate of change of the input signal : smaller than SR: No problem.
higher than SR: The rate of change of
€ the output signal equals to SR.
Reason: The inner construction of the amplifier (we see it later)

Electronics 2. 9
 Full Power Bandwidth
Parameter in catalog.

The sine rate of change :

 dv I 
v I = Vi sin ωt, = ωVi cos ωt,
dt

Maximal value: ωVi At t = 0
€ €

€
If:
 The response:
ωVi ≥ SR
This is a nonlinear distorsion as well well.

€
Full Power Bandwidth: The system begins to be distorted at this frequency at max. output signal level.

SR
ω M VO max = SR fM =
2πVO max

Electronics 2. 10
€
€
2.7 DC Imperfections

1. Input offset voltage Catalog

Ideal case vI = 0 ⇒ vO = 0

In real : vI = 0 ⇒ vO ≠ 0
Reason:
The imbalanced behaviour of the
input stage.

VOS=1..5mV, Its sign is unknown: Can be Different at every piece.

Temperature dependent:
TC: µV/oC
How can be modified the „wrong” characteristic?

Circuit model: We modell a real amplifier by connecting an ideal amp.

And a voltage source.
The input offset voltage will be amplified and generates
the outpu offset voltage.

Compensation: Connecting a opposite polarity signal

in serial with the input

Electronics 2. 11
Exercise 2.23
Based on the offset model:
Giive the ransfer characteristic of an op amp!
AO=104, VO SAT= +/-10V, VOS = +5mV,

Electronics 2. 12
The effect of offset voltage on feedback amplifier

Pl: VOS = +5mV, → VO = +5V

If we connect signal source: Its output signal is

superponating to the +5V offset at the output.

Compensating:

Many types of Op Amps has input

for compensation

In case of an AC amplifier:

The output offset voltage will be x1

Of the input offset signal.

Electronics 2. 13
Exercise 2.24

Electronics 2. 14
Exercise 2.25

Inverting C coupled amplifier:

G = 1000,
vOS = 3mV,
VO SAT = +/-10V

Questions:
1.  What is the DC output signal?
What is the amplitude of an undistorted sine wave signal?
Do we need offset compensation?
2.  If R1=1kOhm, R2=1MOhm, what is C, if at 100Hz G › 57dB?

Electronics 2. 15
Input Bias and Offset current Parameter in catalog

Circuit model

Idealis op amp: there is no inpu current

Real: There are current at both ports:

IB1, IB2,

The mean value of the currents:

IB1 + IB 2
The bias: IB = ,
2
Typical values: IB = 100nA
(BJT) IOS= 10nA
The difference:
The offset current: IOS = IB1 − IB 2 ,
€ FET: In the order of pA

€
Electronics 2. 16
The feedback system with bias currents

VO arises only becouse of IB1 !

VO = IB1R2 ≈ IB R2 ,

If R2 too high VO is high! ⇒ limit for R2 .

€ How can we reduce the effect of IB?

Lets connect a new resistor to the + input: Steps:

1.  U+ 0 will grove
2.  U- as well
3.  R1 cunducts a current
4.  A difference current will flow trough R2.
5.  VO can be determined.

R1R2
Without any detail: R3 = , VO = 0!
(suppese: IB1=IB2=IB ) R1 + R2
At a real amplifier case with choosing R3 as before:
(IB1≠IB2) V =I R ,
O OS 2
Electronics 2. € 17

€
Exercise 2.26

Inverting amplifier case:

R1=10k Ohm, Questions:
R2=1M Ohm, 1.  What is VOS ?
IB=100 nA. 2.  What is R3 ?
IOS=10 nA. 3.  What is VOS ?

VO = IB1R2 ≈ IB R2 ,

R1R2
R3 = ,
€ R1 + R2

VO = IOS R2 ,
€

Electronics 2. 18
Offset in AC coupled amplifiers

There is no current flowing through R1:

Does the circuit work without R3 ?

Electronics 2. 19
2.8 Integrating and differentiating amplifiers

Inverting amplifier with general impedances

We used only resistors as the gain setting elements of our networks.
We can realise new types of functions by using other elements.

Z1 and Z2 are any type of impedances:

The transfer function in the form using

Laplace operators :
Vo (s) Z (s)
=− 2 ,
Vi (s) Z1 (s)

( With s=jω substititotion we get the :

1.  Frequency – Amplitude and
€
2.  Frequency – phase
functions (The Bode-plots) of the system.

Electronics 2. 20
 Example 2.6
What is the transfer function of this circuit!

Vo (s) Z (s) Vo (s) 1

=− 2 , =− ,
Vi (s) Z1 (s) Vi (s) Z1 (s)Y2 (s)

Substituting Z1 = R1 és Y2(s) = (1/R2) + sC2

€ €
Vo (s) 1 −R2 /R1
=− = , This is an STC network!
Vi (s) R1 1+ sC R
+ sC2 R1 2 2
R2

DC gain: The -3dB frequency:

R2 1
€ K =− , ω0 =
R1 C2 R2

Based on the previous design an amplifier with:

R2 € If R1=1kOhm, Then€R2=100kOhm.
DC gain= 40dB, = 100,
R1
Input resistance=1kOhm,
f(-3dB)=1kHz 1
ω 0 = 2π 10 3 = ,  C2 = 1.59 nF
C2 R2
€ Electronics 2. 21

€
Inverting Integrator
Substitution Z2 = C, Z1 = R : Prove that this circuit is able to integrate the input signal!

v I (t)
i1 = , The charges are accumulates on C.
R
iC = i1,
What is the volage on the C?
1 t VC: V on C at t=0.
€ vC (t) = VC + ∫ i1 (t)dt,
C€0

Based on the circuit: v o (t) = −vC (t),

t
€ 1
So it can be written: v o (t) = −
RC
∫ v (t)dt − V ,
I C
0 €
So the circiut really integrates the input signal.

If the charge on C is 0 at t=0 then: VC=0

€
RC: time constant of the system

Electronics 2. 22
 The transfer function of the integrator
Using Laplace operators:
Substituting s=jω
Vo (s) Z (s) 1/sC 1 Vo ( jω ) 1
=− 2 =− =− , =− ,
Vi (s) Z1 (s) R sRC Vi ( jω ) jωRC

1
€ We know this function from the Bode-plots:
€ jωτ

The absolut value of transfer: The phase shift value of transfer:

(amplitude characteristics) (phase characteristics)
€ 1 
Im −
Vo ( jω ) 1 
 jωRC 
= , ϕ = arctg = −90 o
Vi ( jω ) ωRC  1 
Re − 
 jωRC 

The slope: -20dB/D

€ €

Where the transfer = 1 : The integrator frequency:

1 1
ω int = = ,
τ int RC

Electronics 2. 23
€
The real integrator
What is the gain at DC?

At DC the impedance of the C is infinite: ⇒ G = ∞ (real opamp: A0) ⇒

If there is any small error voltage or current at the input causes the output
to saturate ( L+, L- határ ).

Error components:
1. Offset voltage:

At both cases at the outputs:

Sum of two componets:
2. Bias current: a constant + time dependent :
Result:
vo goes towards to one of the power
supply by linear function.

Electronics 2. 24
Integrator with finite gain at DC

Lets connect a resistor parallel to the C:

Advantage: The DC gain will be finite:

Vo (s) R /R
=− F ,
Vi (s) 1+ sRF C

There is only constant component at the output:

Instead of time dependent component : (without deduction)
€

Vo = VOS (1+ RF /R) + IOS RF , (The minimal error: RF=0 )

The smallest the RF, the smallest the constans error at the output:
but we have made the wronger circuit,
€
The new integrrating time constant : RFC

Electronics 2. 25
Example 2.7

Build an integrator : R=10kOhm. C=10nF

Connect to the input: 1V-os és 1ms-os impulse signal.
What is the output without RF ?

t
1
v o (t) = −
RC
∫ 1dt, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1ms
0

1
v o (t) = − t = −10t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1ms
RC
€ €
We can understand the result easily: The constant vI
charges the capacitor with constant I, where€the volate changes linearly
€

RF=1MOhm

Without detailed analysis: The constant I charges an RFC circuit,

Which charges and discharges by exponentialy.

Electronics 2. 26
 The Op Amp Differentiator

After studying the integrator we have easy task :

dv I (t)
The current throught C:
i=C
dt

This current flows throught R, so:

€
dv I (t)
v o (t) = −RC
dt

€
With using impedances:

Sustituting s=jω
Vo (s) Z (s) R
=− 2 =− = −sRC, Vo ( jω )
Vi (s) Z1 (s) 1/sC = − jωRC,
Vi ( jω )

€
€
Electronics 2. 27
The transfer function of a Differentiator

The amplitude respons:

jωτ
Vo ( jω )
= ωRC,
Vi ( jω )
The time constant of a differentiator :
€
The phase shift: 1 1
o
ω diff = = ,
€ ϕ = 90 τ diff RC

€
By the amplitude response:
€ the high frequency components are highly gained,
relative to the low frequency components. (the output is noisy)

Using a series resistor (with C) will reduce this problem (limits the high frequency gain)
But degrades the differentiator behavier.

Electronics 2. 28
2.9 The SPICE simulation model of an Op Amp
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPICE
SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis)
University of California, Berkeley
SPICE2 included these analyses:
▪AC analysis (small-signal frequency domain analysis at the quiescent point (Q-point))
▪DC analysis (nonlinear quiescent point calculation)
▪DC transfer curve analysis (a sequence of nonlinear operating points calculated while sweeping 

an input voltage or current, or a circuit parameter)
▪Noise analysis (a small signal analysis done using an adjoint matrix technique which sums 

uncorrelated noise currents at a chosen output point)
▪Transfer function analysis (a small-signal input/output gain and impedance calculation)
▪Transient analysis (time-domain large-signal solution of nonlinear differential algebraic equations)
SPICE2 also contained code for sensitivity analysis, pole-zero analysis, and small-signal distortion analysis.
Analysis at various temperatures was done by automatically updating semiconductor model parameters for temperature, 


allowing the circuit to be simulated at temperature extremes.

Most of simulators uses this model.

The MACROMODELL of an Op Amp:

A detailed model of the circuit without to know the circuits inside.

They are based on the terminal characteristics of the opamp.
There are different levels of models. The more the details, the more the reality of the given result.
Many times theuse of the simplest model can deal with the task.

Electronics 2. 29
Linear macromodel of an Op Amp

Véges diff. erősítés, STC hálózat, 1x-es leválasztó

By using linear elements this model can manage the finite gain and frequency response.

Electronics 2. 30
Extended linear macromodell

We can work with the effects of: Input resistances, error generators, output
resistance and the CMRR as well.

Electronics 2. 31
Nonlinear macromodell

One of the most significant nonlinearity is the effect of finite power supply values

We can manage other type of nonlinearities, but:

The manufacturers creates detailed models with very good performances.

Electronics 2. 32