Collection of Ideas on the Production of Architectural Precast Concrete PUBLICATION NUMBER APC-1-2015 PRECAST/PRESTRESSED CONCRETE INSTITUTE 200 West Adams Street Chicago, IL 60606 Phone 312-786-0300 Fax 312-612-1114Copyright ©2015 by PRECAST/PRESTRESSED CONCRETE INSTITUTE All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the U.S.A. First Edition, 1998 ‘Second Edition, 2015 APO-1-2015 ‘Substantial effort has been made to ensure that all data and information in this Collection of Ideas are accurate. However, PCI cannot accept responsibility for any errors or oversights in the use of this material, This publication is intended for use by personnel competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and able to accept responsibility for the application of the material it contains. Special conditions on a project may require more specific evaluation and practical judgment.Collection of Ideas on the Production of Architectural Precast Concrete TABLE OF CONTENTS PRODUCTION PRACTICES General Objectives and Safety .. General . Plant Safety . Welding. General Galvanized Steel... : Welding Procedure Qualification... Stainless Steel .eoseceenses : Copper Alioys.. Reinforcement... Stud Welding... Welaing Electrodes. Glass-fiber-reinforced plastic BO oor Release Agents... Verification and Me Product Handling... General... Stripping. Yard Storage. Cleanin LoadING. ose e se Surface Finishes. General. Smooth (As Cast) Sand or Abrasive Blast. Acid Etched. Retarded... Tooled or Bushhammered. Honed OF POUSAED sno Rusticated Finishes... Formliners... Veneer Facing Materials. Natural Stone.... . Clay Product Sand-Embedment. Unformed Surface Finishes... Repairs... General Methods to Lig! Damaged or Misallgned Thin Blok Stone Veneer... Cracks... Acceptability of Appearance... Edges, ae : Texture and/or ifferences on Returns. Texture or Color Variations. Reinforcement Shadow Lines. Crazing or Cracks... Sealers or Clear Surface Coatings. RAW MATERIALS AND ACCESSORIES Concrete Materials Cement Facing Aggregates Aggregates for Lightweight Concrete Mixing Water Admixtures .. Air Entraining..... Retarders.. Chioride: High-Range Water-Reducers Flowing Concrete. Silica Fume/Metakaolin Effects of Admixtures. Hardware and Miscellaneous Materials. General Galvanizing... Galvanic Corrosion. Installation. Insulation...CONCRETE Mix Proportioning. Specified Concrete Strength. ‘Special Considerations for Air Entrainment. Effects of Excessive Air Entrainment, Effects of Cement on Air Entrainment. Effects of HRWR Admixtures on Air Entrainment oor... Adjusting Air Entrainment Admixture Dosage. Proportioning for Appearance of Concrete Surfaces vou. Special Aggregate Grading and Proportioning Consideration: General. For uniform color with an as-cast finish. For a very light exposed aggregate finish.... For a light exposed aggregate finish... For a medium to heavy exposed aggregate finish... Grading considerations for fine aggregate. ‘Mix Proportioning for Concrete Made with Structural Lightweight Concrete.. Proportioning for Concrete Workability.. Sticky of harsh mixes. : ‘An excessive coarse aggregate content or a coarse sand, : Grading and particle shape. Proportioning Selt-Consolidating Concrete (sce). oven Water-Cement Rati General... Relationship of Water-Coment Ratio to Strength, Durability, and Shrinkage... Relationship of Water-Cement Ratio to Workabilty. Storage and Handling of Concrete Materials. ‘Storage and Handling of Cement... Bulk Cement. aire Silos and Bins.. Bagged Cemen Storage and Handling of Admixtures, Release Agents, and Pigments... i : Batching Equipment Tolerances... 80 Scale Requirements... 80 Requirements for Batchers and Mixing Plants er Requirements for Concrete Mixers. at Maintenance Requirements for Concreto Mixers... 7 aa at Placing and Handling Equipment... 81 Batching and Mixing Operations... 84 Batching of Cement and Pigments. at Batching of Admixtures ....... at Mixing of Concrete....... 82 Mixing Time and Concrete Unitormity....--. 62 Special Batching and ing Requirements for Lightweight Aggregates... 88 Requirements for Transporting and Placing of Coneret General. Transporting and Placing Concrete... Placing Concrete in Cold Weather Conditions... . eae, Placing Facing Conerete.. 84 Consolidation of Concret a4 Consolidation Equipment. a4 Internal Vibrators.. 85 External Vibrators. 88 Form Vibrators. 38 ‘Surface Vibrators. 89 Vibrating Tables. 90 General ot Consolidation of Face and Backup Mixes... 93 Use of intemal Vibrators... eee Effects of Vibration Frequency. : 94 Consolidating Concrete in Thick Members or Large Retums.. 94 Consolidating Concrete in Thin Members... 95 Consolidating High Stump Conerete. 95 Use of External Form Vibrators. 95 Attaching Form Vibrators. 95 Spacing of Form Vibrators.. . 96 Form Vibrator Frequency Considerations... 96 Form Vibrator Noise... Use of Surface Vibrators. 97 Use of Vibrating Tables... 98 Construction of Vibrating Tables. 98 ‘Mounting Vibrators on Vibrating Tables...... 98Adjusting Table Vibrators... Requirements for Curing Concrete General Accelerated Curing of Concrete... Curing with Live Steam. se Curing with Radiant Heat and Moisture REINFORCEMENT AND PRESTRESSING Reinforcing Steel General... Galvanized. Epoxy Coated... Bar Supports... Storage of Reinforcing Steel... Fabrication of Reinforcing Steel. Installation of Reinforcing Steel. Prestressing... : Tensioning of Tendons.. ‘Methods of Stress Measurement Control of Jacking Force. Pretensioning. Strand Position. Initial Tensioning. Elongation Corrections. Final Stressing of Strands... QUALITY CONTROL Testin Accepiance Testing of Materials. Aggregates. ‘Admixtures... Production Testing... Aggregates... Concrete Strength... Laboratory Facilitie: Quality Control Testing Equipment. 112 PRODUCT TOLERANCES Requirements for Finished Product... Product Tolerances-General, Product Tolerances... .ue 113 113 113Collection of Ideas on the Production of Architectural Precast Concrete information. informational. The information contained in this Collection of Ideas is not inclusive of all production practices, means and methods, materials, and equipment. Plant and regional differences may determine the usefulness of this information. It is not the intent of this publication to restrict individual plant techniques but rather to serve as a source of useful production Note: The following information was deleted from previous additions of MNL-117 and updated. The information is neither Mandatory nor Commentary but rather PRODUCTION PRACTICES General Objectives and Safety General Architectural precast concrete plants should provide the following: 1, Area to receive and store raw materials without contamination. 2. Area for mold fabrication and storage. 3. Area for fabrication of reinforcing steel, assembly of inserts, and other items cast in the concrete. 4. An enclosed or covered area (depending on the climate) for the casting operation. 5. Suffciently sized batch piant with equipment for controlled proportioning, including moisture and mixing of the concrete. 6. Roads and lanes to permit access to products, safe traffic flow, and handling of products without damage to them or the equipment. 7. Surface drainage to prevent settlement and/or contamination; in addition to rainfall, water accumulation from the finishing process must be removed and treated if necessary, 8. Equipment to strip and hoist the newly manufactured units from the mold without overstressing units. 9. Handling equipment for rotating, stacking, and loading finished units for inspection | and transportation without marking the finished surfaces or causing excessive stress in the units. 10. Plant or yard space for finishing operations. 11, Adequate and stabilized space for proper storage of finished products. 12, Area for laboratory testing and sample preparation. Plant Safety This article is intended to outline some of the more important safety practices for plants in a broad manner and cannot be considered to include every conceivable hazard that may be present in a plant. However, recognition of hazards, the establishment of good safety practices and the requirement that all personnel abide by safety rules will result in a more efficient and safer ‘operation. The potential hazards discussed in this section ate generally understood by producers and workers alike; however, it is human nature that people who are constantly exposed to potentially dangerous situations, over time, tend to lose their conscious fear unless they are constantly reminded of the dangers. It should be the responsibility of management and supervisory personnel to ensure that safety is never subordinated to production expediency.The Federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Hazard Communication Standard requires employers to: 1. Develop a specific written hazard communications program. The written program should include a chemical inventory list and establish the methods to provide information to employees on the following: a, Container labeling. b, Other forms of hazard warning. ©. Material safety data sheets (SDS)—where sheets are to be maintained and where ‘employees obtain access to them. . The requirements of the hazard communi cation standard. e. Hazards associated with nonroutine tasks. ~ Establish a training program for employees before they work with hazardous chemicals and when new hazardous chemicals are introduced into the workplace. The safety program should be carefully planned to ensure good safety practices and review of job connected accidents and injuries. Housekeeping is, a key consideration for a good, ongoing safety progam. Elimination of cluttered work areas, defective lighting, poor tool locations, and poorly protected equipment will improve safely. As a guide the following safety requirements, where applicable, should be covered in a safety program: 1. All electrical wire and equipment in use should be of a type approved by the Undenwriters Laboratories Inc. Installation and mainten- ance should comply with pertinent provisions. of the National Electtical Code, National Fire Protection Association. Ali electtical-circuits and equipment should be properly grounded in compliance with the Code. This means a three-wire polarized system on all. tools, extension cords, receptacles, GF circuits, etc. 2. All personnel should be required to wear safety hats, protective clothing, and eye and hearing protection, if necessary. 3. All personne! should be required to wear safety footwear. 4, All personnel should wear appropriate respiratory protection to avoid respiration of fine silica dust when cutting, sanding, or grinding concrete. 5. All personnel, when finishing by sandblasting, acid washing or etching, or any other operation which is apt to damage the eyes or be hazardous, should be required to wear safety goggles and/or face shields, respiratory protection, and appropriate protective clothing If acid comes in contact with the skin or eyes, the affected area should be immediately flushed with large quantities of fresh water. Emergency showers and eye wash stations should be provided. 6. All debris should be removed from the vicinity of the work area not later than the end of each oh 7, The proper type and amount of fire fighting equipment (a fire extinguisher of the 58C type or higher) in operating condition should be placed in accessible and well marked locations, particularly in mold fabrication areas, and burning and welding areas. Workers should be trained in their proper use. 8. Hazardous and flammable materials must be stored in separate areas or enclosures out of the immediate work area in accordance with the requirements of the authority having jurisdiction, Storage of materials such as acids, plastics, or resins should be clearly screened or marked, and well protected from any production activities. A Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure (SPCC) Program should be established. 9. Hand tools should be kept in good condition; sharp, free of broken handles or mushroomed heads, ete. 10. Wire rope, slings, shackles, and other rigging equipment should be kept in good condition. Al iting equipment should be marked with its safe working load. Personnel should not be permitted beneath suspended loads. Handling equipment should have warning systems and1 12. 18. 14, 16. be capable of safely moving units without endangering personnel. A regular inspection program should be in place. Care should be exercised in the use of all cutting equipment. Saws and other equipment should be properly guarded to prevent accidents, contain sparks, and protect the worker in case of blade fracture. Welding areas should be arranged and ventilated to protect workers from welding fiashes and noxious welding fumes especially from galvanized, cadmium plated, or epoxy- coated surfaces, see ANSVASC Z49.1 Welding and/or flame cutting should not be allowed in the vicinity of sawdust or wood shaving acoumulations. Mold shops using either wood or plastic should have adequate dust collection and ventilation and be Kept clean and free of hazards. All electrically powered mixers should be equipped with totally enclosed motors for safely and ease of maintenance, and should be fully grounded. During sandblasting, dry or damp abrasive is propelled by air, and static electricity may accumulate on the operator's body. To control this problem, a natural gum tube treated with carbon black or @ properly grounded conductive hose should be used. Also, the hose line should have adequate strength for the pressure being used. The nozzle should be extemally attached to the hose by a fitting that will positively prevent accidental disengagement. To enable the operator to have complete control over the equipment, the nozzle should be fitted with an automatic cutoff (dead man's handle). In abrasive blasting, dust is @ serious hazard because sufficient silica dust breathed into the human lungs can cause silicosis, which may cause total disablement. Only supplied- atmosphere (or air-fed) respirator hood style, Type CE, with an appropriate assigned protection factor approved by the Bureau of Mines or National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) should be used. 16, Dust filter respirators should not be used for continuous protection where silica sand is used as the abrasive. The air supply for abrasive-blasting respirators should be free of harmful quantities of dusts, mists, or noxious. gases. A carbon monoxide monitor should be placed in the air supply system. All employees ‘engaged in abrasive blasting should be placed in a medical monitoring program that includes periodic x-rays. Refer to PCI TECHNOTES - TN-4, "Prevention of Silicosis and Compliance with ‘Environmental Regulations,” for more detailed information. Soreens may be required to protect. the surrounding work and personnel from flying grt, Blasting should not be done in conditions that preclude the proper containment of dust and grit, I blasting is done in an enclosure it should be ventilated in such a way that a continuous inward flow of air will be maintained at all openings of the enclosure during the blasting operation Portland cement dust is classified as a nuisance particulate by NIOSH, therefore it is advisable to wear respiratory protection. Cement dust can be substantially reduced by using careful mixing procedures, Also, it is imperative to follow the silica fume suppliers recommendations for the safe handling of silica fume in whatever form it is used. Freshly mixed conorete is a strong caustic (pH 12.4 to 13.4) and prolonged contact with the skin should be avoided. Eye protection should be wom at all times. If any cement or fresh concrete gets into the eyes, they should be flushed immediately and repeatedly with water. Prompt medical attention should be sought. Body parts exposed to the concrete should be flushed as soon as possible with fresh water or a milk/boric acid solution, then rinsed in dilute vinegar and rinsed again with water. Hands and feet should be protected by leather or rubber gloves and high boots, preferably rubber, and care should be taken that no concrete finding its way inside a glove or a boot is allowed to remain there17. throughout the work period. Serious invitation and burns can result from prolonged contact with clothing saturated with the highly alkaline concrete fluids. It should be noted that dry cement powder may absorb enough moisture from the skin to cause the same reac concrete. Special attention should be paid to prestressing operations, where the hazards resulting from the sudden release of the high energy of stressed strands demand constant vigilance. a. The following basic rules applicable to all tensioning operations should be included in the safety requirements of all plants: (1) Prior to tensioning any bed, a visible and audible signal should 'be given and all personnel not required to perform the tensioning should leave the area adjacent to the bed. (2) Stressing jacks should be restrained from flying longitudinally or laterally in case of strand failure, (3) Personnel should never be permitted to stand at either end of the bed, directly in line with the strand being tensioned, (4) Elongation measurements should be made behind shields. (5) For personnel engaged in the tensioning operation, _ protection should be provided by means of shields adequate to stop a flying tendon. These shielis should be provided at both ends of the bed. Shielis of wire mesh ate not satisfactory as broken strands or indi- vidual wires often fly end first and penetrate mesh openings. (©) Eye protection should be provided for personnel engaged in welding and anchoring operations as a protection from flying pieces of steel. (7) Welding should never be permitted around unprotected strands. . Principal causes and preventions of strand failure during pretensioning include the following: (1) Defective or improper strand chucks. Clean, inspect, and (ubricate strand chucks between each use. Use of at least a three-power illuminated magnitying glass for inspecting strand chucks is recommended. Discard any cracked, wom, or distorted strand ‘chuck parts, A'small amount of sand or dirt between the jaws and barre! can cause failure or slippage of the strand, (2) Improper alignment of strand vises. ‘Assure that chuoks are in line with pull and ere seated property. (3) Overstressing. Use well-trained personnel to check elongation and keep — tension-indicating devices properly calibrated (4) Kinks or nicks in strand. Use care in handling strand to avoid damage. Do not begin tensioning if a strand has been nicked. A kink or nick can result in failure when the strand is tensioned. (6) Failure of individual wires in strand. These occasionally occur in factory welds and cannot be avoided. Do not begin tensioning any strand with a broken wire, (6) Heating of tensioning strand. Keep all torches and welding equipment away from strand, (7) Sudden multiple revolutions of strand being pulled from a coil. Use approved swivel grips or other effective methods. . Strand should be protected during handling and moving by attaching handling devices to flanges of reels or coils. Careful handling is mandatory so mechanical damageduring stringing of strand through the means of prevention can be identified and careless use of sharp hand tools or other properly communicated to prevent a equipment does not occur. recurrence. Careful use of welding equipment and cutting torches cannot be overemphasized. Welding A strand failure can result from a single drop of moiten weld metal. This will raise General. Overwelding may cause distortion. the temperature of the strand, changing the Overwelding a fillet weld increases the shrinkage crystalline structure, thereby reducing Its factor by the square of the weld size. Anything that strength. When an electric arc jumps to or reduces the amount of welding such as decreasing fromthe ¢ strand the seine: chrenioe «ln the leg size, reducing the weld length, or using Sacto 3 Maye result 2 Palin leans Be. intermittent welding techniques will minimize the Hnesteieniaoe He ei a Ulloa. shrinkage force and decrease distortion, Shrinkage when the high temperature occurs. When and distortion can also be reduced by using fewer the strand is not under tension, the change passes and using larger electrodes. in structure may take place and failure could occur during the tensioning Galvanized Steel. Removal of zinc, where weld is ‘operation. Such damage is not necessarily to be placed, is the most conservative approach in visible to the naked eye and, unfortunately, welding galvanized steel. Welding procedures will 's discovered only when the strand falls then be the same as for uncoated steel. The zinc during the tensioning operation. coating should be removed at least 2 to 4 in. (50 to 100 mm) from either side of the intended weld Strands to be spliced, should be cut with zone and on both sides of the workpiece, if ‘shears, cut-off saw, or an abrasive grinder. possible. Zinc can be removed by burning with a ‘Strands to be spliced should not be cut by carbon arc or an acetylene torch while using an heat a3 the possiblity of changes in oxidizing flame, by shot blasting with portable physical properties can result in strand equipment or grinding with silicon carbide abrasive failure. discs, For all anchorages, special care should be It is possible to obtain full penetration in the flat exercised to ensure strand chucks and Position on galvanized steel with the 1/16 in. (1.6 anchor plates are set perpendicular to the mm) root opening normally used on uncoated steel troniiss | Falls fave Teeuled | ftom if the following conditions exist. First, reduce the ‘eccentric anchoring. angle the electrode makes with the plate from the i usual 70 degrees to 30 degrees. Second, move Strand that has been deeply pitted by the electrode backward and forward in a whipping corrosion should be discarded. Deep pits ‘motion inline with the joint develop stress concentrations in a manner similar to kinks or nicks. A light coating of In the case of vertical and overhead butt joints in Surface rusting is permissible. galvanized steel, a root opening of 3/32in. (2 mm) is necessary to obtain full penetration. A root 18. Supervisors should require all personnel to opening of 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) is sufficient to give full Teport immediately all job-connected penetration in the horizontal position but the root accidents, injuries, and illnesses. Failure to do pass tends to have a peaky or bulbous shape 0 may result in a loss of protection from both resulting in slag entrapment at the edges of the employer and employee. OSHA Forms 300 weld. This slag can only be removed by grinding and 801 should be current at all times. A Slag entrapment can be prevented by increasing regular review of accident reports for the plant the root opening from 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) t0 3/3 should be made to determine problem areas. (2mm) itis an integral part of any safety program that ocusnemieiion. Takes} Place a6] soon ae When the root pass has been made, subsequent possible after the event ¢o that the cause and weld passes can be made with similar techniquesto those used for uncoated stee! because the weld beds are deposited largely on previously uncoated weld metal and only partially on the galvanized beveled edges. There is usually insufficient zinc present to affect the welding operation. If excessively thick zinc coatings are present, the oscillating motion of the electrode should be used to slightly reduce travel speed. The following points should be noted when welding galvanized steel; 1. The welding electrodes EXX10 and EXX11 should be applied slower than usual with a Whipping action, which moves the electrode forward 1/8 to 5/16 in. (3 to 8 mm) along the seam in the direction of progression and then back into the molten pool. All volatilization of the galvanized coating should be complete before bead progresses. This will generally prevent zine entrapment in the weld metal. 2. A short arc length is recommended for weld- ing in all positions to give better control of the weld pool and to prevent either intermittent excess penetration or undercutting 8. Slightly wider gaps, up to 2/32 in. (2 mm) are Tequired in butt joints or a 15 degree angle on the edge of a standing plate in order to give complete penetration. The gap also allows for the zinc and its gases to escape, and reduces cracking caused by restraint as the plate thickness increases. 4, Weaving and multiple weld beads should be avoided. Heat input into the joint should be kept to a minimum to avoid undue damage to the adjacent coating. When welding galvanized steel, hydrogen-induced cracking of the heat-affected zone may occur in the base plate adjacent to the weld. The precautions necessary for the avoidance of cracking include such measures as reduction in cooling rate of the joint by the use of preheat or the use of large diameter electrodes at high currents. The hydrogen content of a weld can be increased when it is deposited on galvanized or zinc-rich primed steel. This extra hydrogen originates from the pickling process in galvanizing, or from the decomposition products of primers. It may be necessary 1o either remove primers from the of the joint before welding or use a higher use a higher preheating temperature than would be used on uncoated steel Porosity will occur in certain weld joint designs in galvanized steel, depending on coating thickness, due to volatilization of the zinc in the coating and entrapment of gas in the weld. The type of joint affects porosity formation since gases cannot readily escape from tee joints or from butt joints in thick materials. In the case of tee or butt joints, a vee edge preparation or provision of a gap between the plates facilitates the escape of gases, minimizing porosity. Pore formation is also influenced by the thickness of the galvanized coating relative to the base steel When a fillet weld In galvanized ste! is large enough relative to plate thickness to fail by fatigue from the toe of the weld in the same manner as in uncoated steel, the presence of porosity in the weld does not reduce the fatigue strength of the joint. Where the dimensions of a weld are just large enough to cause fatigue failure from the toe in a sound weld, a weld containing porosity at the root may fail preferentially through the throat of the wold. Intergranular cracking of fillet welds containing porosity sometimes referred to as zinc penetrator cracking, may also affect the strength of welded joints and it is advisable to carry out procedural and welder tests on materials and samples, Welding Procedure Qualification: Qualification requirements for making fillet welds in galvanized steel 1/4 in. (6 mm) thick or greater should include a simple procedure test to determine the tendency for intergranular penetration of zinc into the weld, A suitable test piece is shown in Fig. 3. A single- pass weld of similar size to those to be used in production of, if this information is not known, a filet weld having a teg length of 1/4 in, (6 mm) will be suitable. If multipass fillet welds are to be used in production, then the procedure test should be made with a single-pass fillet weld of similar size to the first pass of the production weld. Separate test pieces should be welded in each of the welding Positions to be used in production except that if welding in both the flat and the horizontal positions is to be carried out in production, it will be sufficient to carry out a procedure test in only one of these ‘welding positions.Fig. 1 Test piece for fillet welds on galvanized steel, Aiter welding, a notch 1/16 in, (1.6 mm) deep should be out longitudinally in the face of the weld to facilitate fracture through the weld throat. This notch can be made with a hacksaw or with an abrasive wheel. The weld should be fractured In the direction of the arrow in Fig. 1 by means of hammer blows or in a press. The fracture surfaces of the weld should be examined for zinc penetration as indicated by a light silvery color. To aid inspection, itis helpful to heat the standing plate to 625°F + 25°F (330°C = 14°C) for 30 minutes which will oxidize the parts of the fracture surface free from zinc and color them tan or brown. The areas of cracking caused by intergranular penetration of zinc retain the silvery appearance. A macroetch followed by a liquid penetrant test or sanding of etch with #220, 440, or 600 grit may be a better means of indicating a crack caused by zinc penetrant crack. if fracture does not occur through the weld but occurs through the fusion boundary or through the base plate, a retest should be carried out. Tests should be cartied out on plates of each composition to be used in production and the thickest zinc coating expected to be encountered should be ordered for the test. When various thicknesses of plate are to be used, additional tests should be cattied out but these can be restricted by only testing different thicknesses if they vary by 1/2 in. (13 mm) or more, Stainless Steel. Welding with stainless-steel electrodes requires techniques similar to those used for miki-steel low-hydrogen electrodes. Joints should be clean and dry. Moisture should be removed by heating or by blowing with dry air. Use a short are, but keep the coating from touching the puddle. Flat beads with good wash-in promote easy slag removal in deep grooves. Fill each crater before breaking the arc, to avoid crater cracks. Clean the slag thoroughly from the finish of the bead before starting another electrode, and clean the complete weld before starting the next pass. On deep-groove butt joints, the root pass should penetrate only enough to fuse to both plates and. seal the opening. More penetration may cause ‘cracks. For vertical and overhead positions, electrodes should be 5/32 in, (4 mm) in diameter or less. For vertical welds on 3/16 In, ( mm) thick plate or less, the weld should be vertically down using small beads; otherwise, on thicker plates, use the triangular weave technique, welding vertically up. Austenitic steels have over a 50% higher coefficient of thermal expansion than carbon steels and care must be taken to minimize warping and distortion. Welding techniques can help control distortion. Weld with low current consistent with sufficient penetration to reduce the heat input to the work. Use stringer beads at a higher speed rather than wide beads at a slower speed. if weave beads must be made, limit the weave to 2-1/2 times the electrode diameter. Other means to control distortion are: ‘© Use rigid fixtures to hold parts in alignment, ‘+ Use chill bars near the weld and backing bars under the weld. Rapid cooling of austenitic stainless steels is beneficial rather than harmful * Plan the sequence of welding using the same techniques as with mild steel, such as skip welding and back-step welding. Austenitic stainiess steels are best welded without pre-heat except to reduce shrinkage stresses on sections over 1-1/4 in. (32 mm) thick or restrained joints. No preheat, low interpass temperature, below 350° (177°C), or a stringer-bead technique reduce the time the heat-affacted zone is in the sensitizing range (800 to 1400°F [427 to 760°C), thereby ‘reducing the amount of carbide ion and warpage. Usually no postheating is required for the austenitic stainless steels except when an anneal is needed to dissolve the chromium catbides or to stress relieve components that are to be used in environments that may cause stress corrosion cracking. The need forpreheating and postheating increases with carbon content. Stainless and carbon stee's may be easily joined together by fusion welding if sufficiently alloyed stainless-stee! filer metals are used. The selection of Type 308 compositions is not recommended because the resultant welds can be martensitic. By using Type 309 or other highly alloyed electrodes, the welds may be acceptable, even with dilution of the carbon steel in the weld. Buttering may be an unnecessary and costly procedure. However, when joining austenitic stainless steel and carbon steel, it may be a good practice to butter’ the carbon steel surface with a layer of Type 309 or other suitable stainless-steel weld metal, such as Type 312, prior to actually joining it to the stainless steel. The portion of the joint where difficulties are most likely to occur is buttered while there is little restraint on the weld metal. Following the depo- nn and inspection of the buttered layer or layers, the joint between the stainless steel member and the buttered layer will be @ conventional stainless steel to stainless steel joint. The welding electrode in this case, can be the type normally used to weld the stainless steel member of the joint. Carbon steels with less than 0.20% carbon can normally be welded with austenitic fillers without preheat, but when the carbon is greater than 0.30% temperature control is necessary. As alloy content increases, i.e., in the case of lowalloy steels, preheat control is usually essential The deposition of carbon steel or low-alloy steel weld metal on stainless steel can result in hard, brittle weld deposits which frequently crack when deposited and which would be likely to fail in service. Weld procedure qualifications should be cartied out on all proposed combinations of base metal and electrodes to determine the extent to Which this is a problem, The discoloration by heat, or heat tint, is not necessarily harmful to stainless steel, but can be removed if the weldment is to serve a decorative purpose and should be removed if the weldment is expected to see severe corrosion. It can be removed electrochemically with commercially available kits or by acid pickling using nitric acid solutions or pastes. Severe heat tinting might require the use of nitric-hydrofiuoric acid solutions. When welds are made using stick electrodes (SMAW), some spatter is normal. However, it is easily removed by light grinding (aluminum oxide) ‘or wire brushing. Spatter-resisting compounds applied before welding reduces this annoyance. Tightly adhering slag or scale is easily removed by light grinding or sandblasting, Cleaning time is reduced or eliminated when welding is done using the inert gas processes. ‘Most welding flux or slag can be chipped off, but it is better to grind the flux off using clean grinding wheels, Sandblasting with clean silica sand is also an effective and economical way to remove slag. Where extreme corrosion resistance is required, sandblasting should be followed by brief immersion in a chemical cleaner, such as a solution of nitric acid. A most important aspect of cleaning stainless steel welds is to use stainless steel brushes and clean grinding wheels (wheels not contaminated with carbon steel particles). A small piece of car- bon steel, scale, copper, or foreign material lodged on stainless steel may be sufficient to destroy passivity at the point of contact and cause rust staining and Increased corrosion. Copper Alloys. The silicon bronzes have a lower thermal conductivity than other copper alloys facilitating welding. Because of this, the groove preparations can be similar to those used with mild steel, Square butt joints may be used in thicknesses up to 5/92 in. (4 mm) and material of greater thickness may be joined by single or double-V grooves with a 60-degree included angle. The silicon bronzes are hot-short and preheats are undesirable. Care should be taken that interpass temperatures do not exceed 200°F (93°C), Table 1. The weld metal should be deposited rapidly in the form of stringer beads, with the current setting in the middie of the recommended range for the electrode size. Maintaining a short arc and a small puddle helps prevent overheating. The weld should progress at a rate of about 8 in. (200 mm) per minute. It Is preferable that the work be planned for downhand welding. The oxide film formed on the weld bead should be removed by wire brushing in multipass work, The gas metal-arc welding (GMAW) process is often preferred for the welding of silicone bronzes.It gives good quality welds when used with the ECuSi electrode and argon gas or a mixture of argon and helium. The silicon bronzes are readily welded with the tung-sten-arc process. Good-quality welds are obtained with RCUSi-A electrode. Direct current, straight polarity is preferred, although alternating current may be used. Wide grooves with 60- to 90- degree included angles, are required for plate material for good performance, and root gaps are used to ensure complete penetration, together with filer rod of appropriate diameter. Good-quality welds are obtained with gas metal- arc welding (GMAW) when joining the aluminum bronzes. Welding may be done outot-position, although the best weld quality is attained in joints presented in the flat position. Table 3 shows the electrode types and shielding gases recom- mended. Note that a preheat is not required, except for heavy sections. Stringer beads and ‘small- to moderate-weave beads are desirable, The gas tungsten-are process is highly recom- mended for the aluminum bronzes, on which it produces quality welds of excellent appearance. RCuA1-A2 rod should be chosen for plate joining, Preheats are required only with heavy sections. Alternating current usually gives welds of highest ‘quality, although direct current, straight polarity can be used in many applications. Argon is. the preferred shielding gas. No special welding techniques, postweld pening, or heat treatments are normally required, Table 3. Applicability of Welding Processes to Copper and its Alloys. ‘Commen Name Sllcon Bronze | Aluminum Bronze Gas Metl-Are =DCRP. Wala goality Good Good TECUATAT Electrode BCASi TECUAIAD EGUALB Preheat Notrequied, ‘On heavy sections ‘"FeC) Donotexceed | only.Do not 200 ntorpass _exeeed 500.260). “Argon or “Argon or Gas ‘argon-heiaa Delian ora mixtre, sixte. (Gas Tungsen-Are DCSP except on Aluioum Bronze ACis Prefered Waa gully Good Good Rodit ROWAAZ sed ROUS!-A RGUALB Preheat ‘Notrequred ‘On bevy soaiont FeO) Donotexceed | only-Dozat 200 nterpas. exceed $00,260), ‘Argon or Gos sxgon-helium, ‘gon smietare Reinforcement. Depending on steel chemistry (see AWS D1.4/D1.4M) welding of reinforcing bars may require preheat. One practical method of pre- heating reinforcing bars and insert plates is to use an oscillating torch while measuring the preheat with a temperature level or heat-sensitive chalk. By using the torch, a localized preheated area can be obtained simplifying the welding process. The entire plate or bar does not need to be heated. Heat sensitive chalk is designed to change color or melt when the desired temperature is reached. Preheating the reinforcing bar should be done until the cross-section of the bar is at or above the minimum temperature for at least six in. (150 mm) ‘on either side of the joint. Several methods may be used to retard the formation of martensite. Low hydrogen electrodes. or low hydrogen wires in wire-fed welds are used to reduce the amount of hydrogen available to crack martensite. The primary method to retard formation of martensite is through the use ofpreheat on the two elements being welded together. Preheat is advantageous because it reduces the cooling rate of the weld and base metal, Rapid cooling promotes the formation of martensite. For this reason, welding personnel should not quench a reinforcing bar weld, as this causes a rapid decrease of temperature and can cause embrittiement. Stud Welding. Prior to stud welding removal of heavy coatings of paint, rust, scale, and grease, as well as metallic coatings such as zinc and cadmium, can be accomplished by milling, blasting, grinding, wire brushing, or chemical methods, or combinations. Oil and grease can usually be wiped off with a dry cloth. Solvents may sometimes be required. Test welds should be made to determine that the cleaning method is satisfactory. Welding Electrodes. Electrodes similar to those used for aro welding uncoated steel can be used for welding galvanized steel, along with the same electrode size and current. The major difference when manual arc welding galvanized steel compared to uncoated steel arises from the need for higher heat input to remove the zine from the weld pool and lower welding speed to butn off as much as possible of the zinc coating in front of the weld pool. In welding stainless steel, it is necessary to select a weld rod that provides weld filler metal having corrosion resistant properties as neatly identical to the base melal as possible or better. The characteristics of the weld metal are primarily dependent on the alloy content of the filer rod. The greater amount of chromium and nickel in certain alloys, Type 308 for example, is useful for welding Types 302 and 304 base metals and hence is standard for all the lower chromium-nickel base metals. While the same principle applies to Type 316, in that the minimum chromium is higher in the weld metal than the base metal, the designation of the filler metal is the same, DC electrodes (EXXX-15) operate on DC only, have good penetration, produce fillets with a slightly convex profile, and are recommended for: 1. Vertical and overhead welding. The slag has a fast freeze characteristic. 10 1. Root passes on heavy plate. The larger throat section of the convex bead helps prevent cracking. 3. Austenitic stainless welds that cannot contain any ferrite. AG-DC electrodes (EXXX-16) are always used on DC when this type of power is available, The fillet profile is flat to slightly concave, the weld surface is smoother and the penetration is less than with EXXX-15 (DC only) electrodes. The larger amount of slag requires more care to avoid slag Inclusions. These electrodes are recommended for horizontal fillets and for all flat position welding. EXXX-16 electrodes are also used in all positions by skilled welders, Wf Type 304 stainless steels are thick enough to require multiple pass welds, carbide precipitation, which can cause intergranular corrosion, is likely to occur. Extra low-carbon plate (less than 0.03%) 304L, and electrodes such as 308L should be used to minimize carbide precipitation One of the most common dissimilar metal weld combinations is Type 304 stainless to a low carbon ‘or mild steel. High alloy filler metal such as Type 309 or Type 312 should be used to make this weld to maintain crack or fissure resistance. Electrodes for welding copper silicon (silicon bronze) and copper aluminum (aluminum bronze) shall conform to AWS A5.6 or A5.7. Damage can occur when electrodes are stored improperly or exposed to highly moist conditions or through mechanical damage to containers. Electrodes that have been overexposed can usually be salvaged by re-baking in well-ventilated ovens at temperatures substantially higher than those recommended for storage in holding ovens. Electrodes that have been in physical contact with water, grease, or oil should not be used, and it is ot recommended to re-bake those electrodes. ‘These electrodes should be scrapped, Condensation on covered electrodes, which can result in porosity and hydrogen-induced cracking in low-alloy steels, will ocour when cans or cartons ate opened prematurely in a relatively warm area after removal from storage in a relatively cool area. Containers should be allowed to warm up toambient temperature before opening in the welding location. Cartons will require more time than cans ‘Table 8, Recommendations for Storing and Reconditioning Electrodes to equalize temperature due to the insulating effect of the cardboard. Storage of Contents| Blectrode Type, ‘of Open Cartons Reconditioning ‘Mill Stel-6010,6011 ‘Dry at room temaperare ‘Not recommended ‘Mild Stel-6012, 6013, 7014, 7024 100175 FG8-80'C) 250-300°F (121-149°C) Mild Stel, Low Hydrogen, Low Alloy 215-450°F (102-233°C) 700-800"F (371-427°C) EXXIS, EXKIGENXIS Stainless Stoo! Electrodes ACIDE (AWS-10), DC Lime (AWS-15) 215-260°F a02-127°¢) | _——_400.600°F 205-316°C) Sterling (AWS-17) 215-260°F (102-127°C) 350-425°F (177-219°C) Of the various standard electrade covering types, low-hydrogen coverings are the most resistant to hydrogen-induced cracking. These types of inorganic electrodes are produced with minimum moisture content in their coatings and are given @ high-temperature bake before packaging In containers designed to provide adequate protection from exposure under normal conditions. All stainless steel SMAW electrode coverings are of the low-hydrogen type and must be protected from moisture. Electrodes should be purchased in hermetically sealed containers, which can be stored for several months without deterioration After opening, the electrodes should be reconditioned after 4 hours of exposure. ‘When drying electrodes, stack them in a maximum of three layers. The following method of reconditioning works best: + Load electrodes into a preheated oven that does not exceed 200°F (98°C), ‘+ Increase to recommended temperature for reconditioning (Table 8) and hold for about 1 hour. When oven temperature exceeds 500°F (260°C), the heating rate should not exceed 300°F (149°C) per hour. * Cool the oven down to 150 to 200°F (66 to 93°C) before unloading electrodes. * Store as recommended in Table 2. The bond between the covering of the electrode and the core wire can loosen if electrodes are iL loaded or unloaded at, or close to, the baking temperature or if the baking cycle is repeated indefinitely. Although electrodes can probably sustain several properly controlled re-baking cycles, some specifications permit only one re- baking cycle per lot The hazard of moisture pick-up is not as great with cored wires as it is with covered electrodes. The low-hydrogen fil ingredients of cored wires are to a considerable extent protected from the air by the tight wrapping of the steel sheath, Nevertheless, it is possible to damage the low-hydrogen character of cored wires by excessive exposure to moisture- laden air. This is most likely to occur by overnight exposure to high humidity. Retuming the partially used coil or spool of wire to its plastic bag when the wire will not be used for a period of time (8 hours, for example) is a simple but effective means of preventing excessive exposure. Molds Materials and Construction Quality control personnel should understand basic mold approaches such as master mold and envelope mold concepts. The master mold concept is based on fabricating one master mold (with its appropriate adcitional tooling) that allows a maximum number of casts per project. Units cast in this mold need not be identical provided the changes in the units can beaccomplished as pre-engineered mold modifi- cations. Whenever possible, the largest pieces should be produced first to avoid casting on areas worn and damaged by placing and fastening the side form bulkheads. It is relatively easy to alter a mold if the variations can be contained within the total mold envelope by use of bulkheads or blockouts, rather than by cutting into the mold surface. The master mold concept is illustrated in Fig. 2. Here, ali or a large number of panels can be produced from a single mold, built to accommodate the largest piece, and variously subdivided to produce the other sizes required, The complete envelope mold is a box mold where all sides remain in place during the entire casting and stripping cyoles. Such molds have good economy and quality potential because they are usually simple to build and maintain, with enough strength to withstand conorete pressure during and after consolidation. Fig. 3 illustrates the more conventional mold with removable side and end bulkheads, while Fig. 4 shows a complete enve- lope mold. The daily preparation for casting is very labor-intensive when loose bulkheads are involved, since the bulkheads must be measured, aligned, fastened, and sealed for each casting operation to ensure proper placement. Several modified versions of the complete envelope, which will accommodate precast conorete units without drafts along one or more edges are illustrated Fig. 5. Fig. 2. Mold concepts. 12 Fig. 3. Conventional molds. Fig. 4. Total envelope molds. This mold provides good corer details, but loose side rails or backforming are stripped with the unit The side rails allow 90-degree returns or returns with negative draft, and should be made to reassemble easily, eliminating the need for daily measuring and aligning. Such modified envelope molds, however desirable for quality and daily cost savings, cannot justify their initial cost unless rea- sonable repetition exists.() coumucoven EXAMPLES OF FACE AND BACK FORMING OR OGEPL SCULPTURED PANELS rr pu were ewoate BULA aoa Note: 4 inch = 25.4 mm Fig. 5. Modified envelope molds. Ideally, all comers should have a radius or fillets with lines and shapes true and uniform. Chamfers, rounded comers with a minimum 1/8 in. (8 mm) radius, draft, or slope to vertical walls (minimum 5 degrees), built-in air connections. andlor jacking points help to increase mold life by making stripping easier. In instances where vertical faces are required, molds should be designed so that the vertical portion of the mold is removable or collapsible. Collapsible cores or blockouts are advisable for ‘openings within panels to accommodate drying shrinkage. It may also be necessary to make molds oversized to allow for this shrinkage. Blockouts may be positioned before or after reinforcement and embedded items are pos tioned. Expendable blockouts are often made of nonabsorptive expanded polystyrene. Reusable blockouts are made of a variety of materials such as wood, steel, sheet metal, rubber, neoprene, and a variety of plastics. Most blockouts tend to float as 13 concrete is placed, particularly when the concrete is being vibrated. Also, if concrete is deposited on ‘one side of a blockout, the blockout will tend to move laterally as well as upward. Measures should be taken to mir movement of blockouts during casting operations. Blockouts should be designed to minimize damage to the concrete when they are removed. Blockouts in wall panels used to support floor members require substantial draft on their sides (1/2 in. [13 mm] every 6 in. [150 mm] in depth) and should have at least 2-1/2 in. (63 mm) cover to the exposed face. More cover is equited if the exterior surface has an architectural finish. In large molds with dimensions exceeding 20 ft (6 m), allowance for shrinkage and thermal expansion or contraction should be considered in the design of the master pattern and/or the mold. Whenever possible molds should have sufficient draft to facilitate stripping with minimum of mold breakdown. Generally, the minimum positive draft that will enable @ unit to be stripped easily from a mold is 1 in, in 12 in, (25 mm in 300 mm) (5 degrees), with 1:8 preferred. The draft should be increased for narrower sections or delicate units where the suction between the unit and the mold becomes a major factor in both strength requirements and reinforcement of the unit. The draft should be increased to 1:6 (10 degrees) for screen units with many openings, or for narrow ribbed panels, smooth concrete, and for very delicate units. Drafts for ribbed panels should be related to the depth, wiath and spacing ofthe ribs. The drafts required for finish consideration are a function of the shape of the unit, the specified stripping strength of the concrete, the mold release agent selected, the production techniques and the desire for long-term durability. Vertical sides or reverse (negative) drafts will create entrapped air voids which, if exposed, may be objectionable. When a slip block is incorporated with the side rail and removed with each unit during stripping or the side rail is removed in order to strip the unit, the dimensional tolerance becomes a daily variable. Fig. 6 shows a generic envelope mold designed with the minimum workable drafts,Fig. 6. Total envelope mold—minimum positive draft. Window openings require that a high degree of accuracy be maintained for sealing of windows to concrete. The plane of the opening should be held to close tolerances. The precaster should select the mold material based on a combination of factors: 1. Quantity of identical molds for one project. 2, Number of units per mold. 3, Shape, size, and finish of the unit. 4, Method of consolidation (mold stifiness). 5. Cost. 6. Maintenance of (dimensional stability and water resistance). 7. Ease of fabrication, 8. Method of curing. 9. Stripping, Plywood may have a mill applied plastic overlay or have a layer of fiberglass cloth impregnated with resin applied to the surface. Renovation of wood molds may be necessary, and special care should be taken to assure that multiple use does not cause the mold to swell or bulge. Wood molds should not be used if steam curing Is to be used, although wood parts may be used for form 14 changes during short casting cycles of 1 to 3 days without problems. Plaster molds and models require specialized skills and are not covered here. Gypsum suppliers and the book “Plastering Skil” published by American Technical Publishers (catalog number 826906575) can provide basic information on the techniques to use plaster. Concrete is well adapted as a mold material for precast concrete production because it can be ‘molded into innumerable shapes. In addition, it has excellent rigidity, dimensional stability, and high reuse expectancy. Concrete molds are manufactured using a master model fabricated to very close tolerances. This model may be used for the production of a series of identical molds. The use of coatings to produce @ nonabsorbent surface results in a uniform finish ‘on the product. Particular effort should be made to provide adequate draft on all mold surfaces in the direction of the release, so that the product may be easily removed without damage to elther the unit or the mold. In some instances, air outlets in the concrete mold for the introduction of compressed air between the mold and the product surface may be helpful in stripping. Also, vibration is often helpful in releasing the product from the mold Molds should be made with dense surfaces, and be well compacted. Even very fine hairline cracks in the mold will be visible in the finished products. Glass-fiber-reinforced plastic mold surfaces may be renovated using epoxy or polyester resin, if necessary, when its finish deteriorates from usage. The surface is susceptible to damage from contact with internal vibrators. Fiberglass reinforced plastics have a low modulus of elasticity, are somewhat flexible, and have excellent tensile strength. Maintenance of the resin coating is mandatory for surface life. if the mold is made entirely of plastic, it should be built by building-in reinforcement of lumber, steel shapes, or other materials as an integral part of the mold construction along edges and fat areas. Fiberglass reinforced plastics may be used as a mold liner. Steel_molds are often selected for precast concrete when many castings are to be made and/or it is anticipated that numerous assembliesand disassemblies of the mold will be required. Hot-tolled steel sheets used for a smooth surface should be pickled, oiled, and contain bluing. ‘Thicknesses of commonly used steel sheets are 10 gauge (V8 in), 7 gauge (3/16 in.), 0.229 in. (5 mm), 1/4 in, (6 mm), and 3/8 in, (70 mm) plate, The minimum inside radius of a bend should be equal to steel thickness, while the minimum outside radius should be equal to twice the steel thickness. Generally, the width of a flute should be greater than the depth. Minimum draft should be 1/4 in, per 12 in. of depth. When steel sheets are used for the base of the mold, itis desirable to use a single piece. For flat horizontal surfaces, and surfaces to be honed or polished, the mold skin plate should be 3/8 in. (10 mm) thick to maintain local flatness after repeated castings. The higher plate inertia also imparts a more uniform vibration pattern across the concrete surface during form vibration. This design parameter is important to not only ensure surface uniformity but also because twist or warp in the mold skin will reflect in the as- cast panel dimensions and must be polished out of, the surface. One-hundred twenty grid pad is tecommended for polishing. Skip-welding should be used instead of continuous welding to keep heat out of the plates. If welding must be done, itis recommended that a test section be produced at the joint to determine that the joined area produces an acceptable product. Stee! is the preferred forming material for external vibration because it has good structural strength and fatigue properties, is well suited for the attachment of vibrators, and when properly reinforced provides good uniform transmission of vibration, Heavy flat sheet steel, stiffened with vertical or horizontal ribs, or both should be used. Stifener spacing varies with loading, plate thickness, and depth of section. The stiffeners help to distribute the vibrations evenly over the form surface. Stiffeners should extend the full length of the section to be vibrated and be welded using a low hydrogen rod. Oscillation (flexing) of the steel sheet between the stiffeners is normally somewhat greater than for the stiffeners themselves, but it should not be a problem if the stiffeners are closely spaced. Special members, such as steel -beams or channels, should be placed next to the sheet, passing through the stiffeners in a continuous run’ Itis generally desirable to weld the stiffeners to these members. Welding at comers of vibrator 15 mounted members or brackets should be avoided as this promotes angular crack propagation. Foamglass can be used to clean the steel and bumish the steel back to its original high sheen without any danger of scouring, Release agents. Different release agents should be evaluated by casting small-scale trial batches to find the release agent that best suits job conditions and produces acceptable finishes. One brand or batch of form release agent should be used throughout a project. Information should also be obtained ftom the release agent manufacturer as to the kind of mold surface for which the product is intended as well as the rate of spread and the proper method of application. Discoloration may be caused by excessive use or uneven application of the release agent. Release agents of high viscosity, over 13 centipcises, at room temperature or those applied in thick applications of 3 to 4 mils, tend to hold air and water bubbles at the mold surface and should be avoided. Fresh concrete moving along a form's surface tends to snowplow the top portion of a thick film of release agent. Since this pool of excess release agent is insoluble in the fresh conorete it is dispersed into hundreds of spherical droplets. This is similar to water beading on a freshly waxed car hood, The droplets ultimately show up as bugholes. The thinner the coating applied, the better the surface finish, although the film must be a complete one. Bugholes can be expected where release agents are allowed to puddle on the mold or allowed to collect in the many nooks and crannies of a mold. Great care should be taken to see that the equipment used for applying the coating is clean. A flat spraying nozzle with a spray pressure of about 50 psi bent at an angle of 80 degrees will produce the thinnest film thickness. A practical way to virtually eliminate bugholes (caused by release agents) is to wipe off the mold surface with an absorbent rag dipped in the release agent and wrung dry (a moist rag).Discoloration or surface distress may occur with some form oils or mold release agents (for example, a neutral oil with 10% fatty acid may not electrical contact with form surface. Form oils, such as the one described, utilize a negatively charged polar chemical that is attracted to positively charged anodic steel surfaces and holds the oil flm to the steel. The black steel becomes cathodic or negatively charged by contact (galvanic coupling) with the galvanized steel. The Polar compound is repelled by the like-charge, and the form oil does not efficiently wet or cover the steel form so concrete sticks to the form. Generally, water-based or emulsion type release agents cannot be used in very cold weather because they might freeze. Even at temperatures slightly above freezing, some water-based products thicken enough to produce more bugholes and reduce performance. Also, the mold face coated with a water-based agent should be protected from rain. Otherwise, some of the agent ‘can wash off and it may be necessary to apply a second coat on a dry surface before concrete placing, Curing at high temperatures may cause physical and/or chemical changes in the release agent. Straight and emuisified mineral olls as well as vegetable oils become less viscous and are prone to globulation as the temperature increases. Emulsified systems may suffer segregation or evaporation of their water with resultant defects in the finish. A wax (paraffin release agent may melt from the high heat of hydration of the cement and adhere to the concrete surface causing surface scaling when the product is stripped from the mold. Traditionally, form release agents have been grouped into the following categories; petroleum oils, emulsions, nonreactive coatings with volatile solvents, waxes, and chemically active agents. Many newer form release agents, however, do not fit neatly into one of these categories. For example, an emulsion and a chemically reactive ingredient may be combined in one product to gain the advantages of both. Though products in these categories are stil available, environmental regulations are steering the form release agent industry toward producing products with fewer vocs. function effectively), and concrete may stick in places to a black steel form if galvanized steel is in Form oils used for precast concrete include lacquer or emulsified stearates with a light paraffinic or naphthalenic crude base. Of the oils, the paraffinic type is preferred: it tends to be lighter in ‘color although heavier in body. One nonproprietary material for experimentation is a 50-50 mixture of stearic acid and benzene or kerosene. Chemically active release agents contain compounds that react with the free lime present in fresh concrete to produce water-insoluble soaps and prevent set of a surface film at the form- conerete interface. These soaps are slippery and aid in reducing air voids at the mold surface while Wet and act as release agents upon drying. For steel molds, release agents should contain a rust inhibitor and be free of water. Rough surfaces on steel forms may be conditioned against sticking by rubbing on a liquid solution of paraffin in kerosene, or the molds may be cleaned and olled with a nondrying oil, then exposed to sunlight for day or two. To reduce color changes, a suitable release agent should be applied for the first and all subsequent uses of glass fiber reinforced plastic molds or plastic formliners. An cil-phased emulsion or high quality household wax containing carnauba wax are preferable. Unsaturated alls, ketones, esters, acids, toluol, toluenes, xylenes, or halogenated solvents should be checked for compatibility with the plastic materials. If curing requires high temperatures, a silicone release agent should be used. Concrete molds will require a release agent consisting of light colored petroleum oils or oil emulsions. The concrete surfaces may be coated with one or two coats of epoxy resin and then waxed. A saponifiable oil should not be used as a release agent. Rubber or elastomeric liners may be coated with a thin film of castor oil, vegetable oil, lanolin, or water-emulsion wax. Glass-iber reinforced plastic molds are generally lightly sprayed with castor cil, petroleum jellythinned with kerosene, or paraffin oil after being thoroughly waxed with high quality household waxes, After plaster waste molds are thoroughly dry, two coats of thinned orange shellac can be applied to mold surface to make it waterproof and nonabsorbent. Before placing concrete, the mold should be lightly greased with a nonstaining yellow cup grease or cup grease thinned to a point where it can be applied with a brush by the addition of a mixture of crystallized stearic acid and kerosene. Verification and Maintenance Plugging of holes in the molds should be done neatly so that finished units will have a satisfactory appearance. Steel molds must be carefully maintained if discoloration from iron oxides is to be avoided. Special protection or local strengthening of molds should be made in areas where repeated fastening of jigs for holding reinforcement and hardware occurs. It Is necessary to check the molds for their soundness, surface quality, and dimensional stability, and to repair damage before it affects the quality of the product Maintenance of the resin cover of fiberglass reinforced plastic molds is mandatory for surface uniformity and can be accomplished by careful cleaning, use of release agent, or occasional touch-up of the surface, Product Handling General Lifting loops may be made of prestressing strand or aircraft cable, Al iting loops should project an’ equal distance ftom the surface of a product. If loops are higher on one side than the other, the product will tit when it is lifted which may cause binding in the mold during stripping. This binding can lead to cracking or spalling of the product, or even failure of the lifting insert. Thin-wall conduit over the loops in the region of the bend may be used to obtain even distribution. The capacity of a lifting loop embedded in concrete is dependent 7 upon the length of embedment, the condition of the strand, the diameter of the loop, and the strength of the concrete. Lifting devices with exposed threads are safer to use than inserts because they can be visually inspected, but they do demand protection of the thread both during production and storage. Threaded inserts (coarse coil bolt) used for lifting should be protected during storage by plugging with wood, plastic, or cork. They should only be used with proper swivel plates and bolts and should be standardized within a specific Job for depth of bolt thread to minimize human errors in application. The use of a swivel plate ensures that an angular pull will place the concrete insert primarily in tension. In handling beams, particularly prestressed units, it is imperative that they be maintained in an upright position, picked up and supported at points near their ends unless approved erection drawings designate otherwise. All means of fastening and rigging should comply with governing safety practices. Proper attention to safely and prevention of damage to units is a prime consideration in all operations. Reusable liting hardware and rigging should have a minimum safety factor of 5 to 1 Where hhandiing stresses are determined by structural analysis, positions for support and handling may be varied subject to maintenance of stresses within applicable design values. For most architectural precast concrete units, vertical handling and two-point support should be the rule. However, many units are of a size or shape that alternate’ methods may have to be applied. For unsymmetrical units, units of unusual section, ot slender units, handling stresses should be computed including adequate provision for impact. Positions and details of handling devices should be shown on erection drawings. Lifting heavy units with threaded inserts should be carefully assessed. When properly designed (for both insert and concrete strength) threaded inserts have many advantages, when properly applied and designed. Correct usage is sometimes difficult to inspect during handling operations. Insufficient bolt thread engagement, Improper sling angle, womthreads or low concrete strengths may cause failure with any Iiting device. The location of lifting devices can affect the ease of erection and connection of the precast concrete Unit to the structure. Lifting points should be ‘compatible with the method of shipping (flat or on edge) and placed so that the structure does not interfore with the crane lines. The same lifting devices should be utilized on the various precast concrete units so that frequent rigging changes can be avoided. Only one type and size of lifting device should be used in a precast concrete unit (bolted devices should not be used at one end and liting loops at the other end of the unit). Lifting inserts should be cleaned out and capped or ‘sealed until used by the eractor, to prevent dirt and water from entering and causing freezing or rusting. Lifting devices should be located on architecturally less prominent surfaces. Otherwise, cutting off, patching, and filling operations may become expensive. If possible, the placing of temporary lifting and handling devices should be planned so that little or no patching will be required after use. When the ‘temporary lifting and handling devices are located in finished edges or exposed surfaces, bolt or insert holes should be recessed, filled, and patched. Often, these devices can be filled and finished at a later date. Specialized lifting equip- ment may also be used to eliminate the necessi of patching exposed lifting and handling devices. Details of ifting devices should include the consideration of corrosion protection where such hardware is lettin the units. If the handling devices interfere with any other function, erection drawings should include removal instructions as well as field patching requirements. Protruding lifting devices (strand or wire) are normally removed after product installation by burning. Stripping Uniformity of stripping age from unit to unit should be evaluated to minimize concrete color hue differences. 18 Early exposure of the conerete to the air affects the manner in which the surface dries. The ambient conditions can thus influence the eventual color of the concrete. ‘Stresses imposed on the unit during stripping of the unit from the mold, handling, transporting or erecting should remain below the flexural strength at the specific time of that operation. The stresses due to stripping depend on the shape of the unit, the location of the handling points, and the type of mold and release agent used. Handling stresses that are created as a result of the unit being manufactured in an orientation different from that of its service life and the lower concrete strength at the time of stripping of the unit should be taken into ‘account in the design of the product. Most precast concrete units are cast in a flat position with the exterior face down. Depending on the weight of the unit and the location of the pickup point inserts, the plece may be stripped with or without auxillary spreader beams by means of overhead cranes. ‘Spreader bars and special lifting equipment should be designed by a registered professional engineer with due regard to lateral stability and additional load caused by adherence of units to molds depending on shape and draft provisions. Safe working loads should be permanently marked on equipment. Spreader bars or iifing equipment used over extended periods in very cold weather (yard or erection) are particularly vulnerable to fatigue or britle failures. Poor welding of high-grade steel, including striking a welding rod on a cold part of the spreader bar may cause a brittle failure. Spreader bars and ifting equipment should be checked for the effect of fatigue stresses by radiograph or other approved, nondestnuctive tests of welds and an assessment of how much the particular equipment has been used and under which conditions. it is recommended that this be done on a yearly basis. Modifications to lifting ‘equipment should be designed or approved by an engineer. Difficult product stripping may be accomplished by use of tit frames or tables and/or multiple rigging lines in order to minimize stresses. Intricate shapes may require additional assistance in beingremoved from the mold through the use of compressed air, hydraulic pressure, vibration, or screw jacks. First casts of units should be checked for cracks while under load during stripping. If any cracks occur, the precast plant engineer should be Notified immediately and corrective action taken. ‘As a crane or hoist provides a means of applying a force in one direction only, operators should receive instructions on this principle, The instructions should include established hand signals for the crane or hoist operator. Prying with screwdrivers, knives, or other tools between the unit and the mold surface to loosen a unit should be discouraged, as it will invariably lead to unit and/or mold damage. If difficulty is encountered in stripping the unit, some or all of the following items should be investigated: 1. Inadequate or improper use of mold release. 2. Insutficient curing. 3. Improper mold or member details such as Inadequate draft angles, sharp comers, or panel shrinkage insufficiently accommodated, The unit's center of gravity should be shown on alt panel production drawings and used by the stripping crew to determine proper rigging requirements or the lifting points should be shown ‘on the production drawings. ‘A color-coding or tagging system is recommended to identify the condition of a product as it moves, through plant operations. For instance, if a product is stripped from a mold with no apparent problem, it can be marked with a green tag or paint dot. If a product is found with a serious flaw, which is a potential cause for rejection, the product could be tagged with red. If a minor problem is detected which can be repaired, then the product could be marked with yellow. Products with red marks should be removed to the reject area or discarded if evaluated and found to be detective. Products with yellow marks should have their defects evaluated and repaired. Once the repair Is complete and accepted, the yellow mark is changed to a green mark by the quality control personnel or other qualified personnel, and the product is approved for shipment. 19 Yard Storage Proper storage should give consideration to the potentially harmful effects of altemating sun and shade on the precast concrete units. Any soiling or weathering of units, which would result In an appearance different from the normal weathering as finally installed, should be avoided by storing units in a manner similar to their final position, or by suitable protection from such soiling ‘or weathering. The need for soiling or weathering protection will depend on the configuration of the units, the length of storage time, and local ‘environmental conditions, For example, it may be desirable to insert a plastic cap or foam in pockets oF recesses of embedded items to prevent rust staining or cracking from the freezing of collected water. To prevent rust stains on the finished surface, projecting reinforcement should be coated with cement paste applied by brush or gloved hand; the coating should be removed prior to embedding the reinforcement in concreted connections. Panels having exposed finished surfaces should be carefully spaced using a molded plastic bubble spacer suitably positioned to minimize the contact area discoloration. Stacking some units so air circulation and sunshine cannot reach the faces, leaving some units indoors, or having variations in curing technique, can negatively affect the uniformity of the color of the finished units for the project In all operations, after removal from forms, veneered precast ‘concrete products should be stored and shipped on the concrete edges of the unit or on their backs with the veneer surface facing up. To avoid chipping or spalling, units should not rest on the veneer face of on any of the veneer edges or comers. Also, contact between the stone veneer and oil and asphalt-based compounds should be avoided. Cleaning If at all possible, cleaning of concrete should be done when the temperature and humidity allow rapid drying. Siow drying increases the possibility of recurring efflorescence and discoloration.A suggested order for testing appropriate cleaning Procedures for removal of dirt, stains and efflorescence (beginning with the least damaging) is: 1. Dry scrubbing with a stiff nylon fiber brush (particularly if surface is brushed shortly after appearance of efflorescence). 2. Abrasive blasting with industrial baking soda to remove efflorescence. This abrasive will not affect the concrete surface. Any residue on the surface should not be removed by water as salts will be dissolved and carried into concrete causing additional efflorescence. Residues should be blown, vacuumed, or brushed from the surface. 3. Wetting the surface with water and vigorous scrubbing of the finish with a stiff fioer brush followed by thorough rinsing of the surface with clean water. Low-pressure water spraying (water misting), high-pressure water or steam cleaning may also be tried. 4, Chemical cleaning compounds such as detergents, uriatic or phosphoric acid, or other chemical cleaners used in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendation. if possible, a technical representative of the product manufacturer should be present for the initial test application to ensure its proper use. Areas to be cleaned chemically should be thoroughly saturated with clean water prior to application of the cleaning material to prevent the chemicals from being absorbed deeply into the surface of the concrete. Surfaces should also be thoroughly rinsed with clean water after application so that no traces of acid remain in the surface layers of the concrete. Cleaning solutions should not be allowed to dry on the concrete finish. Residual salts can flake or spall the surface or leave difficult stains. Misapplication of hydrochloric acid can lead to corrosion of ‘embedded metals that have shallow cover. Care should be taken to use dilute solutions of acid to prevent surface etching that may reveal the aggregate and slightly change surface color and texture. The entire unit 20 should be treated to avoid a mottled effect. Any of several diluted solutions of acids are effective ways to remove efflorescence: nine a. one part hydrochloric (muriatic) act to 19 parts water b one part phosphoric acid in nine parts water ©. one part phosphoric acid plus one part acetic acid (vinegar) in 19 parts water 4. one part acetic acid in five parts water Hydrochloric (muriatic) acid may leave a yellow stain on white concrete. Therefore phosphoric or acetic acid should be used to clean white concrete. Workers using cleaning compounds or acid solutions should be thoroughly trained in their use, The use of proper protective wear should be strictly enforced. Rubber gloves, glasses and other protective clothing must be worn by workmen using acid solutions or strong detergents. Materials used in chemical cleaning can be highly corrosive and frequently toxic. All precautions ‘on labels should be observed because these cleaning agents can affect eyes, skin and breathing. Materials which can produce noxious or flammable fumes should not be used in confined spaces unless adequate ventilation can be provided. Diy or wet abrasive blasting, using sand, ferrous aluminum silicate, or other abrasives, may be considered if this method was originally used in exposing the surface of the unit . Stone veneerfaced precast concrete units should be cleaned with stiff fiber, or stainless. steel of bronze wie brushes, a mild soap powder or detergent, and clean water using high pressure, if necessary. No acid or other strong chemicals that might damage or stain the veneer should be used. Information should be obtained from stone suppliers on methods of cleaning oil, rust and ditt stains on the stone,7. Mortar stains may be removed from brick panels by thoroughly wetting the panel and scrubbing with a stiff fiber brush and a masonry cleaning solution. A prepared cleaning compound is recommended; however, on red brick, a weak solution of muriatic acid and water (not to exceed a 10% muriatic acid solution) may be used. Acid should be flushed off the panel with large ‘amounts of clean water within 5 to 10 minutes of application. Buff, gray or brown brick should be cleaned in accordance with the brick ‘manufacturer's recommendations, using proprietary cleaners rather than acid to prevent green or yellow vanadium stains and brown manganese stains. Following the application of the cleaning solution, the panel should be rinsed thoroughly with clean water. High-pressure water cleaning techniques, with a 1000 to 2000 psi (6.9 to 13.8 MPa) washer, may also be used to remove mortar stains. A retarder may be applied to the face of the brick or tle prior to placement in the mold to facilitate mortar stain removal. With antique brick, the retarder may sometimes cause discoloration of the surface, and retarder paper precut to the brick dimensions usually is laid in the formliner face-up prior to setting the brick, When tile or terra cotta joints are grouted after the panel is stripped, a clean, hard rubber float should be used for spreading grout and fully packing joints. Excess grout should be removed by holding the float at a 90-degree angle and moving it actoss the panel diagonally to the joints, To maintain a uniform grout color and texture, colored grout should be cleaned off the panels with a cheesecloth pad and/or terry cloth towel prior to grout setting, Proper cleaning of tile surfaces eliminates the need for acid cleaning, However, should some residue be left on an unglazed tile or terra cotta surface, it can be cleaned after 10 days with a 5% solution of sulfamic acid for gray or White joints, and a more dilute (2%) solution for colored joints. Cleaning the panels too early may embed the cement paste into the pores of the clay product. The surface should be thoroughly rinsed with clean water both 2 before and after cleaning. Glazed tile manufacturers generally do not recommend the use of acid for cleaning purposes. Loading A two-point support system with supports at fifth points should be used for units shipped in a vertical or horizontal position. Alternative support methods may be necessary when unit configuration makes the two point system impractical. Most units should be loaded in vertical or near vertical position, supported on A-frames, when thickness to length ratio is greater than 60. Prestressed units may exceed this ratio without problems, Flatbed, stretch and low-boy trailers suffer excessive distortions or flexing during hauling. Thus, support at more than two points on a trailer unit is almost impossible, and can be achieved only after consideration of the particular trailer characteristics. For longer slender units, any anticipated or noticeable indication of ‘lateral deflection or vibration during transportation should be corrected by rigid bracing between units or by means of lateral trussing. In extreme cases, strongbacks, stiffening trusses or frames may be required. Trailers which will be loaded while detached from a tractor should be securely braced to accept the load being placed upon them. Landing gear should be equipped with a large “sand type" shoe or have ribbing or blocking placed beneath it to prevent excessive compression of the ground underneath as weight is added, An extended trailer should have such extra bracing added as Is necessary to prevent the trailer from bowing excessively under the load. Aframe trailers to be loaded with extremely heavy units should be braced to prevent a single heavy unit loaded on one side from turning the trailer over. All trailers should be loaded so that balance is maintained from side to side and from end to end. Care should be taken to assure that one section of the trailer is not loaded so excessively that the trailer would tip or lean dangerously. Ideally, an equal amount of weight should be transmitted to the rear wheels of the trailer and the fifth wheel of the tractor.Surface Finishes General Exposed aggregate surfaces may be achieved by removing surrounding paste through chemical processes, such as using retarders or acid etching, or mechanically through abrasive blasting, of honing and polishing or bushhammering. Each method will uniquely influence the appearance of the exposed surface. Different degrees or exposure by any of these methods are: Light exposure. Where only the surface skin of ‘cement and some sand is removed to expose the sand and the edges of the closest coarse aggregate. Matrix color will greatly influence the overall panel color. Medium exposure. Where further removal of cement and sand has caused the exposed coarse aggregate area to visually appear approximately area equal in area to the matrix. Deep exposure. Where cement and fine aggregate have been removed from the surface so that the coarse aggregate becomes the major surface feature, Two or more finishes may be readily achieved using the same concrete mix. However, the use of concrete mixes with different colored matrices ‘exposed at the face of the panel have casting considerations. Special care should be taken to prevent a white cement paste from leaking into a gray area or vice versa. Combinations of various finishes on the same unit depend on the shape of the unit. For example, a retarded flat surface between ribs spaced widely apart may need a groove or offset while a flat surface between close ribs may be accomplished without a demarcation feature. Proper representative samples should be used to assess any problems. Bushhammering and to a lesser degree sandblasting can be stopped fairly easily along specific lines. Other combinations of finishes require demarcation features. For example, a retarder applied to only a part of a mold surface or an acid etched finish applied to only a portion of the unit may produce a ragged effect at the edge of the trealed area unless a demarcation feature is used to separate the finishes. If itis desirable to have a well-defined reveal (sharp edge), it may be necessary to keep 22 the retarder back from the edge of the reveal. In cases like this the mix design should be compatible to both finishes but generally favor the gap-grading necessary for the retarded exposed aggregate finish using 1/2 to 5/8 in, (12 to 16 mm) maximum aggregate size. The uniformity of the acid finish may be affected by the coarser gradation necessaty for the exposed aggregate. In @ panel with both a retarded and acid etch finish that has an acid etched high vertical retum, there could be a problem. The mix design in this case ‘would have to favor the exposed aggregate and, as a result, would affect the acid etched area. In using two different facing mixes in the same panel there are two approaches. In one procedure, the first mix is placed within an area bounded by a raised demarcation strip the thickness of the face mix, Before initial set of the concrete, the mold surface around the first cast is carefully cleaned and the second mix is placed and vibrated. It is very important that the second mix be placed and the concrete consolidated prior to Initial set of the first concrete mix. Another approach is the two- stage or sequential casting procedure discussed ‘on page 64. If acid is brushed onto the surface, the brush may build up a concentration of insoluble silica gel in the bucket that may then be picked up by the brush and smeared over the surface. Hydrofluoric acid is effective in removing the silica gel deposits but is extremely dangerous for inexperienced personnel. Smooth If units with smooth surfaces are to be produced without additional surface treatment after stripping, except for possible washing and cleaning, the following precautions should be considered: 1. Attention should be paid to detalling with provisions for ample draft, proper edges and comers, as well as suitable water drips and other weathering details. 2. Well constructed molds should be used, so that imperfections will not be mirrored in’the units. The use of plastic molds or liners with a matte finish or fiberglass overlaid plywood, which is smooth but not glossy, will help prevent crazing,3. The mold release agent should be the same throughout production and be applied under as nearly identical conditions as possible each time. (Some release agents help reduce the crazing tendency, by breaking the contact with the glossy surface of the mold.) 4. Use conerete mix designs that combine a minimum cement content and a constant, low water-cement ratio with high density, in order to minimize crazing, entrapped air voids and color variations. The mix should be fully graded with aggregate fines passing a No. 50 {800 im) sieve not in excess of 5 to 10% 5. Employ proper consolidation and curing to minimize nonuniformity of color which show easily on such surfaces, particularly with gray concrete mixes. Uniform curing with minimum loss of moisture from the smooth surface will help minimize crazing tendencies. 6. Minimize chipping or other damage because smooth finish patches are difficult to perform in terms of texture and color match. Many of the aesthetic limitations of smooth concrete may be minimized by the shadowing and depth provided by profiled surfaces (fluted, sculptured, board finishes, etc.), by subdividing the panel into smaller surface areas by means of vertical and horizontal rustications, or by using white cement ‘Aggregate transparency, which may occur in smooth concrete, is assumed to be caused by localized segregation during compaction of conerete. As concrete is vibrated, particles of coarse aggregate near the mold face tend to move slightly away from it. Fine material simultaneously fils the area between each coarse particle and the face of the mold. The movement is, however, very small so that only the finest of the mortar components can flow in this way. This means that at the completion of vibration, the area between the coarse aggregate particle and the face of the mold will be filled with a fine mortar, which is tich in cement. Such localized segregation occurs at all formed surfaces, but is only visible on surfaces formed against smooth mold surfaces. The smooth surface areas are coated with highly oriented, clear calcium hydroxide crystals that are translucent and transmit the hue of the underlying aggregate 23 particles. On nonsmooth surfaces, the rough texture of the calcium hydroxide layer covering the surface diffuses light passing through it. The remedy for aggregate transparency on white concrete would be to wash the surface with a 2 to 3% phosphoric acid solution to disrupt the calcium hydroxide surface layer Alternate wetting and drying of the surface would with time also allow the calcium hydroxide crystals to dissolve and carbonate. Minimal wetting is required to ensure that the calcium carbonate crystals formed remain on the surface. The sutface becomes uniformly white when sufficient carbonate is deposited. Normal weathering may also produce sufficient earbonation to bring the concrete color to acceptable uniformity. Another way to stop translucent blemishes is to use an appropriate release agent. To obtain the whitest most uniform surface, a release agent that causes a matte surface should be used. The harder, nondusting surfaces given by some release agents are usually more discolored. Sand or Abrasive Blast Large air compressor capacity, ample abrasive supply, excellent ventilation, and proper safety protection for the operation should be provided. If blasting is done in an enclosure it should be ventilated in such a way that a continuous inward flow of air will be maintained at all openings of the enclosure during the blasting operation. Appropriate operating permits should be obtained for all abrasive blasting operations. Blasting will cause some etching of the face of the aggregate, and the softer aggregates will show this to a greater extent beyond a medium exposure. Sandblasted aggregates lose their sharp edges. Etching of the aggregate surface is more Noticeable on dark-colored aggregates which have a glossy surface texture. This will produce a muted or frosted effect, which tends to lighten the color and subdue the luster of the aggregate. Depth of sandblasting should also be adjusted to suit the aggregate hardness. For example, soft aggregates might be eroded at the same rate 2s the mortar. For medium or deep exposure with a sandblasted appearance, retarders may be used initially and the matrix removed by sandblasting to obtain a matte finish, The selected retarder strength shouldonly give 50 to 75% of the expected reveal. This approach reduces blasting time and lessens the abrasion of softer aggregates. Using sandblasting to achieve the final texture allows for correction of any variations in exposure, so this method can result in a very uniform surface. Care should be taken to avoid nonuniform exposure that may be causad by the presence of soft and hard spots on the retarded surface. This is especially true and more noticeable on large flat surfaces. Small flat areas or surfaces that are divided by means of rustications will tend to call less attention to these texture variations. Since some aggregates change color after sandblasting, trials of different abrasive materials with sample panels are desirable to check the texture and color tone. ‘As an additional step towards uniformity, the cement and sand color should be chosen to blend with the slightly “bruised” color of the sandblasted coarse aggregate as the cement-sand matrix color will predominate when a light sandblast finish is desired. With a light sandblasting only some of the coarse aggregates near the surface will be exposed, so a uniform distribution of such aggregates is not controllable, ‘The concrete mix used, and the matrix strength at time of blasting, will affect the final exposure, as will the gradation and hardness of the abrasive. A good general rule in selecting an abrasive is that the particle size of the abrasive will attack a similar size particle in the concrete surface. For a more uniform texture, spherical or nearly round abrasives with a close gradation should be used. Materials used in the blasting operation are washed silica sand, ctushed glass, certain hard angular sands, aluminum carbide, blasting grit such as power plant boiler slag, carbonized hydrocarbon, crushed chat (a waste material from Jead mining), and various organic grits such as ground shells, com cobs, and rice hulls. For cleaning or light blasting of a surface, any of the abrasives will be adequate. For deep cutting, an abrasive grit should be used because of its speed of attack and cleaner surface appearance. Some types of colored abrasives impart color to the surface of the concrete. With certain gradation combinations, and pressure and volume, impregnation of the abrasive in the surface can 24 occur, If this happens, an abrasive of similar color to the matrix should be used. Impregnation of abrasive can be minimized by a change in the volume of material, its gradation, and/or the pressure being applied, Sandblasting may be done with dry abrasive in a stream of compressed air or water rings may be Used fo introduce water into the compressed ait- sand stream at the nozzle, Sand also may be introduced into a high-pressure water washer. The compressor characteristics will influence both the speed and quality of the work. Rotary or screw type units deliver constant pressure but piston units cause airflow to fluctuate (unless the reservoir tank is sufficient to buffer the compressor input) and make it difficult for the nozzleman to produce a uniform surface. The longer the hose from the pressure pot to the nozzle, the higher the pressure needed at the pot to overcome pressure losses in the line, Pressures of 80 to 100 psi (0.62 to 0.69 MPa) at the nozzle are usually sufficient, Heavy blast textures require up to 120 psi (0.83 MPa). To determine the pressure at the nozzle, it is necessary to use a hypodermic needle gauge inserted into the sandblast hose (while operating). ‘The compressor should have a capacity of at least 200 cu ft (5.7 m®) per minute, The inside diameter of the hase should be no less than 1-1/4 in, (82 mm) or four to six times the diameter of the nozzle orifice in order to keep the sand in continuous suspension while traveling through the hose. Too large a hose would reduce the velocity of media and air within the hose and eventually plug. Smaller diameter whip lines may be used for operator ease of handling, ‘The nozzle at the end of the system is the most important element. The diameter of the nozzle and nozzle pressure should be determined by experimentation. A venturi type nozzle should be used to obtain a uniform blast pattem. Carbide or norbide nozzles should be selected for durabllty. Nozzle life depends on abrasive hardness and volume as well as the pressure and generally varies from 2 to 4 months. The time when sandblasting should take place is determined by scheduling, economics, visual appearance desired, and hardness of the aggregate. The timing of blasting is not as criticalas for other finish methods. The concrete matrix will be easier to cut in the first 72 hours after casting. As the concrete cures and gains strength, it becomes more difficult to blast to any appreciable depth, thus increasing the cost of the operation. Softer aggregates tend to abrade more when conorete strengths are high and the surface will have a duller appearance. In some cases, the higher costs of deferred blasting may be justified by avoiding scheduling problems. However, all surfaces should be blasted at approximately the same age or compressive strength for uniformity of appearance. When blasting, the operator should hold the nozzle perpendicular to the surface being blasted. Some operators will deviate slightly ftom this position as it seems to provide a better view of the work. The maximum deviation should be less than 15 degrees as too much deviation from the 90-degree angle will result in undercutting the coarse aggregate particles. Best results are obtained with the nozzle positioned from about 2 to 6 ft (0.6 to 1.8 m) from the element surface. The exact distance depends on the pressure used, the hardness of the concrete matrix, and the cutting ability of the abrasive. An experienced operator can quickly determine the nozzle position to produce the specified surface finish. Using a circular motion during blasting will minimize pattem marking. ‘When using wet sandblasting, the abraded mortar should be continually washed off previously sandblasted areas to prevent staining, Acid Etched When performing acid etching or acid washing of units, ventilation and protection for equipment and workers should be provided. Special safety and disposal methods should be observed. Hydrochloric (mutiatic) acid should be stored in either rubber-lined steel, fiberglass-reinforced plastic, or high-density, cross-linked polyethylene storage tanks or barrels. ‘Good housekeeping practices are important where hydrochloric acid is used. All spills should be contained and immediately recovered or flushed with water into a chemical sewer or a segregated holding pond that is provided for the specific purpose of neutralization. Hydrochloric acid must 25 never be flushed to a sanitary sewer or other outlet that connects to waterways or uncontrolled runoff streams, Contact local and federal authorities for applicable regulations. Normally, @ given amount of acid will react with a certain amount of cement no matter how much water is used to dilute it. A lot of water will reduce the reaction speed although a small dilution might inorease it slightly. The acid should be agitated and/or heated to improve its effectiveness Application of acid without vigorous brushing is relatively ineffective due to the formation of a silica gel, which prevents further etching regardless of the amount of acid applied. This gel, a residue of acid and cement reaction, usually forms within 30 minutes. It can be readily removed by brushing during the reaction, but If allowed to remain in place, It may clog some of the pores and be very difficult to remove. The rate of reaction will approximately double for each 20°F (11°C) increase in temperature. High temperature, however, causes hydrogen chloride to escape from solution faster producing two undesirable effects: (1) loss of some of the acid that would otherwise be put to work, and (2) contamination of the atmosphere. If adequate ventilation is available and if time is more important than material, these may not be setious objections. Neutralizers are sometimes specified for use after application of acid to concrete. They are not needed as the conorete matrix neutralizes the acid as effectively as any neutralizer, and thorough washing should be adequate, Disposal and neutralization of used acid should be carefully done to protect the environment, and mechanical and electrical equipment. Soda ash can be used as aneutralizer. Acid etching may be done immediately after curing to reduce handling operations. Acid washing too soon may contribute to formation of white silica gel deposits on units with a gray cement matrix or with dark colored aggregates if the acid is not thoroughly flushed off the surface with water within 15 minutes. With the increasing concern for environmental considerations, the handling and disposal of acid can result in incteased costs, Some states require complete containment of the acid residue runoff even though the parts per million may be lowenough to be insignificant. It has become increasingly difficult to perform any work requiring acid at jobsites due to potential liabilities. Vertical rustications or reveals should extend to the bottom of the unit to avoid the potential of a deeper etch on the bottom flat band of @ unit. If not extended, acid collects in the reveal and can run down and streak the bottom band. In the recent past there has been some new acid materials developed that are not as harsh on the environment and are more user friendly. PPE Tequirements are not as stringent. Existing equipment can be used with little or no modification. Tanks can be set up on site and refilled at user request without impacting production processes. Agitation of material is not required however heating is recommended. Due to the chemical mixture the material is allowed to cling to the product and can result in a more consistent finish with reduced concerns of deeper etching at ledges and reveal terminations. This material is in production in several facilities across the country and has generated a lot of positive feedback. Retarded Retarders may be aromatic solvent based or water based and are usually fast drying, clear liquids with a dye added to facilitate even application. Most retarders dty within 10 to 20 minutes depending on envitonmental conditions. Dyes are also used for color coditying to indicate retarders of varying strengths, which creates varying depths of exposure. Retarders possess various degrees of resistance to abrasion. This is important to prevent movement of the retarder when the concrete Is cast into the mold. Retarders ate formulated so that the retarded matrix either remains on the concrete unit or stays on the mold. To aid the transfer of the retarder off the mold and to eliminate cleaning of the mold, a release agent is, used under and prior to applying the retarder. The release agent should be completely dry prior to applying the retarder and the retarder should be dry before the concrete is placed. Some retarders ate specially formulated for high abrasion resistance, The presence of an accelerator in a concrete mix or the heating of concrete to accelerate strength 26 gain will affect the depth of etch of the retarder. This can be compensated for by using a surface retarder with @ concentration such that it would normally produee an etch deeper than that desired or a specially formulated heat resistant retarder that has been thoroughly tested can be used. Unless desired, care also should be taken to avoid any one part of the mold inadvertently receiving a double coat of retarder since this may give deeper retardation on light etches. Over- or under-retarded areas will stand out prominently, especially on large surfaces, There is often a tendency to coat excessively around details in an attempt to obtain complete coverage. This practice can result in a local weakening of the final detail with the possibilty that pars of the casting become dislodged at the time of demolding. Comers and bottoms of any grooves require removal of any excess retarder that may have collected. A retarder applied only to a part of a mold face may not be successful because of the ragged effect produced at the edge of the treated area unless a demarcation feature is used. Sharp crisp corners may be achieved by putting a wax fillet over the retarder after it is sprayed or applied to the mold comer. This reduces the tisk of the over-retarding effect on the corners. Aggregate should be round or aggregate fracture should be conical and not slivered. Slivered coarse aggregate may tend to be dislodged during high- pressure washing and may not give a consistent appearance, Once a uniform exposure is obtained, the washing should continue until the flush water is clear and there is no noticeable cement film on the aggregate. After the aggregate is properly exposed, and after a suitable interval depending on plant operations, the exposed faces of the units and all edges where sealant material is to be applied may be given one ‘or more washings with a5 to 10% solution of muriatic acid to thoroughly clean the exposed aggregate and to remove any retarded cement paste and foreign material. See pages 19 to 21 for a further discussion on cleaning. Ventilation, removal of retarded cement paste, acid washing, and rinse washing with proper disposal of these solids and solutions should be provided.Wastewater from both the acid etch and retarder rinse water should be collected and disposed of promptly and properly. Tooled or Bushhammered Basically, all methods of tooling concrete remove a layer of hardened concrete matrix while fracturing the larger aggregates at the surface. Surfaces attained can vary from the light “scaling” to a deep bold texture achieved by jackhammering with a single pointed chisel. Scaling is the lightest texture In bushhammered finishes. It is achieved by passing a tiple-pronged scaler (originally developed to remove scale from steel prior to painting) singly or in gangs over the surface to remove only a thin skin. A single-head scaler is lightweight and can be readily manipulated by one person. No texture as such is, brought out by this technique, although some aggregate is exposed and fractured in the process. Under certain conditions almost the same result can be achieved by light abrasive blasting. Jackhammering should be done when the matrix has reached a strength approximating that of the coarse aggregate in order to fracture both the mortar and the coarse aggregate. If hammering is, started too soon, the tool merely removes the matrix and the coarse aggregate does not fracture. ‘Sometimes the coatse patticles ate knocked out, leaving blank spaces. If jackhammering is to be performed at a time when the matrix is softer than the coarse aggregate, a chiseltype tool should be used, This tool has a tendency to fracture across the aggregate, while the pointed tool has a tendency to dig into the matrix and not fracture the coarse aggregate. On the other hand, when concrete becomes very hard the pointed tool does 1 supetior job. Since jackhammering accentuates the presence of coarse aggregate, a higher than normal coarse aggregate content may be desirable. Although a dense, fully graded concrete mix is desirable, bushhammering may be successfully applied to gap-graded concrete. Natural gravels, are inclined to shatter, leading to bond failure and loss of aggregate particles when bushhammered. Aggregates such as granite and quartz are difficult to bushhammer uniformly because of the hardness and may fracture into rather than across the 27 concrete surface. Aggregates such as dolomite, marble, calcite, and limestone are softer and more suitable for bushhammered surfaces. To prevent loosening of the aggregate, a compressive strength of 4000 psi (28 MPA) is recommended. In many cases, better uniformity may be obtained when the concrete is allowed to age for 14 to 21 days and the surface is dry. Exposing the aggregate by tooling requires trained operators in order to produce a uniformly textured surface. A hammered rib (or fractured fin) finish may be produced by casting ribs on the surface of the unit and then using a hammer or bushhammer tool to randomly break the ibs, and expose the aggregate. The ribs may be hammered from alternate sides, in bands, to obtain uniformity of cleavage, or randomly, depending on the effect required. There should be a definite plan, even with @ so-called random pattem, because unless care is exercised, an uneven shading effect on the concrete surface may be produced, Tooling removes a certain thickness of material, 3/16 in, (5 mm) on an average, from the surface of the concrete and may fracture patticles of aggregate causing moisture to penetrate the depth of the aggregate particle, For this reason the minimum cover to the reinforcement should be somewhat greater than normally required. It is recom: mended that 2 in. (50 mm) of cover be provided prior to tooling, As a cutting head becomes wom, it should be replaced. Since the texture varies with the condition of the cutting surface, a new head should not be worked next to an area tooled with an old one. Small irregularities in the finished surface can be worked out with further tooling. Honed or Polished Grinding elements may consist of carborundum particles bonded together with a resin or diamonds set in a cutting surface. Diamond elements, initially more expensive, are used more widely because they cut much faster. Equipment may vary from a simple hand grinder to @ very elaborate multihead machine.