SPE 169388-MS

Generating Synthetic Well Logs by Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) using

MISO-ARMAX Model in Cupiagua Field.
G.A. Alzate, A. Arbeláez-Londoño, A. Naranjo Agudelo, U. Nacional de Colombia; R.D. Zabala Romero, Ecopetrol
S.A.; M.A. Rosero Bolaños, D.L. Rodríguez Escalante, S. Gómez Quintero, C.A. Benítez Peláez, U. Nacional de
Colombia.

Copyright 2014, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference held in Maracaibo, Venezuela, 21–23 May 2014.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been reviewed by the
Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Electronic
reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not
more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract

Well logs acquired directly in field have turned out to be one of the most key engineering elements to evaluate hydrocarbon
formations. Nevertheless, the lack of information, some technical troubles related to the unfolding of tools, the operational
states of the well and many other reasons may sharply limit the carrying out of an optimal formation characterization
methodology along the entire productive or injective lifespan of a reservoir. Nowadays, artificial neural networks (ANN) are
one of the strongest tools to supply such missing information in order to generate synthetic logs.

In this paper, we explain the putting into practice of an ANN methodology with the aim of provide useful input information
in geomechanical modeling for the hydraulic fracturing simulator GIGAFRAC. More explicitly, the purpose of the schemes
presented here is to provide transit-time curves for primary or compressional waves (DtP) and secondary or shear waves
(DtS), based on full information measurements of Gamma Ray, Neutron-Porosity, Density, DtP and DtS logs; for some wells
in the Cupiagua field located in Colombian Foothills, which break through some geologic formations such as Mirador, Barco,
Guadalupe, and Los Cuevos.

A noteworthy amount of considerations were taken into account to ensure the success of the ANN estimation phases. A
strong focus is done regarding to filtration and quality control of the input information to the network, relating to the control
mechanism of outliers, as well as the splitting-up of logs in zones by using a geological criteria and spreading of data
information in computationally convenient vectorial and matricial arrangements. Finally, good adjustments were obtained
throughout the validation phases and they all were considered as successful outcomes, together with training phase and
subsequent use of the same for estimating DtP and DtS curves.

Introduction

Synthetic well logs derived from several methodologies, like artificial neural networks (ANNs), are used when formation or
well data are not available, due to factors like the tool timing, the non-inclusion of the variable of interest or the difficulties
during the logging operation.

ANNs are a set of learning and analysis models based on the human nervous system. The pattern recognition capability of
ANNs makes them ideal in applications involving limited or highly distorted data, as long as it is possible to assign an
appropriate training level, ensuring a proper fit to the problem of interest.

The aim of the implemented methodology and the proposed procedures is the generation of transit time curves for wells
without this information. The generated data are essential for the geomechanical properties estimation of geologic formations
in surrounding wells, to select well candidates regarding their feasibility for hydraulic fracturing.
2 SPE 169388-MS

Overview of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN).

Research in neural networks field began as an attempt to simulate the information processing of biologic nervous system.
McMulloc and Pitts[10] developed in 1943 the first neural network model based on electric circuits. Next in 1949 a great
advance in ANNs technology came with Donald Hebb [6] and the book The organization of behavior, in which proposed an
explanation for the adaptation of neurons in the brain during a learning process. Years later, in 1958, the neuro-biologist
Rosenblatt began working on the perceptron, the first practical neural network. Then in 1974 the scientist Werbos, based on
Rosenblatt’s perceptron, [12],[13] developed the back propagation algorithm, which allowed perceptrons to be trained in a
multilayer configuration.

Currently, ANNs have become an important tool for the management and interpretation of information in the industry due to
their adaptive learning, the self-organization, and fault tolerance capabilities. Nowadays, one of the main fields of neural
networks application is the time series forecast, which can be described by means of the following models:

- Parametric models: For some systems it is necessary to describe the relationship between each of their variables, whereby,
a mathematical model able to relate these variables with a finite number of parameters is developed. The model requires an
appropriate model structure, a parameter setting criteria, and the correct estimation method ensuring the best possible fit to
experimental data. The internal structure and the model are predetermined then. Among the most prominent types of
parametric models are: AR (Autoregressive Model), ARX (Autoregressive model with Exogenous Input), ARMA
(Autoregressive Average Model), and ARMAX (Autoregressive with Exogenous Input Model).

- Non-parametric models: In these models, simultaneous structure and parameters adjustments are made. They are used
when dynamic properties of the system can be described using graphs or charts. Examples of these models are: Transient
response analysis, frequency response, correlation analysis, spectral analysis, and Fourier analysis.

Some of the ANNs applications in the actual oil industry are related to petrophysical reservoir parameters prediction and
interpretation, the parallel implementation in programs, numerical simulation and multivariate adjustment of geological
models, the estimation and prediction of reservoir fluids properties and PVT behavior, predicting formation and deposition of
unwanted particles with complex physicochemical behavior, and the generation of synthetic curves (seismograms, well logs,
velocity models, microseismic distributions, etc).[5],[8],[11]

How does an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) work?

Biologic structure systems are the basis of ANNs, therefore, is important to consider biological neural networks properties
from the data processing viewpoint. Organic neural networks are composed by thousands or millions of interconnected
specialized cells called neurons, which receives, process and yield information through electrical and chemical signals.

Neurons are integrated by treelike extensions called dendrites, a single long fiber called axon, and the cell body or soma
where the cell nucleus is located. To achieve a signal transmission between neurons, an electrical potential inside the
receiving cell body has to be reached; a neurotransmitter is released from the synaptic junctions (at the end of the axon) of the
yielding cell, involving the receiving cell dendrites. Dendrites acts like receptors for the generated electrical pulses, whereas
the axon conducts them to the synapses in order to transmit the information via nerve impulses to other neuron.

Inputs and weighting values

w1
a1
a2 w2 s  f (x)
N x
x   wi ai  
 i 1
Output unit
wN Summing unit
aN
Figure 1 — ANN scheme with one neuron composed of a summing and an output unit.

ANNs, like biological neural networks, are composed by a pattern of interconnected processing units. Each unit has an
associated function, which receives information through input channels with a respective weigh depending on the importance
of the information. The function is then evaluated, and the result may be transmitted and turned an input of other processing
unit or neuron. ANNs models are then structured by an interconnection pattern, the neuron functions used, and the timing of
data transmission. Given that an artificial neural network (ANN) is considered as highly simplified model of a biological
SPE 169388-MSNumber 3

neural network, it must have processing units, which are interconnected to allow the flow of information.

Thus, in general, an artificial neural network simple model must have two basic elements: a summing unit and an output unit.
Consider a simplified diagram of a neuron as shown in Fig. 1. The N inputs enter to the artificial neuron, namely,
, and each one has a corresponding weight value, that is, . It is important to note that the values of
the weights may be positive or negative. When these values are positive, an excitatory input is being used. In contrast, when
the weights are negative, an inhibitory signal is being used. Once previous data have been entered to the summing unit, a
numerical parameter called activation value is calculated. [15], [16]

(∑ ) (1)

In Equation 1, corresponds to the threshold value. The function of the threshold value is to recreate or simulate the
minimum potential difference in a biological neuron, such that, this emits a signal and to continue the flow of information.
Because of this, the activation value consists of a difference between the sum of the product of weights and normalized
variables, and the threshold value. When this sum does not exceed the threshold value, no activation value will be obtained or
similarly, the activation value will be null. Subsequently, the activation values that neurons emit in summing unit will be
taken to the output unit, where they are converted into a signal. [15],[16] To perform the conversion, an activation function is
used, that is, . The artificial neural network uses a specific kind of activation function, depending on the type of data
that it controls. In this case, since the network works with continuous data, a continuous sigmoid function was used:

(∑ ) (2)
∑

In Equation 2, the number of artificial neurons is NN, wj,i is the i-th weighted-value of j-th neuron, aj,i is the i-th input of j-th
neuron and wout,j is the weighted value of output layer’s neuron. To understand the terms of Equation 2 is necessary to define
the structure of a standard neural network, known as topology, which will define the sequence of processing to perform a
specific task. Because of this, the inputs to one or more neurons can be output to one or more neurons. It may be assumed
that after an artificial neural network to perform a task properly, it will give a single output, so that, there would be a single
set of activation values that yields the output. An output space is referred as the set of possible outputs that an artificial neural
network can use. Similarly a set of possible activation values is called activation status.

...

Input layer. Hidden layers. Output layers.

Figure 2 — Topology of an ANN including input, hidden and output layers.

Figure 2 schematically shows the topology of a neural network. Since the information has to go through an organized
network, neurons are grouped in layers. The initial information is entered in the neurons of the input layer, where the weights
are initialized and begin the disposal process of variables which do not contribute to the specific task. Subsequently, semi-
processed information is transferred to the neurons in a hidden layer or inner layer, wherein the parameter setting process and
selection of significant variables continues. The number of hidden layers that the artificial neural network uses depends
4 SPE 169388-MS

primarily on the amount of information to be processed, the number of variables involved in the study and computational
requirements. It is important to note that the information processed in the hidden layers is not displayed to the user owing to
it corresponds to an intermediate stage of the calculations. Thus, all the information goes from hidden to output layers where
finally the signals are converted to numerical values by using defined cutoffs and finally, such information is shown to user.

One of the main objectives of a neural network is to adjust the weighting values to recreate one or more desired outputs. This
adjustment process is called learning. There are two types of learning: supervised and unsupervised learning. The difference
between them is that in the case of supervised learning, the neural network knows the desired output and adjusts parameters
or weighting factors by using the instantaneous rate of errors.

Methodology for implementation of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs).

In this specific application the use of artificial neural networks is justified because the curves of transit time of compressional
and shear waves need to be built for some wells in Cupiagua field. Well logs can be viewed as a series of numerical values
located in a reference line or depth, so that they can be treated as a time series. The data of the transit times of the primary
and secondary waves are necessary for the calculation of geomechanical parameters in the hydraulic fracturing simulator
GIGAFRAC. The methodology can be summarized in the following steps and then this is expanded in the following sections:

a. Initialization of the weighted values: The weights were initialized randomly and close to zero, since the beginning of the
training process of the neural network should have no preference for any of the variables.

b. Definition of the variables to be used: It is recommended using variables that have some qualitative or quantitative
relation with the variables to be estimated. In this case well logs of Gamma Ray, Density, Neutron-Porosity and the
respective depth reference were used.

c. Definition of the topology of the neural network: Due to the high computational requirements, a multilayer structure was
used with an input layer, an output layer and two hidden layers [4], they all with vector-valued inputs and outputs.

d. Definition of the model for interdependence of variables: An Autoregressive Moving Average with Exogenous Input
Model (ARMAX) with multiple inputs and single output was used. Thus, the process of neuronal adjustment must be
performed separately for estimating the transit time of primary or compressional wave and shear or secondary wave.

e. Selecting a functional model for the network training: When the network controls continuous data, there are different
mechanisms for network training. Thus the parameter settings may be carried out by Newton’s Method, Gauss-Newton
Algorithm, Steepest Descent Algorithm, Levenberg-Marquardt Algorithm, among others. The Levenberg-Marquardt
algorithm was used because this is fast and stable, unlike other methods of Jacobian or Hessian complexity.

f. Validation of the results: RMS-based and Relative Error-based criteria can be used. The corroboration can be carried out
by using Physical Consistency Models.

ARMAX-MISO Model: Interdependence of variables.

The Autoregressive Moving Average with Exogenous Input Model -ARMAX- is a parametric model for the representation
and prediction of time series highly used for modeling biological, economic, and physical systems. The general structure of
this model can be expressed by:

(3)

To define correctly the ARMAX model operators, the equation (1) can be re-written in a polynomial way to get:

(4)

Where 'q' represents the mathematical operator in charge of the displacement in time, defined for:

(5)

(6)

Moreover, the polynomials , , and can be expanded as:

SPE 169388-MSNumber 5

(7)

(8)

(9)

As can be seen in the Equation 2, ARMAX model has contributions from auto-regressive coefficients, , which take in
account the previous values at the time ' ' to estimate the value of the actual variable, . There are also contributions of
other variables with available data; the past, until the -datum previous to the actual calculation time, and present data of a
input variable, , is used for the predictions. A regressive error, , from the - previous data to the actual calculation
time is finally considered in this model.

In the iterative assignation of the adjustment factor matrices, the non-representative data is rejected in accordance with the
magnitude order of the weighted ‘weights’. Although the convergence of the method can be related directly with the data
quality, the relationship between the magnitude orders of these data and the adjustment coefficient is the most conditioning
parameter in the iterative readjust criteria, and an appropriate previous normalizing process of the information is necessary
for a good performance in the ANN training.

The ARMAX model allows neural training from different adjustment systematic structures for a set of multivariable inputs
and outputs. In general, there are two global structures: Multiple Input – Single Output (MISO), and Multiple Input –
Multiple Output (MIMO).

- Adjustment procedure in MISO mode: The starting point is a multivariable vector array (Multiple Input) and the
information flows to a single variable array of solution (Single Output).

- Adjustment procedure in MIMO mode: The starting point is a multivariable vector array (Multiple Input) and the
information flows to a multivariable array of solution (Multiple Output).

Although both models are widely used in software development for predictive purposes, the MIMO mode requires a very
complex normalization of variables to avoid masking processes and information crossing between the input variables and the
respective output variables during the iterations. Consequently, a common procedure is unifying the output variables into
one, or even develops multiple MISO schemes, many times as the number of required output variables.

Based on the specified above, it was possible the implementation of an ANN adjustment system by ARMAX model aimed to
predict representative values of primary or compressional waves (P wave) and secondary or shear waves (S wave) transit
times for several wells in the Cupiagua field, in Colombia. For reasons of convenience and availability of information the
adjustment procedure was Multiple Input – Single Output (MISO), having the following entry variables: true vertical depth
(TVD), gamma ray log, density log and neutron porosity log.

ANN Training and Learning Schemes.

ANNs’ versatility and utility are derived from their ability to recreate the learning models of biological neural systems. In
mathematical terms, it can be said that an artificial neural network learns when the weighting factors are set to use them
properly, so that a perceptron-type structure can deliver the desired outputs as similar as possible to real ones, or in this
absence, by fulfilling defined tolerance criteria. Let k be an iteration of the parameter setting process, where the parameter wj,i
is set, the learning scheme obeys the relationship[17]:

(10)

Thus the differences between the learning schemes are focused on the way how the second term on the right side of Equation
10 is calculated. The chosen method in this case was the Levenberg-Marquardt Algorithm. The sum of the squared error is
defined as:

(11)
∑∑

In Equation 11, P is the number of possible patterns for the flow of information in the network, m is the number of outputs of
6 SPE 169388-MS

the network, so that eP,m is the vector of error training of the network when uses the pattern Pth for the output mth.
According to Equation 11, the learning scheme of a neural network depends on the input vector and the vector of weights.
The error vector is defined as the difference between the desired values and delivered value by the neural network, that is:

(12)

Now Jacobian matrix of error with respect to the variables to be set (weighting factors using neurons in the network) needs to
be defined. Below the Jacobian matrix is shown for a neural network patterns P, m outputs and N parameters:

(13)
( )

[ ]

The Levenberg-Marquardt Method uses the Jacobian matrix to approximate the Hessian matrix of the following form:

(14)

In Equation 14, J is the Jacobian matrix of the training error, I is the identity matrix and μ is a positive number called
combination coefficient. Finally the structure learning Levenberg-Marquardt method is defined by

(15)

Now, there are different ways to calculate the derivative of the first order in each of the elements of the Jacobian matrix, but
not all are suitable computationally. Defining yj as the output of jth neuron and by using the definition of Equation 2, yj can
be calculated from:

( ) (16)

And according to the definition given by Equation 1, the activation value of the jth neuron can be calculated from:

(17)
∑

Now, it is necessary to build the Jacobian matrix to continue the ANN training process. According to Equation 13, the
Jacobian matrix is formed by the first order derivative of the function of training error. By using the chain rule:

( ) (18)

On the right side of Equation 1, there are three terms. The first one is the first order derivative of the error respect to the
output of the jth neuron. The second one is the first order derivative of the output of jth neuron respect to its activation value
or also called slope of the activation function, sj. The third one is the first order derivative of the activation value with respect
to the weighting factor.[17] Then in Equations 19, 20 and 21, each term is shown.

(19)
( ) ( )
SPE 169388-MSNumber 7

( ) (20)

(21)

In Equation 19, it is assumed that a complex function Fm,j which converts the output of jth neuron into the mth output of the
network. The function is unknown, and its first order derivative is denoted by F’m,j. δm,j is known as backpropagation
parameter and it is defined as:

(22)

Thus, each term of the Jacobian matrix can be written as:

( ) (23)

Now to calculate each term of the Jacobian matrix by using Equation 23, two calculation methods are used. The first order
derivative of the activation value with respect to each input parameter or equivalently the neuron inputs will be calculated by
using forward calculations. The terms δm,j will be calculated by using backpropagation calculations. The steps are listed
below:

a. Calculate activation values, the slopes of the activation functions and the output of each neuron, by using forward
calculations. This action must be performed in neurons of each layer. The superscript L in this case is I, II, III or IV: I for
input layer, II and III for the hidden layers, and IV for output layer.

(24)
∑

( ) (25)

(26)

b. Calculate the error of the output m = j. At the output layer the propagation parameter when m = j will be equal to the slope,
since the output of the jth neuron in the output layer is equal to the network’s output, so that F’m,j = 1. Also when m is
different from j, the backpropagation parameter will be zero to ensure that the first order derivative of ep,m with respect to wj,I
becomes zero when ep,m is not function of wj,i.

(27)

(28)

(29)

c. Backpropagate δ parameter from the inputs of output layer (IV) to the inputs of third layer (III) by using:

(30)

d. Continue the same procedure with the other layers, and then with the next output.

Finally when the Jacobian matrix of the error function is generated, parameters can be adjusted. This type of learning is
called supervised learning because the values that network must deliver are known. The data of some wells which have
known transit-time curves were used to construct the transit-time curves of the wells which did not have a complete set of
well logs. However, it is important to clarify that the input information to the neural network must be of high quality to allow
the estimation of accurate values of the properties of geological formations. Details about how the data should be treated to
be entered to the artificial neural network to continue the training process are shown in the next section. Once the network
8 SPE 169388-MS

has been trained and when it can predict successfully the known transit time well logs, the adjusted coefficients are used to
generate the transit time logs in other wells.

Data Processing and Results.

The nature of artificial neural networks is based on reproducing trends and behaviors of the variables. Therefore, when the
input information is of low quality, the prediction becomes useless and not representative for the study. So, the input
information requires a tough quality control process. The procedure taken into account in this study to prepare information
and subsequently to validate the results delivered by network is described below:

a. Data grouping by geological formation: Density, Neutron Porosity, Gamma Ray and Transit-times of compressional and
shear wave well logs can vary considerably through different geological sections in the wells of Cupiagua field. Because of
this, the data were pooled for each geological formation. Specifically in the Cupiagua field wells break through the following
formations: Mirador, Barco, Guadalupe and Los Cuervos. Thus, a merge for each formation with all available input data was
generated by grouping data into matrices with six columns. The information of each matrix was organized by using the same
criteria in all geological formations.

b. Elimination of outliers: Due to several reasons the set of well logs could have outliers which represent specificities or
restrictions of the tools or methods and procedures for data acquirement. These numerical values do not represent the
petrophysical and geomechanical properties of geological formations and because of this they should be eliminated or
restricted. In this case, taking into account the geological knowledge of the involved formations, cutoffs for each of the input
variables of the network were generated. Then, the inaccurate data were eliminated and replaced by using moving averages or
the ends of the intervals.

c. Data filtering, noise reduction and elimination of null data: The relationship between the magnitude orders of a specific
variable must be evaluated according to their physical representation in the model. In this case, inasmuch as synthetic transit-
times curves will be generated to predict the geomechanical behavior of some areas in the wells of Cupiagua field, null data,
negative values and other anomalous data were replaced or eliminated. The data filtering involves making graphics parallels
with reference well logs to eliminate areas or restrict values which readings were dependent of operational procedures during
data acquirement or were affected by the boundary conditions linked to events outside the target areas. It should be noted that
sometimes the automatic smoothing, noise reduction or reorganization process are performed by computational algorithms
that do not take into account the geological criteria or physical principles.

Figure 3 — Gamma Ray, Neutron-Porosity and Bulk density vs. TVD curves of a well at Cupiagua field after the control quality process (used as input
variables).
SPE 169388-MSNumber 9

d. Data distribution: To reduce computational requirements during training and results generating of neuronal adjustment, it
is desirable to involve the smallest possible number of variables. Now, there are four input variables (density, Gamma Ray,
Neutron-Porosity and line depth reference), an autoregressive term (transit time curves from some wells) and two output
variables (P-wave and S wave transit-time). Input variables curves of a section of a well at Cupiagua field are shown at
Figure 3. Thus, it is advantageous to make two sequential and independent adjustment processes for each geological
formation, where transit-time logs of the P wave are estimated in a first process of setting and then transit-time logs of S
wave in a second setting process by using the topology and adaptive structure of the first one. Matlab® software was used for
the development of neuronal adaptive strategy, in which the data were disposed in an internal ID-Data-type array to allow
that the software could differentiate the variables input and output variables directly (Equation 31). The data were normalized
by using the same cutoffs of the filtration and of data processing stage and to ensure that the order of the data does not affect
the calculation steps.

(31)

[ ]

4 4
x 10 OUT1(DTP) VS IN1(TVD) x 10 OUT2(DTS) VS IN1(TVD)
1.4 1.4

1.42 1.42
Estimated DTP Estimated DTS
DTS Estimado
DTP Estimado
Real DTP Real DTS
DTP Real DTS Real
1.44 1.44

1.46 1.46
Profundidad total vertical, ft

Profundidad total vertical, ft

True Vertical Depth, ft
True Vertical Depth, ft

1.48 1.48

1.5 1.5

1.52 1.52

1.54 1.54

1.56 1.56

1.58 1.58

1.6 1.6
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Tiempo de tránsito de4a.
la Onda P, microseg/ft Tiempo de4b.
tránsito de la Onda S, microseg/ft
Figure 4 — Comparison between real and estimated transit-time curves for primary (4a.) and secondary waves (4b.) after the ANN estimation process.

Once the data has been filtered, refined and when they passed the quality successfully, they can be used as input to the
artificial neural network. The model for variables dependence must be adapted to generate the P-wave transit-time and then
for the S-wave transit-time for each involved geological formations. Equation 32 shows that the P wave transit- time is a
function of an autoregressive term and four regressive terms. The autoregressive terms corresponds to transit-time readings of
the compresional wave in depths above the current one, i.e. at t. Regressive terms correspond to readings of Density,
Neutron-Porosity , depth and Gamma Ray (Equations 34 to 37 respectively) weighted with the appropriate factors. The
10 SPE 169388-MS

maximum number of delays in the depth for the readings was adjusted by taking into account the mean square error of the
training phase and the required computation time to get the suitable tuning parameter process. A similar procedure was
followed to generate the S-wave transit-time.

(32)

( ) (33)

[ ] [ ] (34)

[ ] [ ] (35)

[ ] [ ] (36)

[ ] [ ] (37)

Figures 4a and 4b compare the estimated and real transit-time curves in a section of a borehole at Cupiagua field for P wave
and S wave. The information shown relates to a validation well data, i.e. one of the wells that has a complete set of well logs,
which has known transit-time curves that break through and represents all geological formations and in which the nature of
well logs is not synthetic and they were taken directly in open hole, cased hole, while drilling or a similar mode of well
logging. A good fit of data is observed during the validation phase for this auto-regressive linear procedure. Values of
correlation coefficient of 0.8536 for the transit time of the primary wave and 0.9142 for the transit time of the secondary
wave were calculated. The absolute value of percentage relative error was lower than 6.32 %. Figures 5a and 5b show the
percentage relative error in the validation well in the section of interest.

5a. 5b.
Figure 5 — Relative percentage errors between the real and predicted transit-time curves for the P-wave (5a) and S-wave (5b).
SPE 169388-MSNumber 11

Conclusions.

The validation and data filtering procedures were successful for the input variables: Gamma Ray, Bulk Density, Neutron-
Porosity, and therefore geological and engineering criteria were also suitable. Supervised filtering and noise reduction
process are suggested. Some automatic filtering and data grouping process may not include unless restrictions of geological
models. It must keep in mind that selective data variability deliver tracks to network for a proper training.

A series of computational procedures were built, which define a training system for a set of artificial neurons, by using
parameter setting in an auto-regressive and linear model to generate successfully the transit-time curves for primary or
compressional waves and secondary or shear waves in some wells of Cupiagua field at Colombian Foothills by taking as
starting point other well logs and lithological information. Correlation coefficients from 0.85 to 0.98 were observed and
relative percentage error smaller than 5.6% were obtained.

The obtained transit-time well logs were successfully used to build the geomechanical model on hydraulic fracturing
simulator GIGAFRAC. It is entirely permissible to perform an analogous procedure for the estimation of other properties of
the wells if suitable input variables are provided, such that, they do not underestimate or overestimate the flow of information
during training phases of the network.

Nomenclature

= ith input of jth neuron, dimensionless.

= Auto-regressive term for P-wave transit-time, (µs/ft)/ (µs/ft).
= Auto-regressive term for S-wave transit-time, (µs/ft)/ (µs/ft).
= Back-propagation parameter for mth output and jth neuron, dimensionless.
Back-propagation parameter for mth output and jth neuron at Lth layer, dimensionless.
= Normalized transit-time for compressional or primary wave, (µs/ft)/(µs/ft).
= Normalized transit-time for shear or secondary wave, (µs/ft)/(µs/ft).
= Adjustment for ith weighting factor of jth neuron, dimensionless.
E = Sum of squared error, (µs2/ft2).
= Training error vector for Pth pattern and mth output, (µs/ft).
= Complex mathematical relation between mth output and jth neuron’s output.
First order derivative of a complex mathematical relation between mth output and jth neuron’s output.
GR = Gamma ray counts, (GAPI).
H = Hessian matrix.
I = Identity matrix.
J = Jacobian matrix.
M = Inputs and Outputs Matrix for ID-DATA structure.
= mth output of artificial neural network, dimensionless.
= Combination coefficient, dimensionless.
= Number of delays or lag depth for , dimensionless.
= Number of delays or lag depth for , dimensionless.
= Number of delays or lag depth for GR, dimensionless.
= Number of delays or lag depth for , dimensionless.
= Number of delays or lag depth for , dimensionless.
= Number of delays or lag depth for TVD, dimensionless.
P = Pth pattern of artificial neural network, dimensionless.
= Neutron-porosity, (P.U.).
= Bulk Density, (g/cm3).
= Regresional contribution of Gamma Ray counts (GR), (µs/ft)/ (µs/ft).
= Regresional contribution of True Vertical Depth (TVD), (µs/ft)/ (µs/ft).
= Regresional contribution of Neutron-Porosity ( ), (µs/ft)/ (µs/ft).
= Regresional contribution of Bulk Density ( ),), (µs/ft)/ (µs/ft).
s = Output signal, dimensionless.
= Slope of activation function for jth neuron.
= Slope of activation function for jth neuron at Lth layer.
= Bias term for jth neuron, dimensionless.
12 SPE 169388-MS

TVD = True Vertical Depth, (ft).

= Weighting factor of ith input for jth neuron, dimensionless.
= Activation value for jth neuron, dimensionless.
= Activation value for jth neuron at Lth layer, dimensionless.
= Output of jth neuron, dimensionless.
= Output of jth neuron at Lth layer, dimensionless.

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