Fe-Fe3C phase diagram: Revisited

Fe3C is stronger than α-Fe

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Properties: Role of C in steel

Fundamentals of Modern Manufacture, Groover M.P.

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Properties: Role of C in steel

Normalized?
Annealed?

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Strength: Low C Vs High C
Low C High C

Steel wire
Cross section area: 1 cm2

3 - 4 max 10 - 12

Courtesy: Google images

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Low Alloy or Plain Carbon Steel
• Plain carbon steel
• Principal alloying element C
• Most widely used
• Not very strong
• Automobile sheet metal
part, railroad rails

Low carbon
C < 0.2%
steel
Low alloy Machinery components
Medium C and engine parts (crank
/Plain 0.2 < C < 0.5
steel
carbon steel shaft and connecting rod)
High carbon
C > 0.5%
steels • For higher stiffness and
hardness
• Springs, cutting tools
(and blades) and wear
resistant parts

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Alloy steels
Low alloy steel

• Iron carbon alloys that contain additional alloying elements in amounts

totaling less than 5% (wt.%)

• Better mechanical properties than plain C steel

• Strength

• Hardness

• Wear resistance

• Toughness

• Heat treatment is often required

• Alloying elements usually added in combination

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Stainless steel
Stainless steels: Highly alloyed for high corrosion resistance
• High strength and ductility
• Cr > 15%

18% Cr, 8% Ni,

Austenitic SS
C < 0.03%

15-20% Cr,
Stainless steel Ferritic SS
Low C, NO Ni

Mixture of
Duplex steels Austenite and
Ferrite (50-50)

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 Stainless Steels

Major alloying elements: Chromium, Cr

Imparts good corrosion resistance

Other alloying elements: Ni, Mn

Courtesy: Google images

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Stainless Steels

Name one application of Austenitic, Ferritic and Martensitic steel each?

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Stainless Steels
• Chemical and Food storage instruments are Austenitic steel (fcc)
• Utensils to Jet engine components are Ferritic steel (bcc),
• Cutlery and Surgical instruments are Martensitic steel (bct),

What is bct?

Courtesy: Google images

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Cast iron
• Cast iron: alloy containing C (2.1 - ~ 4%) and Si (1 - 3%)

Gray cast iron

Ductile cast iron

Cast iron
White cast iron

Malleable cast iron

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Microstructures & Applications of cast iron

https://engineeringlearn.com/types-of-cast-iron-and-their-uses-with-composition-properties/

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Cast Irons
• Gray Cast Iron (2.5-4% C, 1-3% Si)
• Graphite flakes form throughout
• Good vibration damping (engine and other machinery)
• Good internal lubrication (machineable)
• Low ductility
• Application: automotive engine blocks
• Ductile iron (2.5-4% C, 1-3% Si)
• Chemically treated before pouring so spheroids è ductile
• Application: Machinery component requiring high strength and good wear
resistance
• White Cast Iron (Lesser C and Si than gray CI)
• Cooling of molten metal is much faster so C remains in the form of Fe3C and
does not precipitate out in form of flakes
• Hard and brittle
• Excellent wear resistance
• Good strength
• Application: Railway brake shoes

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Materials: Strategic & Critical applications

Jet Engine
Turbine Blades

Ni based alloys

https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/super-superalloys-hotter-stronger-for-even-longer

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Superalloys: γ-γ’ microstructure

Courtesy: Google images

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Superalloys: γ-γ’ microstructure

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wYHch5QIWTQ

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Densities of elements

https://periodictableguide.com/periodic-table-of-elements/

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Light weight alloys

• Al Alloys

• Mg Alloys

• Ti-Al Alloys

Wikipedia

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Al-Si alloys

Courtesy: Google images

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Al-Si alloys

https://www.european-aluminium.eu/media/1544/aam-products-6-cast-alloys-and-products.pdf

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Al-Si alloys

• Al-Si alloy has very good fluidity and castability

• Mg addition can result in better mechanical properties (wheels, suspension parts)

• Al-Si-Cu-Mg alloys are used for power train components such as engine blocks,
cylinder heads, pistons and die castings

What are the advantages of Al over steel?

Compare the strength of Al and steel!

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Light weight alloys

Strength/Density = Specific strength

Yield Strength Density, Specific strength,

Material
(MPa) g/cc (kN m/kg)

Low carbon steel (AISI

365 7.87 46.4
1010)
Stainless steel (304) 505 8.00 63.1
Brass 580 8.55 67.8
Titanium 344 4.51 76
CrMo Steel (4130) 560 - 670 7.85 71 – 85

Aluminium alloy (6061-T6) 310 2.70 115

Wikipedia

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Manufacturing Processes

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Casting [Chapters -10 &11: Groover ]

Ø Solidification: Fundamentals

Ø Classifications of casting processes

Ø Fundamentals of Casting

Ø Sand Mold Casting

Ø Shrinkage, Riser Design

Ø Other kinds of Casting

Ø Casting Defects

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Casting
Dhokra (also spelt Dokra) art form : Lost-wax casting: 4000 years

Moradabad
“Pital Nagari” or “City of Brass”

Exports goods worth Rs.4000 Crore

Wikipedia
Turbine Blade
https://www.iitk.ac.in/designbank/Moradabad/History.html

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Casting
• Casting: Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or
other force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of
the mold cavity
• Step involved are
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Allow it to freeze

Courtesy: Google images

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Casting: Advantages and Disadvantages
Capabilities and advantages
• Can create complex part geometries
• Net shape / near net shape
• Can produce large parts (> 100 Tons)
• Any metal that can be heated to liquid state
• Mass production feasibility

Disadvantages
• Mechanical properties: Mechanical strength is poor
• Porosity
• Poor dimensional accuracy: Secondary processes are required
• Surface finish
• Safety hazard to humans during processing of molten metals

Freeze normal water and boiled water?

Courtesy: Google images

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Casting: Classification

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Casting of metals: Classification
Expendable Expendable:
mold casting not reusable
Casting
Permanent
mold casting
• Expendable mold / permanent pattern processes
• mold broken to remove part eg: sand casting with wooden pattern
• Advantage : complex shapes possible
• Disadvantage : production rate is limited

• Expendable mold / expendable pattern processes

• mold broken to remove part eg: sand casting with thermocol pattern

• Permanent mold processes – mold multiple usage eg: die casting

• Advantage : higher production rates
• Disadvantage : geometries limited by need; open mold

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Expendable mold casting
• Open Vs. Closed mold

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Casting Process
• Cope: Upper half part of the mold

• Drag: Lower half part of the mold

• Cope and drag contained in a box

• à Flask, which is divided into two halves

• Parting line

• Pattern: mold cavity is formed by means of pattern (wood, plastic, metal etc.)

• Cavity: formed by packing sand around the pattern followed by its (pattern)
removal from the cavity

• Core: internal surfaces are determined by core

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Gating System

Downsprue Metal enters

Gating Leads into main

system Runner cavity

Minimize turbulence
Pouring cup and splash

• Gating system: channel(s) by which molten metal flows into the cavity from outside
the mold
• Riser: Reservoir serving as source of liquid for compensating shrinkage
• Must solidify last
• Removal of gases and sand
• Sand: Natural
• Permanent: drilled/machined vent holes

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Patterns
Typical metal match-plate pattern used in sand casting
Pattern types:
(a) single
(b) split
(c) match plate

Lost form casting:

where the pattern is
lost after casting

Taper in patterns for ease of

removal from the sand mold

Courtesy: Google images

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Cores – made of sand aggregates
• Possess:
• Strength
• Permeability
• Thermal stability
• Collapsibility
• Anchored by core prints (buoyancy of molten metal tends to displace core)
• Chaplets are used to keep the core from moving

Courtesy: Google images

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Block Casting

• BMW Engine block casting

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2hYTdrzujI

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Heating analysis
• Heating to a desired temperature
• Heat energy requirement
• Heat solid to the melting temperature
• Solid to liquid: Heat of fusion
• Heat molten metal to the desired temperature for pouring: Superheat.

DH = rV{Cs(Tm- To) + DHf + Cl (Tp-Tm)}

r = density of metal (gm/cm3)
V = volume of metal (cm3)
Cs = Specific heat of solid metal
(J/gm/oC)
Cl = Specific heat of liquid metal
(J/gm/oC)
DHf = Heat of fusion on unit mass
(J/gm) Find out DH for Al ?
Tp = Pouring Temperature (oC)
Tm = Melting temperature (oC)
To = Starting/ ambient temperature (oC) 36
Pouring Analysis
Engineering analysis of pouring Care:
1. Pouring Temperature
2. Pouring rate
Bernoulli’s Theorem: 3. Turbulence
Sum of the energies (head, pressure, kinetics and friction) at any two
points in a flowing liquid are equal.

𝑃! 𝑣!" 𝑃" 𝑣""

ℎ! + + = ℎ" + + + Δ𝐹
𝜌 2𝑔 𝜌 2𝑔 h1

h = head (cm)
P = pressure on the liquid (N/cm2)
r = density (gm/cm3)
DF = head loss due to friction (cm)
v = velocity of liquid (cm/sec)
g = gravitational acceleration (cm/s2 )

1 and 2 are any two locations in the flowing liquid

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 38
Pouring Analysis
𝑣!" 𝑣"" (Simplified Bernoulli’s equation: Ignoring friction
ℎ! + = ℎ" +
2𝑔! 2𝑔 force and realizing that P ≈ 1atm at both places)
From the figure, we see that h2= 0 ; v1= 0
h1
v2
v 2 v2 2

h1 + 1
= h2 + 2
Þ h1 =
2g 2g 2g h

Hence, v2 = 2 gh v2= Flow velocity at point (2) h2

Another important relationship during pouring is the Continuity law:

Volume rate flow = Constant through out the liquid

Q = v1 ´ A1 = v2 ´ A2 A1 & A2 area (cm2) Hence, velocity increases

area decreases,

Q: Why is the sprue tapered downward to reduce the area?

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Fun Fact….
• What’s the maximum number of times that you can
fold a piece of paper?

Courtesy: Google images

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THANK YOU!

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