# 2012 University of South Africa

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University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

COM2601/1/2013±2015

98837117

3B2

COM202 Style
 Contents

Overview v
Foreword vi
Study Unit 1: COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANISATION 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Defining organisational communication 1
1.3 Communication networks and directions of communication 2
1.4 Networks as channels of communication 3
1.5 Network roles 6
1.6 Conflict in the organisation 8
1.7 Communication with teams and groups 9
1.8 Organisational communication technology 11
1.9 Conclusion 12

Study Unit 2: THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO ORGANISATIONAL

MANAGEMENT 14
2.1 Introduction 14
2.2 Change in the organisation 15
2.3 Forces of change 15
2.4 Models of change and development 16
2.5 Managerial approaches and communication styles and instruments in
organisational change 18
2.6 Two views on defining communication 19
2.7 Defining communication in the organisation 20
2.8 Propositions regarding the role of communication in the organisation 21
2.9 Managerial and communication approaches in the organisation
during change 22
2.9.1 The classical management approach 22
2.9.2 The Humanistic and Knowledge management approaches 24
2.9.2.1 Humanistic approach 24
2.9.2.2 The knowledge management approach 26
2.10 Conclusion 31

Study Unit 3: ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE 32

3.1 Introduction 32
3.2 Organisational culture contextualised 32
3.3 Organisational culture and organisational climate 33

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iii COM2601/1/2013±2015
3.4 Theoretical paradigms for understanding organisational culture 34
3.5 Elements of organisational culture 36
3.6 Managing organisational culture 37
3.7 The organisational change process 38
3.8 Conclusion 40

Study Unit 4: THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ASSESSING 42

ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION
4.1 Introduction 42
4.2 Development of organisational communication 43
4.2.1 Environmental monitoring 43
4.2.2 Social auditing 43
4.2.3 Corporate communication/public relations auditing 43
4.2.4 Communication content auditing 43
4.3 The planning of organisational research 44
4.3.1 The research proposal 44
4.4 Research reliability and validity 45
4.5 Quantitative and qualitative assessment 47
4.5.1 Quantitative research methods 47
4.5.2 Qualitative research methods 47
4.5.3 Combining qualitative and quantitative research 48
4.6 Applied organisational communication research 50
4.6.1 A communication audit 51
4.6.2 A P-MOPS model (procedural model of problem solving) 51
4.7 Conclusion 52

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 Overview
The work that will be covered in organisational communication will introduce you to
the organisation as a living system. If you understand that the organisation can only
survive if you look after it in the same way as you look after your own body, it will be
easy to understand the underlying dynamics and processes that keep the organisation
healthy and alive.

As with human beings, the organisation is about relationships among employees and
between employees and management. It is also about sharing meaning through
channels of communication to establish and maintain a healthy relationship between all
the partners involved, and to find workable solutions to those problems that make life
complex and uncertain. The organisation needs to be fed and nurtured with in-
formation from the external environments, such as the technological, economical,
political, market and competitive environments, to enable it to learn, adapt, develop
and survive. Like human beings, the organisation as a living system is affected by right
and wrong choices.

We hope you enjoy this wonderful experience of nurturing, teaching and leading the
organisation.

IMPORTANT NOTICE:

You should use this study guide in conjunction with your prescribed book. This book
is entitled:

Angelopulo, GC & Barker, R (eds). 2013. Integrated organisational communication.

2nd edition Cape Town: Juta.

Please note that this book is also prescribed for the other areas of organisational
communication specialisation, including COM2602, COM3018 and COM3708.
The following chapters in the prescribed book are relevant to COM2601:
Organisational Communication (also refer to the sections and chapters indicated
in each activity):

. Chapter 3
. Chapter 4
. Chapter 11

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 Foreword
We welcome you to the module Organisational Communication (COM2601). In this
communication module you will be introduced to the inner being of the organisation,
namely its culture, climate and channels, its managerial and communication philoso-
phies and its change processes. The organisation is more than just its buildings; it is a
living system that is dependent on the effective functioning of its subsystems to survive.
As with human beings, the organisation will die if its essential organs, such as its
communication, management and production systems, fail.

This study guide should be studied together with the prescribed book. Together they
comprehensively explain important organisational communication concepts. This
module consists of the following units, which are covered in this study guide:

Study Unit 1: Dynamics of organisational communication

In this unit the dynamics of organisational communication are investigated. These dy-
namics consist of those concepts that define the organisation, such as its communica-
tion networks, existing organisational conflict and the effective use of communication in
teams and technology.

Study Unit 2: Organisational change and management

Change is a constant phenomenon in life and, therefore, also in the organisation as a
living system. In this unit, the dynamics of change are addressed as well as models of
change that can be applied to the organisation. Since the management and commu-
nication approaches in an organisation are also dependent on the change processes in
the environment, and consequently in the organisation itself, this unit will investigate
the different approaches to management and communication in the organisation.

Study Unit 3: Contextualisation of organisational culture and climate

Culture and climate are two essential elements in an organisation. No organisation can
exist without a culture and it generally determines the climate in the organisation.
Culture consists of those elements that typically identify a system. Unisa as a university,
for example, is defined by its cultural elements such as its lecturers, tuition practices,
students, books and research and development. In this unit, various perspectives and
theoretical paradigms on cultural elements are investigated, as well as the process of
managing culture in the organisation. Since the organisation is interrelated with the

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external globalised environment(s), we need to study globalisation and its contribution
to the change processes in the organisation.

Study Unit 4: The theory and practice of assessing organisational

communication
In order to cope efficiently with the turbulent environments in which an organisation
finds itself, it is crucial to constantly assess the processes that may inhibit organisational
development and progress. In this unit we provide a theoretical overview of the process
of organisational assessment and its importance.

Although the aims in these units are to introduce you to the processes and dynamics of
the organisation's internal environment, they also aim to provide you with the skills
needed to research all communications of the organisation, both internal and external.

It is important to note that all four of these units are important for examination pur-
poses. Note also that the study guide should be used in conjunction with the prescribed
book and not on its own.

The activities in this study guide are aimed at familiarising you with the work in the
prescribed book and should also be included in your preparation for the exam as a
means of self-evaluation. These activities also serve to encourage you to think more
about the subject of organisational communication and its purpose, as this will help you
to start integrating theory with practical scenarios ± something that you will have to do
in the examination as well.

It is very important that you study the designated sections in the prescribed book for
the examination, since the exam paper is based on the prescribed book. Again, the
activities in the study guide serve as examples of the way in which exam questions may
be phrased.

In Tutorial Letter 101, which you will receive on registration, you will find more in-
formation about the prescribed book and the specific sections that are important.
Please note that there is a compulsory assignment, which we also discuss in the
tutorial letter.

We sincerely hope that your study in organisational communication will provide you
with insight that you can apply to your advantage in your future workplace.

The authors

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viii
 STUDY UNIT 1
Communication in the organisation
Carine Snyman & Prof Rachel Barker

1.1
Introduction

On your journey through life, you have probably come across many situations in which
you had to communicate with people in an organisational setting ± whether in a bank,
post office or clothing store. Although these settings are not exactly the same as when
you work in such organisations, some similarities exist which you may be able to
identify when studying this study unit. In this study unit, we, therefore, introduce you to
many of the situations you might encounter in the course of your communication in
these organisations, as well as when working in an organisational setting. The focus is,
therefore, on communication within an organisation (also referred to as intra-organi-
sational communication).

The purpose of this study unit is to introduce you to the concept of organisational
communication and to familiarise you with the different contexts in which commu-
nication in the organisation takes place. In so doing, you will discover the various paths
you can take on your journey to ensure that effective communication takes place in the
organisational milieu.

1.2
Defining organisational communication

Read the section entitled Defining organisational communication in Chapter 3 of your

prescribed book. Thereafter consider the following multifaceted concepts and try to
relate these to your excursion through life:

. Communication is seen as a process in which messages are exchanged and

interpreted between people with the aim of understanding each other. In your
everyday life, you are constantly communicating with others with the aim of
reaching a mutual understanding ± you ask the saleslady to bring you a different size

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 in the shoes you like, you enquire about the balance on your account, you try to
persuade the bank manager to grant you a loan, and so on.
. An organisation is a place where groups of two or more people are working together
to achieve an individual or a common goal. In your social environment, you might
be part of a parents group trying to collect funds for a sports tour or to buy new
computers for the school, or you might be part of a church group collecting funds
for the orphans in your area.

When we refer to organisational communication, you, therefore, need to understand

the influence of the context of the organisation on communication processes.

Activity In your own words, how would you define organisational communication based on
1.1 your understanding and experience? Identify at least one example of organisational
communication from your living environment.

Feedback

You had to base your definition of organisational communication on the discussion as outlined in Item 3.2, Chapter
3 of your prescribed book. Any example from communication encounters in an organisational setting could have
been given, whether in a school, or a social or other setting.

1.3
Communication networks and directions
of communication

Consider the communication example that you have identified in the previous activity.
In this situation, there will probably be specific lines of communication and specific
roleplayers who will convey the information to others. In an organisation, the lines used
to communicate information are referred to as networks and when three or more
people are communicating, it is called a communication network. In Item 3.3, Chapter
3 of your prescribed book, a distinction is made between external and internal com-
munication networks, formal and informal communication networks, the direction in
which information can flow (upward, downward and horizontal communication net-
works), as well as the communication functions in an organisation. Read through this
entire section and then do the following activity.

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Activity Read the scenario below carefully and identify the three networks of communication,
1.2 as well as the functions that communication fulfils in this scenario.

Imagine that you are working in a large manufacturing organisation. As a result of

the heavy workload, very little time is available for tea and social gatherings.
Furthermore, you have received a memorandum from the managing director's
office informing you that the new work standards set by the organisation require
staff to work longer hours to increase their productivity and work output. The
memorandum also outlines new procedures for completing tasks in order to
enable staff to work better and faster.

Feedback
From this scenario, and based on your own experience of an organisational setting, it is clear that people com-
municate differently with different people in different situations. In this case, the first communication network that
can be identified is internal as the information conveyed (memorandum) is for use within the organisation and aims
to improve the functioning of the organisation (work standards, productivity and output). The second commu-
nication network is formal, as the communication is work-related and communicated through a written channel of
communication (once again, the memorandum). The third communication network is downward (from the
managing director to all members of the organisation), and the main function of the communication is informa-
tional as it provides members with information on the work that has to be done, as well as procedures to help them
function more effectively.

In your application of the theory to the scenario, you were expected to familiarise yourself with the content of the
work. In your discussion, it is important to identify the relevant aspects of the theory as they are evidenced in the
scenario, give a brief discussion of the theory, and then apply the theory to the scenario, giving reasons for why you
have decided on the particular aspects. It is also important to constantly refer to the scenario to indicate your
understanding of its content.

Now that you are able to identify the communication networks and the flow and
functions of communication in an organisation, it is important to understand the role
that networks play as channels of communication.

1.4
Networks as channels of communication

Study the section entitled Networks as channels of communication, Item 3.5 in Chapter
3 of your prescribed book, and reflect on your knowledge of communication networks

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 which you have gained from doing Activity 1.2. Two types of network are identified:
centralised networks that centre around one person, and decentralised networks that
allow members to communicate freely with each other without a central person. Reflect
on your own communication with people in an organisational setting like a school,
church or social group. Networks will be centralised if you have to communicate
through one person in the group to talk to the others, and decentralised when you can
contact everybody directly without one person in the middle relaying messages. In an
organisational setting, five networks are distinguished which are depicted graphically in
your prescribed book. Ensure that you know these networks and then do the next
activity.

Activity Read through the following scenario and answer the questions that follow:
1.3
Peter Mogabe is the managing director of Mogabe Enterprises, a retail business
consisting of a production department, a marketing department, a sales de-
partment and a professional services department. Peter is a hardworking man
who constantly motivates his employees to follow his example. It is important to
him to know everything that is happening at Mogabe Enterprises and he,
therefore, arranges meetings on a regular basis with the managers of each de-
partment to discuss any new projects and developments and to review any
progress and problems the departments are experiencing. During these meetings
everyone participates and is encouraged to give feedback and make comments
and suggestions.

(1) Indicate the communication network that is prevalent in this scenario.

(2) Discuss the network you have identified and give reasons for why you chose this
particular network.
(3) Which network roles are prevalent in this scenario?
(4) Discuss the information flow.

Feedback
Before you can do this activity, you have to study Item 3.5 in Chapter 3 of your prescribed book. In studying this
section, you will see that the characteristics identified in the scenario indicate that it is an all-channel network. The
main reasons for this are that there are no communication restrictions on any members and the channel maximises
opportunities for feedback from managers in all departments. The only network role prevalent in this scenario is
members; there are no isolates, liaisons, bridges, cosmopolites, gatekeepers or opinion leaders. The information
flow is fast as the lines drawn allow each member to communicate directly with the others.

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 When doing this activity, try and picture a scenario in your own environment that would reflect this situation; for
example, a school committee you serve on, or a social club you belong to which allows for free participation from
all members of the group will be typical of the all-channel network. Do you think that this type of network will be
the most sought after in practice or do you think one of the other networks would function better? Why do you
think so?

The communication that takes place in these networks can be affected by various communication characteristics.
Study Item 3.6 in Chapter 3 of your prescribed book, and then do the following activity.

Activity Discuss the differences in the six communication characteristics of networks and
1.4 indicate which characteristics will be common in which networks.

Feedback

The six communication characteristics of networks are the following:

. Size: The more links there are in an organisation's communication network, the greater the chances that
messages will be distorted (like in the wheel and Y-networks). Fewer network links will improve communication
and maintain most of the original message content (like in the all-channel network and to a certain extent in the
circle network).
. Content or function: Task-related information can be disseminated through more formal networks such as the
wheel network, whereas social communication and innovative or creative inputs will be more accessible
through the all-channel network.
. Formality: Formal networks are purely task-oriented and used for information dissemination (like in the wheel,
chain and Y-networks). Informal networks are less task-oriented and more social in nature (like in the all-
channel network).
. Centralisation or dominance: In highly centralised networks such as the wheel network, all information goes
through one person to the rest of the organisation. This one individual or clique tends to control or dominate
the flow of messages. An example of a less centralised network would be the all-channel network where the
focus is on participation.
. Multiplexity: This feature of networks relates to the extent to which different networks within an organisation
overlap. This happens when the same channels or links are used for more than one kind of content.
Multiplexity will usually occur less in, for example, a wheel-oriented network and more in an all-channel
network.
. Network openness: Where two-way communication takes place in the all-channel and circle networks, one-
way communication is more visible in the chain and wheel networks. The all-channel and circle networks are,
therefore, more open, as they are accepting of reciprocity.

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 In this section, you have been exposed to networks as channels of communication
within an organisation. We think the above activities should have given you a good
feeling for the different networks in an organisation and how they work. What do you
think? If you are confident that you will be able to identify various communication
networks, we think we should now look at the different roles individuals fulfil in these
networks.

1.5
Network roles

In the networks identified in the previous section, various individuals in an organisation

perform different functional roles. These roles are identified in the section entitled
Network roles, Item 3.4 in Chapter 3 of your prescribed book. In order to understand
these roles, do the following activity and try to identify the network role that is played by
each actor.

Activity (1) The manager of the accounts department who is also a member of top
1.5 management.
(2) The receptionist to the bank manager who screens his/her calls and decides which
calls to put through.
(3) Two salespeople in a store who work together and who prefer to communicate with
each other.
(4) A postal clerk who works alone with mail in an office away from the rest of the
organisation.
(5) A university professor attending an overseas conference.

Feedback
The answers to questions 1 to 5 in the above activity are as follows:

(1) Bridge (the manager connects two groups ± staff and management ± by being a member of both).
(2) Gatekeeper (the receptionist uses her own discretion regarding which calls to put through).
(3) Members (the salespersons are both workers at the store).
(4) Isolate (the postal clerk works alone and is not part of the usual workings of the organisation).
(5) Cosmopolite (the professor communicates with people outside the scope of the organisation, in this case
people overseas).

Could you identify these network roles? To help you with this process, we have based the next activity on a scenario
to assist you in identifying the various network roles that each person fulfils.

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Activity Peter, Christelle, Louise, George and Duncan are working for an organisation
1.6 called Networking. Peter is a sales representative for the organisation and mostly
operates outside of the interactions of the organisation. He also communicates
with people outside the organisation. Christelle communicates with Peter on a
regular basis to obtain feedback on his sales results. She then communicates
these to George, who is the sales manager. George, who is a member of the
Networking management team, communicates these results to Duncan, who is
the managing director of Networking. Louise is Duncan's secretary and she
screens the information that has been sent by George and only sends through the
information that Duncan has requested.

Answer the following questions as based on the scenario:

(1) Christelle's network role is that of a ...
(2) George's network role is that of a ...
(3) Louise's network role is that of a ...
(4) Peter's network role is that of a ...

Explain why you selected the network role you did in each case.

Feedback

The answers to questions 1 to 4 are as follows:

(1) Liaison (she facilitates information flow to others).

(2) Bridge (he connects two groups by being a member of both).
(3) Gatekeeper (she determines the information that should be put through to the MD).
(4) Isolate (he works outside of the interactions that occur within the organisation).

When doing these activities, it would be a good idea to try and identify some examples from your own living
environment, as well as to ensure that you have a good understanding of the roles that individuals play in an
organisational setting.

When communication takes place in an organisation it involves different people from

different backgrounds, cultures, language groups, and so on. In your own environment
you will probably have to communicate with such diverse people as well. When we
communicate with people who belong to groups that differ from our own, we some-
times disagree on feelings, opinions, behaviour or decisions relating to a specific issue
(for example, you might disagree on whether or not children should wear school
uniforms). In an organisational setting where dissimilar people communicate on a daily
basis, people can also disagree on their goals, aims and values ± this is referred to as
conflict within the organisation. We will explore conflict in the next section.

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 1.6
Conflict in the organisation

When you study the definition of conflict, as contained in Item 3.7.1 in Chapter 3 of
your prescribed book, it is clear that three aspects of conflict are important, namely
different goals, people acting interdependently and when people indicate that they are
incompatible. In these instances, the best way to resolve conflict is to communicate
with each other to try and solve problems effectively. In an organisational setting there
are various levels and types of conflict ± ensure that you study these and are able to
provide your own examples. In order to resolve conflict, various theoretical strategies of
organisational conflict management have been developed. In order for you to under-
stand these concepts, study Item 3.7 in Chapter 3 of your prescribed book, and then do
the following activities.

Activity Ann and Sarah are both secretaries in the marketing department of a large or-
1.7 ganisation. They disagree about the format in which memoranda should be sent
to other members of the organisation. In order to resolve their conflict, they
involve a third party, Peter, to help them to come to a decision regarding which
format to use for the memoranda. However, Peter has no power to impose his
solution.

Identify and discuss the most common strategy you would use to manage the conflict
in the above scenario.

Feedback

The most common strategy to use would be third-party interventions. This is where a third party, or neutral
person, can intervene to assist the parties to resolve their differences and to ensure that a fair process is followed.
This person cannot impose his/her solution, but merely facilitates the process.

Remember that the six strategies given in the prescribed book are very closely related thus it is important that you
are able to distinguish clearly between them. For example, why is the above answer not arbitration? You should
have noticed that in arbitration, the third party or arbitrator listens to both sides and makes the final binding
decision; he/she does not merely facilitate the process, but has the power to impose his/her solution. Can you see
the difference?

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Activity John, a human resources manager at Data Extension, an electronic news com-
1.8 pany, and Sarah, the employee representative of Data Extension, negotiate a new
employment contract for employees in general. John is neither cooperative nor
assertive whereas Sarah is both highly cooperative and assertive.

Which of the following conflict resolution strategies do John and Sarah represent?

(1) John is an avoider and Sarah is a collaborator.

(2) John is a competitor and Sarah is a collaborator.
(3) John is an accommodator and Sarah is a collaborator.
(4) John is a compromiser and Sarah is a competitor.
(5) John is a compromiser and Sarah is a compromiser.

Feedback

Option (...) is the correct answer because ... . Remember that it is essential to base your reasoning on the theory as
it is described in the prescribed book.

1.7
Communication with teams and groups

By now it should be clear that when we communicate in an organisation, this com-

munication is not directed at individuals only, but at groups (i.e. two or more in-
dividuals), or at teams (a diverse group of people where members share leadership
responsibilities).

When we communicate in groups, these groups have specific characteristics which are
either unique to individuals or unique to the group. If you think about the groups in
your environment, you should notice that you have groups that are more formal (they
are usually appointed by the organisation, for example, the elders in a church setting or
the chairperson of a school committee) and others that are informal (where members
join voluntarily, such as a soccer team or social group). You should also know from your
own experience that it is easier to reach the goals of a group if the members work
together rather than if they oppose each other. In most cases, consensus is reached on
how things should be done through the decisions that are made in these groups. If you
relate this to an organisational setting, it is referred to as decision-making in the groups
and teams. The best results will usually be obtained if all the members of the group or

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 team are allowed to participate in the decision-making process so that they can feel
that they are part of the group ± the same goes for organisations in order to make
members feel they are acknowledged in the group or team.

Different theoretical models have been developed to distinguish between the various
types of decision that you might encounter in an organisation. These types of decision
will facilitate the decision-making process at either a strategic level (for example, the
merger between Unisa, Technikon SA and Vudec, which involved decisions at a stra-
tegic level) or at an individual level (for example, decisions on the latest procedures for
answering the telephones in the new institution). There are also different decision-
making styles that individuals can use when making decisions.

In addition to the types of decision and styles of decision-making, you will also find
various theoretical models that explain the decision-making process itself. To test your
understanding of these concepts, study Item 3.10.4 in Chapter 3 of your prescribed
book carefully and then do the following activity.

Activity Match the keywords/phrases in Column B with the correct decision-making process
1.9 in Column A.

COLUMN A COLUMN B
(A) Bounded rationality model (1) Self-interest; conventionalist princi-
ple; power
(B) Contingency perspective (2) Unsystematic; random; interactions
between problems, solutions, parti-
cipants and choice
(C) Rational-economic model (3) Criteria; logical; rational
(D) Garbage-can model (4) Specific conditions/situations require
different models
(E) Political model (5) Representative heuristics; satisfying
process; intuitive
(F) Analytical model (6) Prescriptive; optimum solution; im-
partiality from an economic per-
spective

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Feedback

The answers to this activity, as found in the prescribed book, are the following:

. A 5 . B 4
. C 6 . D 2
. E 1 . F 3

Which of these theoretical models do you think would be relevant for solving a problem in a group you belong to?
The model would obviously depend on the nature and complexity of the problem (some problems are straight-
forward and can be solved by merely applying set options or criteria, for example, to fix your car's bumper or to
replace your computer). However, most problems that require decisions in an organisational context are not as
simple to solve.

Also, if you needed to make the final decision to solve the problem in your example above, which decision-making
style would you use and why? Do you think that you should tailor your decision-making style to the individual
context and nature of the problem, or would using the same style for all problems be appropriate?

1.8
Organisational communication technology

To complete your voyage through the organisation, it is important to realise the impact
of organisational communication technology. We are on the road of technology, and the
introduction of the Internet and other technologies has not only impacted on our daily
lives, but also on the way organisational communication takes place. Item 3.11 in
Chapter 3 of your prescribed book outlines the theories of the use of communication
technology and the effects it has on organisational communication; whereas Item 3.12,
also in Chapter 3 of your prescribed book, discusses the impact of globalisation on
organisational communication. Study these sections, as well as Items 10.1, 10.2, 10.3,
10.6 and 10.7 in Chapter 10 of your prescribed book, which outline the key definitions
and concepts of communication technologies. Ensure that you know the differences
between the various key concepts and how they relate to your daily life.

Read the scenario that follows and critically evaluate the effects of the new technology
that have just been discussed on your personal and working life.

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Activity You have purchased a new computer and installed both Internet and Outlook
1.10 (email). This has opened new doors for you ± not only can you search the
Internet for information relevant to your studies, but you can also contact other
students, your lecturers and friends through the online facilities (like discussion
forums, email, etc.) and find information on university policies on the Intranet.

Feedback

You had to evaluate the effect of this technology on your personal and working life in terms of the effects identified
in Item 3.11.2 in your prescribed book. The effects could have been in terms of communication content (social
and emotional content of messages owing to the unavailability of nonverbal cues, which makes it more difficult to
interpret than face-to-face messages); communication patterns (you might have been inundated with email
messages which made it difficult to deal with all the messages due to information overload ± too much information
to handle); communication outcomes (in terms of decisions made and less identification with the people you
communicate with); and organisational structure (you can communicate with anyone all over the world at
relatively low costs). You also had to indicate the advantages and disadvantages you experienced with this new
technology (think of the new doors it opened for you on your communication journey because it is easier to
communicate online, versus your isolation from people).

1.9
Conclusion

In this study unit we focused on the following aspects, which are important if one is to
understand communication within an organisation:

. defining organisational communication;

. communication networks and directions of communication;
. networks as channels of communication;
. network roles;
. conflict in the organisation;
. communication with teams and groups; and
. organisational communication technology.

On your journey through life, you have probably noticed and acknowledged most of
the concepts we have discussed and you could probably relate them to the environ-

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ment you function in. Do you think that you will look at situations like these differently
in future and try to contextualise them in terms of the new theoretical constructs you
have become accustomed to? We think that there are definitely similarities in the way
we communicate with each other on a daily basis and the way we will communicate
with each other in an organisational setting ± do you agree? Why do you think so?

In most cases it is probably easier to ensure effective communication and solve com-
munication problems in our daily lives than in an organisational setting where we deal
with individuals with different cultural backgrounds, values, and so on. The frameworks
proposed in this study unit are intended to facilitate an understanding of the various
issues, and to serve as a foundation for the next study unit, which will focus on the
theoretical approaches to managing organisational communication.

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 STUDY UNIT 2
Theoretical approaches to organisational
management
Yolandi Slabbert & Lizelle van der Walt

2.1
Introduction

If you think back on your life you will probably see the pattern of change that has
occurred over time from your childhood to where you are today on your journey
through life. The one thing that can be depended on is that change is a constant, and
willl happen, be it in your relationships with your family and friends, in your lifestyle, or
in your dreams, ambitions and goals.

It is no different in an organisational environment. An organisation is a system, very

much like your own body. When taken care of your bodily organs such as your heart,
liver and kidneys, it will all function in harmony and you will remain healthy. However,
should you eat contaminated food, or drink and smoke too much, your liver, heart and
lungs will eventually become less effective in their functioning and you will become ill.

As you get older, you also need to adapt your activities to the ability of your body. A 60-
year-old man for example will not jump and skip in the same way as a 20-year-old man.
The passing years and lived experiences (thus the environment in which his life has
unfolded) have impacted on his body in many ways and he had to adapt to these
changes in order to survive.

The organisation as a system functions in the same way as your body. It consists of
various departments and energy forces that need to be attended to in order to enable
the organisation to work in harmony. If neglected, the organisation will become less
effective and may eventually close down (die); on the other hand, it may adapt to the
changes in its environment and thereby survive the onslaught of change.

This unit will investigate the importance of change in organisations, and the means of
adapting to change, including factors such as management styles, models of change and
communication, in order to enable its survival.

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 2.2
Change in the organisation

Change in an organisational context can be defined as specific and ongoing actions that
are taken to adjust existing practices to attain organisational objectives. It is important to
note that the nature of change can either be incremental or radical/profound. Incre-
mental changes are small; it represents changes that are generally applied to adjust
certain processes; for example, when a new software program is installed to improve
internal communication within the organisation. Radical or profound changes represent
changes that change the current course of action completely, that is, they transform the
future. These changes not only imply new actions, procedures and processes, but also
new ways of doing things. An example of a profound change is when two organisations
amalgamate into one larger organisation.

Activity Define change in the organisation and distinguish between incremental and radical/
2.1 profound changes.

Feedback

To be able to answer this question, refer to Section 4.2 in Chapter 4 of your prescribed book. The question
requires you to, firstly, define change in an organisational context and then give an explanation of incremental and
radical/profound changes. It is always advisable to substantiate and contextualise your answer by providing ex-
amples from an organisation of your choice.

2.3
Forces of change

Chapter 4 of your prescribed book identifies the forces of change. These changes are
categorised as either driving forces or restraining forces. As with your body, an orga-
nisation has needs. If you consume too little nutritious food, your body will lose its
immunity and you will fall ill easily. For an organisation to function well, it too has to

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 attend to its needs (driving forces). These needs are often determined by the needs of
employees, the needs of clients, competitive organisations, changes in the profiles of
organisational markets and suchlike. When needs are addressed, organisations become
healthy functioning systems that can face up to the changes in their turbulent external
environments, such as the political, competitive, legal and technological environments
as well as the socio-markets.

Restraining forces result from the negative effects of unhealthy living. Once you fall ill
you can only recover if you change your mindset by living a healthier life, or taking
medication to strengthen your immune system. This becomes necessary when you have
neglected your body. Likewise, in the organisation the restraining forces are those forces
of change that will project all the illness and problems in the organisation. That is, all
those problems that need to be attended to urgently if the organisation is to survive.
These include poor service, insufficient databases and technology and conflicting or
discriminating values.

Now do the following activity.

Activity Identify the driving and restraining forces of change in an organisation.

2.2

Feedback

To answer this question you should have studied Section 4.3.1 in Chapter 4 of your prescribed book. The driving
forces of change are the healthy vitamins that the organisation needs, whereas the restraining forces of change are
those illnesses that an organisation develops when it does not change or adapt to its environments. It is important to
know and understand these forces of change, since you will be expected to apply them to a real organisation in
later activities in this unit.

2.4
Models of change and development

The three-step model of change and the organisational development (OD) model
are both aimed at improving problematic situations in the organisation. The three-step
model is a practical model for the implementation of change. According to this model,

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 management decide on the changes that need to take place and implement these
changes in three steps, often without consideration for employee needs. See Chapter 4,
Section 4.4.1.

The OD model attempts to actively involve employees in the change process taking
place in the organisation. It thus proposes a collaborative process. This means that
employees who will be affected by the change process are actively involved in diag-
nosing problems, as well as in designing new ways of operating in their organisation. See
Chapter 4, Section 4.4.2.

Now do the following activity.

Activity Study the two models of change carefully and then read the scenario below.
2.3
Imagine an organisation such as Unisa and consider the following changes that
need to take place. It has been decided that half of the employees at Unisa's
Muckleneuk campus in Pretoria need to move to the Unisa Florida campus in
Johannesburg (80 km away) for the purpose of improving services to students on
the West Rand. Consider the fact that many employees do not have their own
transport to drive to the Florida campus, that many employees have small chil-
dren who need to be picked up after school and that many employees are
disabled and will be at a disadvantage with less infrastructure on the Florida
campus to accommodate them. Unisa does not, however, have sufficient
finances to find solutions to all the above-mentioned problems.

Which model of change should be implemented in this scenario and how would
this model address the problems mentioned?

Feedback

Naturally, this is a very difficult situation and one to which there is no easy solution. Yet, the proposed change has to
be implemented.

If you considered implementing the three-step process, there is the possibility of conflict arising between employees
and management, as the decision by management that half of the employees should move to the Florida campus
has a severe impact on the employees' lives. Ignoring this fact and continuing to implement the change without
considering the employees' needs would create conflict. Accordingly, the OD model would probably be a better
model to implement.

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The OD model considers employees' needs and involves them in decision making. This model makes assumptions
about employees in various ways. In this way, employees are asked to participate and can therefore find possible
solutions to the problems that arise.

Very important: You should have applied the model to the above scenario. Merely discussing the model without
this application would be inadequate and would mean fewer marks in the exam.

HINT

How to apply theory to a scenario

Students often find it difficult to apply theory to a scenario and are often unsure
about what is expected from them. The following may serve as guidelines:

. First decide which model would be best suited to the scenario. Explain why you
consider this model the best for the situation.
. Provide a short theoretical discussion of the model. What is the model about?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the model? What are the steps
involved in the model?
. Apply each of the steps of the model to the given scenario. For example, if the first
step entails that you meet with employees, you should indicate that the principal
should invite all Unisa employees to meet in the Senate Hall for an important
announcement. After the announcement employees are allowed to ask questions
and make requests. Mention one or two of these questions or requests, since they
will define the possible problems that Unisa will have to deal with. Apply the
model every step of the way ± discuss it, debate it and come to a conclusion.
. Constantly refer to the scenario (in this case Unisa) to illustrate that you
understand how to apply the model to the problems mentioned in the scenario.

2.5
Managerial approaches and communication
styles as instruments in organisational
change

There are clear differences between an organisational manager and an organisational

leader. It is important to distinguish between these two roles, as leaders and managers
each fulfil a unique function within the organisation. The focus of an organisational
manager is to plan and control, whereas a leader is concerned with setting a meaningful
direction for the organisation through employee participation and establishing a culture
of values.

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Activity Discuss the main differences between an organisational manager and an organisa-
2.4 tional leader.

Feedback

To answer this question, you should have studied Section 4.5.1 and 4.5.2 in Chapter 4, where the main functions
of each role are discussed. Since the question asked you to discuss, you firstly need to list the differences and
elaborate on each of them by providing examples.

Hint: Use a table format when answering questions that require differentiation.

2.6
Two views on defining communication

Various views on communication were addressed in detail in chapter 1. The focus of

this section, however, is to highlight the relevance of communication in the change
process. Two general views of communication are evident, namely, the transmission of
messages and the interpretation of messages.

The transmission of messages represents a technical view and is concerned with im-
proving the clarity and accuracy of messages through a one-way communication per-
spective. This view therefore disregards both the sender's and the receiver's
interpretation and opinions of the message. By contrast, in the interpretation of mes-
sages, communication is regarded as a complex human process, in which, in turn,
communication is a continuous, ever-changing process where the feedback and
viewpoints of both the sender and receiver become relevant.

Activity Indicate which view of communication can be identified in an organisational manager

2.5 and in an organisational leader.

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Feedback

In order to answer this question, you have to review Sections 4.5.1 and 4.5.2 and study Section 4.6 in Chapter 4
of your prescribed book. You have to indicate which view of communication is most suitable for an organisational
manager and an organisational leader respectively. Substantiate your arguments with relevant examples.

Activity Study the following scenario carefully:

2.6 Cornerstone Financial Services has recently implemented a new organisational struc-
ture which has brought about various departmental changes in the organisation,
including, among others, the merging of the online communication, advertising and
public relations departments. Mr Mbata, who has been appointed manager of the
newly created integrated communication department, is struggling to manage his
department and to assist employees in adapting to the changes. In your opinion,
which view of communication should Mr Mbata apply in order to make a contribution
that adds value to the structural change process taking place at Cornerstone Financial
Services?

Feedback

Study Sections 4.5.1, 4.5.2 and 4.6 in Chapter 4 of your prescribed book. Although you could have selected any
view of communication if you were able to substantiate your choice, it is clear that the ``interpretation of messages''
view would be more suitable for facilitating change within the organisation, since it allows for participation and
input from employees in order to increase understanding and lessen confusion, as opposed to merely disseminating
messages.

2.7
Defining communication in the organisation

This section focuses on contextualising communication as a means to change. Mutual

communication between a manager and employees needs to be established in order to
implement changes successfully within the organisation and to overcome any com-
plexities.

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Activity Give reasons why communication plays a vital role in the change process.
2.7

Feedback

To answer this question, study Section 4.7 in Chapter 4 of the prescribed book. You are required to elaborate on
the fact that constant two-way communication is essential for persuading employees to adapt their behaviour in
order to adjust to the changes of the organisation.

2.8
Propositions regarding the role
of communication in the organisation

Communication is not just about transferring messages; it also involves persuasion,

motivation and influencing perceptions and opinions. In line with this perspective, five
propositions pertaining to the role of communication could be provided, which high-
light the prominent role played by communication in the organisation. Communication
is important since it promotes a process that is critical for managing employee actions; it
provides insight into the role that the organisation plays in the lives of employees; it
forms the basis for leadership; it is crucial in decision making and promotes flexibility in
the organisation.

Activity List and discuss the five propositions regarding the role of communication in the
2.8 organisation.

Feedback

To answer this question, study Section 4.8 in Chapter 4 of your prescribed book. This question required you to
identify each proposition and then give a detailed discussion of each.

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 2.9
Managerial and communication approaches
in the organisation during change

Various managerial and accompanying communication approaches in the organisation

are identified in this section. We will look at each approach individually. Commu-
nication is a primary mean of explaining uncertain events to employees in order for
them to understand how the change will impact on their lives. The prescribed book
explains that communication is especially important in unstable, ever-changing en-
vironments. However, not all managerial approaches are alert to this warning.

It is again very important that you study the various principles of the classical, the
humanistic and the knowledge management approaches. To be able to apply the
correct communication principles to a real-life organisation, or even in your family, you
need to know what the principles of each approach entail to enable you to make the
right choice. Familiarise yourself with the various communication principles of each
management approach by studying sections 4.9.1, 4.9.2, and 4.9.3 in detail.

2.9.1 The classical management approach

Most of the theories in the classical management approach show similarities and are
therefore not discussed individually. Furthermore, the classical management approach,
also known as the mechanistic view, is an approach that is dominated by control and
regulation and is outdated in the modern organisational context. In the current age of
development and globalisation and the focus on human rights, the manipulation and
coercion of individuals is often frowned upon questioned. However, this in no way
means that the classical management approach is not still used in some organisations
today. Even in modern humanistic organisations, some elements of the classical ap-
proach prevail and thus should be monitored.

Now do the following activity.

Activity Consider the scenario provided in Activity 2.6. Discuss how Mr Mbata could apply
2.9 the classical management approach to manage the structural change taking place at
Cornerstone Financial Services.

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Feedback

This question requires you to have an in-depth understanding of the classical management approach. You should
have studied Section 4.9.1 in Chapter 4. This question could be addressed by firstly focusing on the various
attributes of the classical management approach followed by a discussion of the advantages of this approach. Please
note that this question specifically requires you to give reasons for why you think the classical management
approach could assist in implementing the changes successfully. Consequently, each attribute and advantage listed
should be applicable to the context of the scenario.

Activity Discuss the principles of the classical management approach.

2.10

Feedback

Although this is an easy activity and therefore often ignored by students when they study for the exam, this part of
the work is essential to your studies in organisational communication. To understand an organisation and to be able
to identify problems that need rectifying in the organisation, you should be able to identify the management
principles that are prevalent in that organisation. You will also be unable to identify the management style in a
scenario unless you are familiar with its principles. Study Chapter 4, Section 4.9.1 carefully.

Make sure that you understand each principle. If you are asked to provide an example for each principle, you
should be able to illustrate your understanding by providing a meaningful example that illustrates it properly.

Activity Refer to the scenario that appears in Activity 2.6. Discuss the type of communication
2.11 Mr Mbata would use when applying the classical management approach.

Feedback

This question requires you to study ``Assessing communication in the classical management approach'' in Chapter
4, Section 4.9.1. It is important to indicate that downward communication, which is a linear, one-way commu-
nication process with no room for feedback from employees, is applied. Also refer to the various layers that
instructions will be passed down through when applying downward communication.

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 2.9.2 The humanistic and knowledge management approaches
Various theories are important in the humanistic and knowledge management ap-
proaches. Each of these theories will be dealt with individually since each theory deals
with a different aspect of humanism. However, it is also possible to identify basic
similarities in all of them. Contrary to the theories in the classical management ap-
proach, the theories in the humanistic and knowledge management approaches sup-
port open communication and regular interaction between employees and employers.
Group brainstorming and free participation in decision making are supported by ev-
eryone in the organisation.

Although these two approaches are considered to be similar in their basic principles,
there are unique differences. These are discussed below.

2.9.2.1 The humanistic approach

In contrast to the classical management approach, the humanistic approach relies on

inputs from employees and allows participatory decision making, during which em-
ployees learn collectively and have a shared vision.

Activity Discuss the main differences between the classical and the humanistic management
2.12 approaches.

Feedback

To answer this question, you have to review Section 4.9.1 and study Section 4.9.2, both in Chapter 4, in order to
be able to identify the differences between the humanistic and the classical management approaches. It is advisable
to answer this question in table format so that the differences between these two approaches can be compared.

Activity Once again, refer back to the scenario provided in activity 2.6. Which approach
2.13 would you regard as the most suitable for managing the structural change taking
place at Cornerstone Financial Services?

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Feedback

This question requires you to either select the classical management approach or the humanistic approach.
Whichever approach you select, you clearly need to substantiate your answer with theory and examples from the
scenario. To answer this question, study Sections 4.9.1 and 4.9.2 in Chapter 4 of your prescribed book.

The systems theory is one of the most important theories of the humanistic manage-
ment approach, and is discussed below:

. Systems theory
This theory is the foundation of the humanistic and knowledge management ap-
proaches. It suggests that the following concepts are of the utmost importance: holism,
interrelatedness between subsystems and a relationship with the surrounding en-
vironments. These concepts in effect define systems theory. It is argued that the orga-
nisation as a system consists of various subsystems without which it cannot function.
These subsystems also need to work well together to enable a functional system.
Moreover, if problems arise in one subsystem they will impact on the other subsystems
as well.

An easy way to explain this important notion is for example that Unisa as a university
consists of various academic and administration departments. As a communication
student you will send a compulsory assignment or portfolio to Unisa. The assignments
department will receive and redirect your assignment to us for marking after they have
registered your assignment on the system. The mail assistant will deliver your assign-
ment to the secretary of the Communication Science Department, who will hand it to
one of us after writing down your information and confirming that your assignment has
been received by this department. As soon as we receive your assignment or portfolio,
we mark it. When we have finished, we give your assignment back to the secretary who
will hand it over to the mail assistant who will take it back to the assignments depart-
ment. The assignments department will register your mark on the system and send your
assignment to the postal department who will send it back to you.

Imagine what would happen if the assignments department were to close down, or if
the mail assistant did not deliver your assignment to this department. What if we did not
mark your assignment or the postal services on campus were on strike? Can you see
how important it is that all the departments work well together (holism) to make sure
that your assignment is received and returned to you? There thus needs to be an

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25
 interrelatedness between departments. Study the section that covers systems theory in
section 4.9.2 in detail.

The second and third approaches that derive from systems theory are also important.
The cybernetics theory and the information theory perspectives have evolved from
systems theory and are an elaboration of its strong points. Make sure that you familiarise
yourself with the way they improve on systems theory. Study chapter 4, section 4.9.2 on
systems theory carefully since you may be asked to compare the basic principles of the
classical management approach to the basic principles of systems, cybernetic and in-
formation theories.

2.9.2.2 The knowledge management approach

Knowledge management is all about creating value. It aims to make an organisation

purposeful and opportunistic by acknowledging in particular the tangible and tacit
knowledge of employees. There is a firm belief that the employees of an organisation to
a large extent determine the success or failure of the organisation by contributing, or
not, to its value. The value of the organisation will not only be vested in its services and
products, but also in the experience and qualifications of its employees. It is argued that
the more knowledgeable and experienced the employees are regarding the services
and products of the organisation, the more they are able to contribute to its success.

Knowledge management is becoming the new managerial approach in business and it is

therefore important that you study this approach carefully. Study chapter 4, section
4.9.3 in detail.

Activity Once again refer to the scenario provided in Activity 2.6. Explain the benefits that
2.14 would be experienced if Mr Mbata were to apply the knowledge management ap-
proach to implementing structural change at Cornerstone Financial Services.

Feedback

To answer this question, you should have studied Section 4.9.3 in Chapter 4 carefully. This question requires you
to both integrate theory on the knowledge management approach by referring to the various principles and
advantages of this approach, and to provide insight by applying the theory to the scenario using relevant examples.

To review your understanding of the three approaches, complete the following activity:

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26
Activity Study the similarities and differences between the classical management approach,
2.15 the humanistic management approach and the knowledge management approach
thoroughly.

Look at the following types of organisation and discuss which management approach
would be best suited to each of these organisations. Give reasons why you have
chosen the specific styles for each organisation and provide examples that are ap-
plicable to these organisations.

(1) A police station in Mamelodi with 20 trained staff members who have to attend to
all the crime incidents in the suburb
(2) A social club at your church where young people meet on weekdays to play
constructive games
(3) A study centre where you and other COM2601 students meet with a lecturer on
weekends to study together

Feedback
The above activity is precisely the reason why you should know each of the approaches and their principles well.
The management approaches are not in any way useful if you cannot apply them in everyday life. That is what this
activity is all about. If you cannot remember how to apply a theory to a scenario, return to the table, ``How to apply
theory to a scenario'', in section 2.4. Follow the guidelines set out in this table. You also need to think carefully
about the choice that you make concerning the approach you choose for each organisation. Ask yourself whether it
makes sense and why it makes sense to choose a specific approach. This will substantiate your choice of that
specific approach.

(1) In the first scenario, which is the police station in Mamelodi, you should consider the fact that police work is
about discipline, routine, rules and policies. There are many criminals out there but the police first have to
make sure someone is guilty before arresting him or her. This entails careful and specialised investigation on the
part of the police according to the policies in place. Police members also work in shifts within certain time
frames. They are trained to have respect for ranks higher than their own and to always carry out their duties and
the orders given to them. Members of the police specialise in certain crimes and they attend to the crimes they
are trained for. If you study the three approaches discussed in the prescribed book you will see that, based on
this description, the classical approach best applies to this scenario, and also substantiates the choice. Once you
have established the best approach and given your reasons for choosing it, you should continue to follow the
guidelines of ``How to apply theory to a scenario''.
(2) A social club at your church where young people meet on weekdays to play constructive games is the next
application. The humanistic approach would be the best approach to use. Why is that?
(3) In the last application, namely a study centre where you and other COM2601 students meet with a lecturer on
weekends to study together, the knowledge management approach would apply. Study the principles of the
knowledge management approach carefully to determine why this would be the best approach to use.

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 Hint: Remember, the questions listed in the activities for section 2.9 could be asked
interchangeably; they could be applied to any of the three management
approaches.

Now do the following activity in order to review your understanding of the principles
and nature of communication in each managerial approach, within a changing orga-
nisational environment.

Activity (1) Compare the communication principles of the classical management approach to
2.16 the humanistic and the knowledge management approaches.
(2) Assess the communication principles of the classical management approach.
(3) Assess the communication principles of the humanistic and knowledge manage-
ment approaches.
(4) Study the following extract from an address given by Alfred Nzo in 1986. Answer
the question that follows.

Address by Alfred Nzo, Secretary General of the African National Congress, at the
65th Anniversary Meeting of the South African Communist Party, London, 30 July
1986
``Comrades and Friends,

It gives us great pleasure to convey to this meeting, convened to mark the 65th
anniversary of the South African Communist Party, the fraternal greetings of the
National Executive Committee and the entire membership of the African National
Congress. On this day we congratulate the Central Committee and all the members
of the South African Communist Party and salute them for the sterling contribution
they and their Party have made during six and a half decades to the common
struggle for the national and social emancipation of our people.
The anniversary of your Party is taking place at a time when events of great historical
significance and importance are taking place in our country, South Africa. Breaking
through the stifling barrier of illegality, imposed on them by the fascist apartheid
regime, both the ANC and the SACP are emerging as defiant standard-bearers
marching at the head of the militant formations of the democratic movement
engulfing the length and breadth of South Africa.
The African National Congress is solidly united, as was graphically demonstrated by
the Second National Consultative Conference held last year in Zambia. It shall not
at any time be persuaded to forgo its alliance with the South African Communist
Party as the history of our struggle has unmistakably demonstrated that it is the

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 unbreakable unity of all the democratic and progressive forces that will successfully
mobilise and rally all sections of the oppressed masses of our people to speedily
destroy the hated apartheid system. It is appropriate to recall here the statement of
our President, Comrade OR Tambo, who said, on the occasion of the 60th
Anniversary of the South African Communist Party, when referring to its alliance with
the ANC, that ``ours is not merely a paper alliance, created at conference tables and
formalised through the signing of documents and representing only an agreement of
leaders. Our alliance is a living organism that has grown out of struggle''.

Which management approach(es) and communication principles in the ANC and the
SACP are indicated in the above message by Alfred Nzo? Why?

Feedback

(1) The first question is fairly easy. You are asked to compare the communication principles of the classical
management approach to the humanistic and the knowledge management approaches. Study Sections 4.9.1
and 4.9.2 in Chapter 4 of your prescribed book. The best way to answer this question would be to use a table.
In most instances where you are asked to make a comparison, a table can be used with great success, for
example:
Classical communication principles Humanistic and knowledge
management communication principles
Downwards communication Downwards, upwards and horizontal communication
Used to change unacceptable attitudes and opinions Participatory decision making. Each employee is
by moulding new ones through manipulation provided with sufficient information that provides
him/her with a set of comprehensive expectations
It allows for formal, internal message flow It allows for formal and informal, internal and external
message flows
etc etc

(2) The second question asks for an assessment of the communication principles in the classical management
approach. Although an easy question, it is also a very important question since it requires you to respond with
insight and clarity. In this question on assessment you are asked to discuss your understanding of the
advantages and disadvantages of a concept. Study section 4.9.1 carefully. An assessment of an approach is
often asked in accordance with a scenario or case study. You therefore need to know the approach well enough
to be able to identify or apply it to a given scenario.
(3) The third question asks for an assessment of the communication principles in the humanistic and knowledge
management approaches. See the above discussion on how to answer an assessment question. Study Sections
4.9.2 and 4.9.3 in Chapter 4 of your prescribed book thoroughly.

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(4) As indicated above, you should be able to apply the communication assessment principles to a scenario or case
study. The last question, then, is specifically aimed at identifying the relevant management approach(es) and
communication principles in the address delivered by Alfred Nzo. How should you approach this question?

. First of all read through the address provided. Based on your knowledge of the classical and the humanistic
and knowledge management approaches, as well as the communication principles in each approach, which
approach(es) and principles can you identify?
. Take a piece of rough work paper and write down the characteristics of each management approach and the
communication principles of each. Use these as guidelines for answering the question.
. Evaluate the speech in accordance with the information you have written down for each approach and its
communication principles. Can you identify any of the characteristics and communication principles in the
message? Write them down next to the characteristics and communication principles you have written on
the piece of paper in front of you.
. When you are ready to answer this question, you should firstly provide a one-page discussion on the relevant
approach and communication principles as an introduction to the question. Then refer to the address by
Alfred Nzo by indicating which parts of it are similar to which management approach and which
communication principles. The following example is only a fraction of the answer. Your answer should be
more elaborate and complete:

The following is an example of one of approximately four abstracts that you should discuss.

Abstract from address Management approach Communication principles

The anniversary of your Party is
taking place at a time when events
of great historical significance and
importance are taking place in our
country, South Africa. Breaking
through the stifling barrier of
illegality, imposed on them by the
fascist apartheid regime, both the
ANC and the SACP are emerging as
defiant standard-bearers marching
at the head of the militant forma-
tions of the democratic movement
engulfing the length and breadth of
South Africa.
Humanistic management
approach
Reasons:
. The message recognises the
need for achievement, power
and affiliation as well as the fact
that these are achievable with
participatory management.
. The need for recognition, con-
sideration, achievement and
especially affiliation is recog-
nised, as well as the fact that it is
achievable with efficient and
close group participation. And
so on ...
Humanistic and knowledge
management communication
principle.
Reasons:
. Information provided is relevant
and familiar.
. Communication provides each
member with sufficient infor-
mation, assumptions, goals and
attitudes that influence deci-
sions; it also provides them with
a set of comprehensive expec-
tations.
. Communication reflects the
goals of management, the pro-
cess of innovation and growth.
And so on ...

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 2.10
Conclusion

In this unit we studied the following concepts:

. change within the organisation

. managerial approaches and communication styles as instruments in organisational
change
. the role of communication in the organisation
. managerial and communication approaches in the organisation during change, that
is, the classical management approach, the humanistic management approach and
the knowledge management approach

These concepts are all important in the organisational context. They are applied to
managerial messages, to small or large meetings, to communication channels in the
organisation and to everyday communication activities that we may engage in. This unit
not only provides you with activities that may establish an understanding of the work in
chapter 4 of your prescribed book, but also serves to prepare you for the examination.
Make sure that you understand the work well and that you are able to apply it to a case
study or scenario. To further asses your understanding of the concepts explained in this
unit, complete the questions based on the case study on ``X-plar Telecoms'' at the end
of chapter 4 of the prescribed book.

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 STUDY UNIT 3
Organisational culture
Vuyolwethu Seti & Prof Rachel Barker

3.1
Introduction

The typical 21st century organisation consists of different kinds of people, with different
cultural beliefs, from different backgrounds and with different ways of perceiving
situations. This diversity opens opportunities for individuals to learn to live and work
with others as these diverse cultures have to live together in peace and form part of a
larger organisational culture. This unit sheds light on the different cultural paths and the
different roads we can take in the organisation. In order to do this, you have to gain an
understanding of the concept of culture and how it relates to the organisational context.

3.2
Organisational culture contextualised

An organisation is merely a large family, with its own norms, beliefs and value systems.
As with many families, members of the organisation should uphold similar beliefs and
adhere to the rules of the organisation in order to achieve the organisational goals and
objectives, which are derived from the mission and vision of the organisation.

Activity Have a good look at your own organisation or one that you are familiar with. Look at
3.1 all the different people in the organisation with their different cultural beliefs and see
how they interact on a daily basis. Based on your observation, do you think people
with diverse backgrounds can share the same beliefs, value systems, and suchlike?
We think so, if they are aware of it and are willing to make an effort to understand one
another. It is also important that they have theoretical foundations in place to do so.
What is your opinion on this?

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Feedback
Although there is no right or wrong answer to this question, as your answer was based on your own opinion, you
should have used the theoretical discussion in Item 3.8 in Chapter 3 of your prescribed book as a guideline for
your answer. It would seem that values, beliefs and so on can be shared if the organisation has a clear idea of its
culture and what is expected of each individual in the organisation. Most organisations, for example, have a
particular way of conducting business that has to be adhered to by all employees. This is enshrined in organisational
policy, which includes the vision and mission of the organisation, the logo and corporate colours of the organi-
sation, the dress code or uniforms for staff members and client relations, and so on.

You should now have a clear understanding of the culture of an organisation. Some-
times organisational culture and climate are confused with each other; therefore it is
important to make a clear distinction between these two concepts.

3.3
Organisational culture and organisational
climate

Organisational culture differs from organisational climate. Culture is defined as the

shared beliefs, values, norms or perceptions of a group, while climate can be defined as
a set of organisational attributes which have endured and persisted over time in spite of
changes in individual members' attitudes. Climate refers to the ``feeling'' we have about
the atmosphere of an organisation. Simply put, cultural value systems create the or-
ganisational climate. Where culture relates to the underlying values and assumptions,
climate relates to the manifestation of such. Have you ever walked into an organisation
and got a warm or cold, positive or negative feeling about it? Probably as a result of the
friendly or unfriendly way in which the staff members treated you? That is the orga-
nisational climate, and it is more often than not influenced by organisational culture.
Study item 3.8.2 of your prescribed book and then read through the following scenario
and do the activity that follows.

Activity Imagine a world without books. Or having access to books but not knowing how to
3.2 read. The gift of literacy is priceless, as former education minister Kadar Asmal at-
tests: ``it is a tool that unlocks, empowers and enriches.'' Yet, for many people it is not
something readily available. That is, until the Read for South Africa initiative was
established to give millions of learners across the country access to the power of the

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33
 written word. According to the managing director of Read for South Africa, the or-
ganisation wants to create a ``feel-good'' atmosphere by affirming the power of
reading in people's lives. When you enter the offices of Read for South Africa, you can
associate yourself with this feeling. Apart from the positive feeling you get about the
company, the friendly staff and colourful reading rooms create a positive image of the
company which enhances the warm feeling you have about it. The offices have been
transformed into a splendid cornucopia of colourful books that tells you this is a place
to read! Over the last decade, as reflected in the company's vision and mission, Read
for Africa has established itself as a powerful company having introduced both young
and old to the magic of books and the power of education. Apart from working
extensively in schools, various annual events are presented throughout the year to
ensure that people become familiar with the company's name, logo and culture.

Indicate which aspects of the above scenario are indicative of culture and which of
climate. Give reasons for your answer.

Feedback

There is no one correct answer to this question. You could have indicated your own criteria. The following points
will give you an indication of what your answer could have contained:

Culture Climate
. Colourful reading rooms . Warm feeling
. Colourful books . Place to read
. Company's events, name, logo and culture . Atmosphere created by the magic of books/power
. Vision and mission of education

From this activity it is clear that organisational culture and climate are closely related
and that a strong culture in an organisation relies on a positive climate. In the next
section you will be introduced to a number of theories for understanding organisational
culture.

3.4
Theoretical paradigms for understanding
organisational culture

Theory has emerged as a way of helping us construct reality and understand the un-
derpinnings of a particular field of study. In item 3.8.3 of chapter 3, the theoretical
paradigms for understanding organisational culture are outlined. You will see that we

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34
 have highlighted the main historical developments as well as the three schools of
thought that exist. Study this section and do the following activity.

Activity Draw up a table that gives the main historical developments of organisational culture,
3.3 as well as the different schools of thought and approaches used to describe organi-
sational culture.

Feedback

You could have drawn up your own table(s) to do the above activity. The following is an example of how the activity
could have been done:

Historical development Schools of thought Approaches

1952: ``culture'' of the factory First school: sees the task or the Functionalist: concerned with the
organisation in terms of specific administration and control of an
and measurable variables, traits organisation and tries to manipu-
and processes late it
1979: first article on organisational Second school: believes it is a Interpretivist: tries to understand
culture published in Administra- global challenge to capture culture and interpret the lives of people as
tive Science Quarterly by Pettigrew as an intrinsic property of the experienced in the organisation
social milieu and believes culture cannot be
manipulated but that it is the
medium through which reality is
created
Scientific management techniques Third school: sees culture as an
of FW Taylor anthropological metaphor for
measuring organisations as micro
societies
1982: Use of cultural terminology
in two books: Corporate cultures:
the rites and rituals of corporate
life by Deal and Kennedy, which
focuses on ``strong cultures''; and
In search of excellence: lessons
from America's best-run compa-
nies by Peters and Waterman,
which focuses on ``excellent
cultures''
2003: Miller's view that research-
ers today see culture as values,
practices, narratives and artefacts
that make an organisation what it
is.

In doing this activity, try to identify the approach used in an organisational setting (formal or informal) that you are
familiar with. Which approach do you think is the best? Give reasons for your opinion.

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 3.5
Elements of organisational culture

Have you noticed how much easier it is to communicate and interact with people who
hold the same cultural beliefs as your own? Now, picture a typical organisation in which
people from different cultural backgrounds have to work together to achieve organi-
sational goals and imagine how exciting, confusing as well as challenging it must be to
manage organisational culture in this instance. As mentioned before, our cultural be-
liefs, shaped by the environment/culture into which we are born and raised, influence
the manner in which we communicate and interact with others in our places of work or
study. This communication or interaction plays a crucial role in our understanding of the
various elements of organisational culture. Because culture is so difficult to understand
and manage within the organisational context, researchers have identified various
elements of culture that play a crucial role in our understanding of each other in the
organisation. If you study item 3.8.4 in chapter 3 of your prescribed book, you will find
a methodological discussion of the various elements that make up organisational cul-
ture. It is important that you know all these elements and are able to give practical
examples from your own experience to illustrate your understanding of each of them.
The following activity will help you on this road of discovery.

Activity Peter is the managing director of a company called Executive Positions. He de-
3.4 cides that the organisation should undergo a metamorphosis, which means that
they will change the interior design of the organisation. He instructs his secretary
to get quotes from an interior designer, but tells her that he does not want the
colour purple to be used, as he is very superstitious about purple. The secretary
phones the interior designer and gives him a brief explanation of the symbolic
meaning that purple has for Peter. The company decides to launch the `'new
look'' building at the annual Christmas party and requests the interior designer to
make sure that work will be completed by then. As the founder of the organi-
sation, Peter will unveil the new look, which it is hoped will symbolise the
rejuvenated organisation for the external stakeholders.

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36
 Match the actions in column A to the element in column B:

Column A Column B
Action Element
1. Superstition about the colour purple 1. Artefacts
2. Brief explanation by secretary to 2. Heroes
interior designer
3. Annual Christmas party 3. Taboo
4. Setting and physical layout 4. Ritual
5. Peter, founder of the organisation, 5. Story
symbolises the organisation to the
external stakeholders

Feedback

The correct answers are as follows:

Column A Column B
Action Element
1. Superstition about the colour purple 1. Taboo
2. Brief explanation by secretary to interior designer 2. Story
3. Annual Christmas party 3. Ritual
4. Setting and physical layout 4. Artefacts
5. Peter, founder of the organisation, symbolises the 5. Heroes
organisation to the external stakeholders

These are just a few examples that illustrate the various elements. Familiarise yourself
with the other elements as well and try to relate them to your own communication
encounters and situations you experience on a daily basis.

3.6
Managing organisational culture

By now we should have convinced you that it is not always easy to understand the
culture and beliefs of those around us, and although various elements have been
identified to help us in this process, this understanding still needs to be ``managed'' in
an organisational surrounding. Imagine the chaos if you attended a church gathering
with people from various beliefs and they all had different opinions on how the church

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 ceremony should be conducted. In this case, the minister of that church would try and
manage the different groups and set the scene against which the ceremony would take
place. The same goes for an organisational setting ± there are usually one or more
persons in managerial positions who set the scene for the way in which the organisation
should function. Although it might sound easy to manage different cultures, it is not that
simple ± some people argue that you cannot manage culture, as people are set in their
ways of thinking and doing things. One approach which has been developed to address
this problem in the organisation to an extent is the total quality management (TQM)
approach which is mainly used to improve quality in the planning and evaluation of
work processes in the organisation with the aim of improving productivity (more output
for the same input). Familiarise yourself with the discussion on TQM in item 3.8.5 of the
prescribed book and do the following activity.

Activity Identify a situation in your immediate environment in which you need to manage
3.5 different cultural viewpoints.

(1) Indicate how you could apply the principles identified for managing organisational
culture to this situation.
(2) Do you think that TQM is an effective method for managing organisational culture?
Why do you think so?

Feedback

You could have identified any situation on your journey through life (even the example of the church given above).
In your answer, you had to explain which of the elements of TQM and the criteria identified could be of value to
you in your quest to manage the situation. One of the greatest values of TQM is that it empowers individuals in the
organisation by recognising their values and aligning them with the organisation's values. The reasoning behind this
is that it allows for an understanding on what needs to be done or not between employees and management,
which is concluded by mutual agreement. Do you agree? Why or why not? Give reasons for your views on this.

3.7
The organisational change process

In your journey through the previous chapter, you were introduced to change in the
organisation. In this section, change in the organisation is viewed from a cultural

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38
 perspective. You were previously introduced to the systems approach, in which an
organisation exists in its external environments and, as an open system, is affected by
changes in these environments. If you apply this notion to your own situation, change
will also affect you. If something happens in your external environment (like death in
the family, job loss, etc), it might impact on your functioning (eg having a lower dis-
posable income), which will ultimately impact on your goals and objectives (you will
have to cut down on food or clothes purchases, possibly try to earn additional money
through a part-time job, etc). The same goes for organisational change, which can take
place on a macro level (aspects that affect the organisation directly), or on a micro level
(changes on an individual level). In an organisational setting, reactions to the change
process are crucial to ensure that the situation is handled correctly (you can probably
also apply these themes of the change process to your daily life). Reactions include
management support for the change process (you will need support from your family
and friends); resistance that arises as a result of fear experienced by lower-level em-
ployees and their resultant endeavours to try and prevent the implementation of the
change process (your children or dependants may resist your going to work again or fear
that they might not have enough food, etc); and uncertainty which can result in stress
(your family members may suffer from stress as a result of the ``unknown'' reality that is
awaiting them). So you can see that the theory and models given to manage the process
of change can actually be applied to your own situation ± therefore it should be clear to
you how they relate to the organisational setting. We have emphasised the importance
of communication throughout the prescribed book and the study guide. Again, in any
change process, communication is a key component in ensuring that the change is
communicated effectively. Study item 3.9 in your prescribed book and concentrate on
the following:

. the different communication approaches used during change on a micro and a

macro level
. how organisational cultural change should be managed

Now do the following activity.

Activity Read through the following scenario and answer the question at the end.
3.6
You work as a communications officer for Hi Power, the main electricity provider
for your country. Owing to the rising demand for electricity in the country and
the constant vandalism of your resources, which has resulted in a number of
explosions at power stations, your company has failed to supply businesses and

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39
 communities with sufficient power. Consequently, your office has been flooded
with complaints from citizens. This has led to a loss of confidence on the part of
your clients and the employees of the company, who are also electricity con-
sumers. Management has asked you to make recommendations for handling
communication during this time of crisis at both the micro and the macro levels.
What would you advise?

Feedback

If you are employed as a communication specialist in an organisation, this is a typical situation you will have to deal
with. If you study item 3.9 in chapter 3 of the prescribed book, you will notice that a few strategies are proposed for
addressing this type of issue. The best way to deal with such a situation, at a macro (organisational) level, would be
to follow a top-down strategy according to which you involve members in the change process based on the
provision of relevant information. A second possible strategy to adopt on a macro level would be to keep members
informed of the planned strategy by giving them the opportunity to position themselves in the change process and
to adapt to the situation (either through active/passive acceptance or active/passive rejection of the situation). On a
micro (individual) level, feedback would be the most significant process ± it facilitates the conceptualisation of
information which helps to influence individuals.

This is just one example of the advice you could have given. Can you think of any other? How would you have
handled the situation? Do you think the theory provided gives you sufficient means to address such an issue? Why
do you think so?

It is clear that cultural change is a complex issue, and that it is probably more difficult to
change culture than anything else, mainly because the organisation is a function of
individual perceptions and people from different cultural backgrounds will always have
varying perceptions. We hope that this section has given you some insight into the
complexities surrounding organisational change, specifically in a cultural setting.

3.8
Conclusion

You now know and understand that the concept of organisational culture is broad and
that it needs to be given due consideration by organisations and effort by organisational
members. Answer the following questions by reflecting on the knowledge you have
gained from reading this unit:

. Can you define and contextualise culture?

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40
. Do you know the main differences between organisational culture and organisa-
tional climate?
. Do you know the theoretical paradigms for understanding organisational culture?
. What are the elements of culture?
. How do organisations manage organisational culture?
. Are you aware of the organisational change process?

At this stage it should be clear to you that organisational culture should not be taken for
granted or ignored in the organisation. We have determined that organisational culture
is a dynamic process and that we need to be creative and apply a sound theoretical
framework to ensure that it enhances our journey through the study of organisational
communication (but also our own communication experiences in life).

No communication process is complete without evaluation ± the same goes for orga-
nisational communication. The next unit therefore focuses on the assessment methods
for organisational communication in different situations and from different theoretical
approaches.

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 STUDY UNIT 4
The theory and practice of assessing organisational
communication
Lienkie du Plessis & Lizelle van der Walt

4.1
Introduction

Throughout the prescribed book you have probably noticed the constant reference to
change per se and its demands on the organisation's operational activities. If you look at
your own life you will know that you often have a ``feeling'' about people or a situation.
Some people refer to it as a sixth sense. However, you cannot be sure that the feeling
you have is correct unless something happens that supports this feeling. When facts
present themselves, you are able to determine the correctness of the feelings and
thoughts you had about people or situations.

Similarly, in organisations management may have a feeling about changes taking place
in the internal and external organisational environments, for example profile and needs
changes of employees or product changes in the marketplace, changes in the economy
or even changes regarding new competitive advantages that competitors may have.
Environmental scanning is therefore a very important business strategy which enables
organisations to remain alert to new trends and changing needs. It is, however, im-
portant to statistically indicate changes that may be taking place in the environment in
order for the organisation to adapt to these changes by addressing issues of importance.
To determine whether change is needed in the organisational culture, its service or
product and to what extent change is needed to meet the desired goals and objectives
of the organisation, organisational assessment needs to be introduced and properly
managed.

This unit is therefore concerned with addressing the importance of organisational as-
sessment, as well as organisational assessment methods.

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 4.2
Development of organisational communication

Research in itself is a very important process in the investigation of any kind of existing
problem. In organisational communication, research is done to determine those vari-
ables that may influence the process of communication in the organisation. These
variables can, for example, be the management style, the climate or culture of the
organisation or the channels of communication. When a problem occurs in the orga-
nisation it can impact on the functioning of that organisation. Since an organisation aims
at making a profit from the services or products that it delivers to the market, it must
assess its environments constantly to detect any problems that may occur.

4.2.1 Environmental monitoring

Environmental monitoring assists the organisation in determining what the opinions of
the various stakeholders of the organisation are in terms of the organisation. Environ-
mental scanning will assist the organisation in determining the corporate climate; that is,
the opinions or feelings stakeholders have regarding the organisation.

4.2.2 Social auditing

Social auditing is similar to environmental monitoring, and will measure the effects that
the workings of the organisation have had on its stakeholders. This will also serve as an
indicator of which effects should be rectified by the organisation.

4.2.3 Corporate communication/public relations auditing

This type of auditing differs from social auditing in that it aims to define who an
organisation's stakeholders are, and how they perceive and evaluate the organisation.

4.2.4 Communication content auditing

Communication content auditing evaluates the organisation's communication activities
to determine whether the organisation's communication programme or plans have
reached the intended target audience and stakeholders.

Study chapter 11, sections 11.2.1 to 11.2.4 in your prescribed book.

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43
Activity Study the following scenario and answer the questions that follow:
4.1 ABC Marketing is an organisation that specialises in doing organisational research
for other companies. RedRibbon, an organisation that produces jewellery for
young adults, has recently launched a brand new line of jewellery aimed at young
executives in the 20 to 30-year age group. RedRibbon has approached ABC
Marketing to conduct some organisational research for them.

Discuss the different types of research ABC Marketing could do for RedRibbon.

Feedback

This activity refers to the different types of communication research. You have to apply the different types to the
given scenario. For instance, ABC Marketing can use communication content auditing to evaluate RedRibbon's
marketing campaign for introducing the new jewellery line, and also to determine whether this campaign has
reached RedRibbon's intended target audience.

4.3
The planning of organisational research

It is important to remember that research is approached very specifically. In a research

process there are a number of different steps that need to be followed. Furthermore,
these steps need to be addressed in a chronological sequence, for example you cannot
first find a solution and then identify the problem. You need to become aware of a
problem first and then seek solutions to that problem. Study chapter 11, section 11.3 in
your prescribed book.

4.3.1 The research proposal

As with the writing of a business plan for a business idea, a research proposal is a
structured plan of action that will guide you in conducting organisational research from
beginning to end. The research proposal consists of various steps that need to be
followed in chronological order to ensure that your research will be complete and valid.
Study section 11.3.1 in chapter 11 of your prescribed book, which details the steps of
the research proposal.

Do the following activity.

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Activity Discuss the steps of the research proposal in chronological order.
4.2

Feedback

Although this may be perceived as a very easy question, students often get confused with the chronological order of
the research process. Any research proposal that you will have to write will have to follow these steps in chron-
ological order. Make sure that you know these steps in sequence, as well as the function of each step in the research
process.

4.4
Research reliability and validity

It is important to distinguish between reliability and validity since these two concepts
may be interrelated but at the same time are also different. Reliability refers to the
degree to which a measuring procedure produces similar results when repeated (eg
focus group interviews and later on questionnaires that both deliver the same results),
whereas validity will focus on the accuracy of the findings as well as the potential
generalisation of the findings. Two general types of validity are important, namely
internal and external validity.

It is important to know the procedures for improving the reliability of a measuring

instrument. This is done through the test-retest approach, the equivalent-form approach
and the split-half approach. Study chapter 11, Section 11.4.1 in your prescribed book.

Equally important is to know the threats that accompany the testing of internal validity
in a research process. You need to know how the following threats can impact on a
research process: history, maturation, instrumentation, statistical regression, attrition
and the selection of participants. You also need to know which factors can increase
external validity or generalisation in a research process Study chapter 11, section 11.4.2
in your prescribed book.

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Activity Study the following scenario and answer the questions below.
4.3
Mpho is a final-year communication student. ABC Marketing asks him to do a
research project to determine people's recall capabilities of coffee brands. He
decides to choose his group of friends as a sample to make it easier. He explains
to them that he will test their recall capabilities over a three-week period and that
he will use a questionnaire as the measuring instrument. Mpho takes his friends
to his home and shows them five video recordings showing different coffee
advertisements, each one with its own jingle. Afterwards he shows them a video
that is totally unrelated to the advertisements. When the video is finished, he
gives everyone a questionnaire and plays a recording of the jingles of the five
coffee brands. He asks his friends to link each jingle with the correct brand of
coffee. A week later he repeats the same experiment in exactly the same manner
but with a different questionnaire. The week after that he does so again but
forgets the questionnaires and asks his friends some general questions.

Discuss the reliability and validity of Mpho's research project.

Feedback

Mpho made a number of mistakes during his experiment. Can you identify what he did wrong? Unless you know
the procedures for testing reliability as well as the threats that may haunt validity, you will find this question difficult.

First of all, Mpho did not use the procedures for improving the reliability of his measuring instrument. He did not
use the three approaches mentioned in Section 11.4.1 that can and should be used to test an instrument's
reliability.

The internal validity of Mpho's experiment can also be questioned. Problems that could have occurred in this
experiment are the following: history (too much time elapsed between the first, second and third experiments);
maturation (the friends may become tired of the experiment); instrumentation (the questionnaire and procedure
differed each time) and selection of participants (which was not done randomly).

You should be able to explain how each of these threats may have impacted on Mpho's experiment. You should
also be able to explain what factors Mpho could have used to increase the external validity of his experiment.

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 4.5
Quantitative and qualitative assessment

Quantitative methodologies attempt to make generalisations about a topic of interest

based on precisely measured quantities. Qualitative methodologies, on the other hand,
refer to research procedures that produce descriptive data. The steps in the research
process discussed above, as well as the requirements for validity and reliability in any
research project, are equally relevant to both quantitative and qualitative assessments.
Different measuring instruments are used in quantitative and qualitative assessments.
Hence, quantitative measuring instruments look at isolated variables whereas qualita-
tive measuring instruments look at the relationship between variables.

4.5.1 Quantitative research methods

For the purpose of this study unit and Chapter 11 in the prescribed book you need to
have a general knowledge of these instruments and what they are used for. Students
often get confused between the instruments used in qualitative research and quanti-
tative research. With regard to quantitative instruments, you need to know what each of
the following instruments entail:

± experimental research
± classical experimental design
± quasi-experimental designs
± true experimental designs

Study chapter 11, section 11.5.1.

4.5.2 Qualitative research methods

Again, for the purpose of this study unit and chapter 11 in the prescribed book you
need to have a general knowledge about the following instruments and what they are
used for:

. field observation
. participant observation and ethnography
. interviewing
. focus groups

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47
 . case studies
. self-recorded diaries

Study chapter 11, section 11.5.2.

Activity Compare the qualitative research methods to the quantitative research methods.
4.4

Feedback

This activity refers to approaches. This means that you have to discuss the differences between these two ap-
proaches by introducing both approaches and stating when they are used and for what purposes. Then you
continue to list the different methods of research used in both as well as how these methods differ from each
other.

4.5.3 Combining qualitative and quantitative research

Qualitative and quantitative approaches can often complement each other well. For
example, when a researcher carries out a quantitative survey, the data generated might
be interpreted qualitatively by the people within the system that is being analysed.
Study section 11.5.3 in chapter 11 of your prescribed book.

A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods is called triangulation.

. Triangulation
Triangulation is a method to used to establish valid and reliable results, since it com-
bines both quantitative and qualitative methods. It is thus a multi-method approach that
allows the researcher to approach the data under investigation from different vantage
points. Four basic types of triangulation are distinguished namely:

± data triangulation
± theory triangulation
± investigator triangulation
± methodological triangulation

Various quantitative and qualitative research methodologies that can be used effectively
in combination are as follows:

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. Survey research
This method is very popular in communication studies. Similar to the importance of
sequential steps in the research process that was discussed earlier, it is important to
follow specific steps in this method. First the researcher has to identify the research
problem, after which a type of survey can be selected. A sample of respondents will be
drawn, a pilot study will be done on the sample to determine the efficiency of the
survey type and its questions and lastly the data gathered will be coded and statistically
analysed.

. Action research
Action research is a bit different from other research methods in that the researcher is
not only an observer in the research process but actively participates in the research.
This type of researcher is intended to bring about action in the form of change.

. Strategy evaluation
When researching the strategy of an organisation a variety of methods can be used.
Steps to take into consideration when evaluating strategy will be

± analysing the context in which the organisation operates;

± conducting a SWOT analysis; and
± evaluating the viability of the strategy.

. The assessment of image and identity

It is important to know what is meant by image and identity. For the purpose of
understanding this method you need to familiarise yourself briefly with chapter 7 in the
prescribed book where corporate image and identity as concepts are discussed.

. Content analysis
Content analysis is another method favoured by the social sciences. Although discussed
separately it can be perceived as a method of triangulation, since this method consists of
both quantitative and qualitative methods of investigation. As the name indicates, this
method is used especially to research the presence, meanings and relationships of
symbols, words and graphics in texts. These texts apply not only to written texts but also
to announcements, advertisements, speeches, news bulletins and so on.

Content analysis has several applications. Before a researcher chooses content analysis
as a method he or she needs to study its applications to determine whether it will

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 benefit their research. Study these applications carefully in chapter 11, section 11.10 of
your prescribed book.

Since content analysis is especially important in communication studies, which implies

a variety of texts, we also highlight the steps involved in the process of conducting
content analysis.

Activity (1) Discuss the importance of content analysis in communication studies.

4.5 (2) List the applications of content analysis and apply these applications to com-
munication.
(3) Discuss the steps that are used in conducting content analysis.

Feedback

Since content analysis is one of the preferred methods for use in communication studies, you need to know the
method well.

(1) You are asked to discuss the importance of content analysis in communication studies. This activity expects
some insight from you. By now you should be familiar with what communication entails and after studying
content analysis in chapter 11, section 11.5.3, you should be able to discuss the importance of this method in
communication studies.
(2) The first part of the activity is easy; however, you are again asked to illustrate your understanding of this method
by applying your discussion to examples relevant to communication. To help you in this activity you may want
to refer back to chapter 4 where the various managerial approaches are discussed.
(3) What is important here is to discuss the steps in sequence. As mentioned before, the sequence of steps is of the
utmost importance since a research question cannot be formulated unless you have chosen a topic related to
the problem that you would like to investigate.

4.6
Applied organisational communication
research

There are a few research methods, such as communication audits and the P-MOPS
model, that can be practically applied to measure issues or occurrences in an organi-
sation. Study chapter 11, section 11.6 in your prescribed book.

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4.6.1 A communication audit
In the organisation, an audit is often used to determine the perception of the organi-
sation's internal and external publics of its communication activities. Results based on
these audits enable management to make informed, economical decisions about future
objectives for the organisation's communication. Study chapter 11, section 11.6.1 of
your prescribed book.

There are several characteristics that a communication audit should possess:

. diagnosis
. evaluation
. unique design
. control

There are also a number of audit instruments that can be used to gather information.
These instruments can be grouped into three sections:

. comprehensive instruments
. communication process instruments
. organisational outcomes instruments

4.6.2 A P-MOPS model (procedural model of problem solving)

Study chapter 11, section 11.6.2 in your prescribed book. The procedural model of
problem solving is a flexible framework that directs problem-solving procedures within
groups in the organisation by investigating the problem and critically considering both
the negative and the positive outcomes that are likely to occur with each proposed
solution. This model is also an illustration of how action research can be applied as a
measuring instrument. The P-MOPS model consists of the following five steps:

1. Describing and analysing the problem

2. Generating and explaining possible solutions
3. Evaluating all possible solutions
4. Choosing the best solution
5. Implementing the chosen solution

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Activity (1) Read through the case study provided at the end of chapter 11 of your prescribed
4.6 book.
(2) Discuss how communication audits and the P-MOPS model can be practically
applied to measure issues or occurrences in the South African National Defence
Force.

Feedback

(1) In this activity you are required to use both a communication audit and the P-MOPS model to measure the
issues or occurrences specified in the case study at the end of Chapter 11. With regards to the communication
audit, you should refer to the characteristics of a communication audit, establish the focal areas to which the
audit will apply, and specify which instruments you will use to gather information, as discussed in Chapter 11,
Section 11.6.1. You should also apply the five steps of the P-MOPS model (as discussed in Chapter 11 Section
11.6.2) to the case study, which can guide you in solving the problem.

4.7
Conclusion

In this unit we studied the following concepts:

. perspectives on organisational communication assessment

. the research process
. research methods

Each of these concepts is important in organisational communication assessment. This

unit not only clarifies the different assessment methods used in the organisation, but
also gives a comprehensive explanation of why these methods are important. You need
to do the activities in this unit since they will establish an understanding of the work
contained in Chapter 11 of your prescribed book, as well as prepare you for the
examination. Make sure you understand the work and that you are able to apply it to a
case study or scenario.

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