-.

BLOWOUT
PREVENTION

A Mathematical Model of a Gas Kick

.- . . ..-
j. L. LOULANC
STUDENT MEMBER AIME U. OF SOUTHWESTERN LOUISIANA
R. L. LEWIS LAFAYETTE, LA.
MEMBER AIME

Abstract pressures greater than that exerted by the drilling fluid.

The differential pressures resulting permit an extraneous
This study presents an analysis of annular backpressure influx of gas into the wellbore. A suspension in drilling
\)aria/ion,$ associated with Contro[[ed gas kick.r and their
progress is necessary to restore fluid equilibrium through-
pronounced eflect on casing strings and exposed under- out the system. Whether formation gas kicks originate
lying formations. unintentionally or by design. the prospect of a threatened
A mathematical model describing the volumetric be- or actual blowout exists and a method assuring a safe and
havior of an extraneous gas as it is transported from effective well control procedure must be observed.
reservoir to s[o-face conditions under changing tempera-
A significant contribution to well control technology
mres and pre.r,sures has been programmed in a Kingston
was advanced by Records et al.’ in 1962. Using the
FORTRAN 11 language for digital computer analysis. The
concept of transmitting a constant equivalent formation
gases under investigation typify Gulf Coast reservoir gases
pressure at the point of intrusion, Records et al. introduced
within a Q,6 !Q 0.,7 r-- .,.-
rnfw-ifir ~. -...,
or flvitv
.rfmoo
-.-a- ~h~ p~Qg~Q.rn
a calculation technique providing the annuiar bacicpres-
output has been substantiated by actual field cases of gas
sures encountered in a well control environment as a func-
kicks encountered in Gulf Coast wells.
tion of the volumetric behavior of a 0.6 specific gravity
~,h~ “c
AO,,”!nnm,,wt
VG, ”pr,, c,,, -$
.,, ,,-..;
L,,, p,, .:,. ”1
,!. ”, ,,”,.
Ctf ”,:-...
Mu,,”,,> 4-.
,“, ,.”l.-.,l
9. ”,;..”
L4’u4’u’’r’&
naturai gas. in essence, the procedure outiined an annuiar
suitable gas deviation factors for unique temperatures and r---- —-- S~h~~&
h~~knressure in ~~~-rnS Of flu~d volurn~ circulated
pressures was incorporated in the program to provide real- at different stages of a well control operation.
~:(~~ 0...-..”,..>.
CJ,,t;nm. .1,.A- ,-.r, tnr, i .’.I’.
“-.~w’ Ii. t;no
r,~ n4 “,.,,
“, nmw,.1.-.. hn,. L-..,wn...wn.
C4, W, ““&18 p,c.,3u, c.l
and corresponding equivalent fluid densities resulting at a A number of other publications+ proposing various
predetermined critical depth (casing setting depth) and total techniques for controlling gas intrusions in a wellbore
depth for selected stages of circulation is provided in a
achieve pressure control essentially through maintenance
chronological sequence. Additional information including
of a constant bottom-hole pressure by surface choke ad-
reservoir pressure and temperature, kill mud density, pro- justments. The subsequent pressure effects induced in the
d~eed g~: or ,....curfnen
,---- y~!g,q< ~} ~~~ nvnnnAod on. in,.,..
annulus unfortunately receive little emphasis.
~~t-,.~~~ .5- . .. . . w
.sion, drill pipe and annular volumes can be obtained from Due to the tedious and repetitive nature of annular
the model. backpressure computations, a theoretical solution by digital
This paper illustrates that a precise knowledge of the computer is introduced for predicting annular backpressure
volumetric behavior of extraneous gases in annular fiow and equivalent fluid density profiles associated with con-
and Its eflect on equivalent f7uid densities at a critical trolled gas kicks. We point out the effects of volumetric
depth is significant and should receive serious consid- behavior of extraneous gases in annular flow and related
eration in controlling threatened blowouts and in the field phenomena on equivalent fluid densities at a critical
design of drilling programs. Surface pressures in excess of depth. The investigation indicated that equivalent fluid
formation limitations are a threat to zones of lost circula- densities at a critical depth are of significance and should
tion and are potentially injurious to productive intervals. receive consideration in the control of threatened blowouts
A knowledge of annular backpressure and equivalent fluid and in the design of drilling programs.
density profiles for probable gas kicks aids in a techno-
logical accomplishment of drilling programs and provides
Theoretical Considerations
a safe tolerance in the event a threatened blowout is The mechanism of vertical gas flow through an annulus
.,mfln,, mfa”nd
.,,e”e,,,e,e “. —..—
is governed by the PV-l’ properties of the fluid, the pres-
sure distribution within the system, the fluid flow rates and
Introduction the geometry of flow. Due to the numerous variables in-
Drilling operations are frequently interrupted when the volved in this type of problem, certain assumptions were
drill bit penetrates permeable gas sands with reservoir imposed in deriving the mathematical model and in estab-
lishing the solutions.
Original manuscript was received in Society of Petroleum Engineers
office Aug. 7, 1967. Revised manuscript received July 7. 1968. Paper Two gases, characterized by specific gravities of 0.6 and
( SPE 1860 ) was presented at SPE 42nd Annual Fall Meeting held in
Houston, Tex., Oct. 1-4, 1967. @) Copyright 1968 American Institute of
0.7, were selected to typify Gulf Coast reservoir fluids.
Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc. The gas intrusion entered the wellbore as an immiscible
This paper will be printed in Trangactiot.y Volmne 243, which wi]]
cover 1968. preferences given at end of paper.
 dug, retained constant composition, remained immiscible
and underwent no phase change. The influx was stopped
the instant a closed system was created, i.e., under well
shut-in conditions. The heat transfer relationships used in
gas volume calculations were based on a circulating tem-
perature calculated using a gradient of 0.625°/ 100 ft
of depth, plus an average surface temperature of 120F.
The absolute temperatures and absolute pressures utilized
in the PVT equations of state were taken at the base of
the gas column and at the mid-point of the gas column,
respectively. The initiaf gas volume was assumed equal to
the increase in the mud system volume produced by the
contaminant.
The liquid densities existing in the drill pipe and in the
annular space overlying the gas at the instant the well
kicked were assumed equal to the original drilling mud
density. The validity of this assumption is questionable
under field conditions, as some reduction in flowline mud
density is frequently observed in routine drilling opera-
tions. The extent to which mud densities are reduced by
gas infiltration from abnormally pressured shale sections
cannot be determined in well control calculations. Since
the omission of this parameter could lead to serious errors
in the prediction of annular backpressure profiles, 0.3 and
0.5 lb/gal reductions in annular mud density were evalu-
ated to illustrate its significance. The model presumed that
a consfunr mud density was continually circulated for the
entire well control operation.
For calculative convenience, the flow geometry consisted
of concentric cylinders formed by the drill pipe outer
diameter and an average hole size. This assumption elimi-
nates the effect of variable annular capacities created by
a drillstem bottom-hole assembly, irregular open-hole size,
casing internal diameter, drillpipe tool joints and other
anomalies in the wellbore.
The mathematical model was based on a frictionless
system. This assumption is partially justified by the low
circulating rates utilized in well control operations. Since
it is the purpose of this paper to compare the effect of
specific variables on annular backpressure and equivalent
fluid densities, this assumption is not considered too re-
strictive. The model calculates the total annuiar back-
pressure.
The well control cycle is categorized by four basic
stages for which annular backpressure derivations may be
formulated. A sequential description of the fluid dynamics
and equations characterizing each section is presented.
Physical Concepts
Stage 1 — Drill Pipe Dkplaeensent
During the drill pipe’s initial displacement by the con-
tainahie fluid, the d~r~_se in Lhe ann~iar --z liaukl
—-_ h@Q-
static is due to volumetric expansion of the transported
gas:
‘LH’=[vAiv’][(%)-]
‘C<vrmax
~~‘2)
The containable fluid is defined as a drilling mud that
exerts a hydrostatic pressure at total well depth equal to
the reservoir pressure, and is the optimum mud density
to properly contain a well.
The volumetric behavior of a reservoir gas slug in
vertical flow may be described by combining the algebraic
statements of Boyle’s and Charles’ laws for nomideal
gases:
“=’V’-’)[%l[+I[%IVCSVC
~‘3)
The fact that the temperature of a gas and the pressure
confining it change simultaneously in any well control
environment prohibits the precise determination of any
V, > V,.,, The aforementioned assumptions defining PVT
relationships were imposed to permit the formulation of
solutions within reasonable accurecy for engnkering Utilty
A constant annular gas head and liquid density charac
terize this initial phase of operation. A constant liquid
density results from the complete replacement of the orig
inal drilling mud discharged from the annuhm by the
original drilling mud in the drill pipe.
The substitution of Eq. 2 and the initial liquid hydro-
SIDP PRESSURE

r
Mathematical Model DRILL PIPE
A theoretical approach to the determination of annular r SIC
backpressure as a function of the volumetric behavior of PRESSURE
non-ideal gases may be mathematically modeled by a hy-
drostatic balance of the fluids existing in the wellbore at
any given time (Fig. 1).
Annular backpressure = reservoir pressure – annular
liquid hydrostatic -- annular gas head . . . . (1)
The summation of the initial static pressures within the
drill pipe due to a stabilized dilTerential surface pressure CASING POINT
and the originaI drilling mud hydrostatic pressure provides
an accurate determination of the reservoir pressure. The
annular liquid hydrostatic pressures is affected simultane- OR IGNAL
OPEN HOLE –
ously by the displacement mechanism and the volumetric + DRILLING
behavior of the gas during its ascent and egress from tiie
an~~!~~. The annu!~r gas head can he calculated frOrn
GAS —
initial conditions and remains constant for the interim it
is confined in the annulus. As the gas is produced the INFLUX
annular gas head varies according to the remaining gas . . . .
.’ .,.
/ . ,.. .
volume in the annulus. Following the complete clkplace-
ment of the gas from the annuius, the annuiar Oacicpres-
J“:,
,,.
. ..””’’
, . . .
”..
. . .
.’.. ”.. l
. . . . . .
sure varies linearly and is a function of the remaining
liquid densities within the wellbore. Fig. l-Gas kick at initial shut-in.

.4 UC IJST, 1968 889

 r

&

static for the annular liquid hydrostatic in Eq, 1 leads to mud by the containable fluid increases the annular liquid
the equivalent form: hydrostatic and tends to reduce the annular backpressure.
The terminal point of this stage occurs when the upper
‘A”‘PCS + Iv’:
L -A “][(%LIJ=
‘dp ‘--/ ‘umJ
(4) interface of the gas intersects the top of the wellbore. At
.L:.
U1lS
.--—: --1
LC1 IIlllltll
--:-.
pumL
.&-
LUG
,.- .-....--4
G1l U appcu
--.--..,.:-
1 CSG1 VU1l
-,.
gas
. . . .
Ilda
:..
10

greatest effect on the liquid hydrostatic due to its volu-

The complete displacement of the original drilling mud
metric expansion. The gas attains a maximum expansion
in the drill pipe by the containable fluid defines the end
within the wellbore and the instantaneous annular back-
point of this stage. The instantaneous annular backpres-
pressure represents one of the two maximum inflection
sure resulting at this end point represents one of the two
points on a backpressure curve. The equivalent fluid den-
maximum inflection points on a backpressure profile. The sity at the critical, point is a major factor during this stage
simultaneous equivalent fluid densities in the wellbore are
since its magnitude is a function of the kick variables and
of a critical magnitude since they represent a potential
the depth of the critical point.
maximum for a well control operation. Equivalent fluid -L- .——..,-——-- L_–- -_—-:—. --—_.-—. r-- .L, - ..- —-
density is defined as that fluid density that would exert a I ne annular gas new remams umsrdm [or uus wage of
h.,drm.+afifi
,L,us”. -.-.J.-- ti -.
bu.,w pti.au, O+o -n;”+ ,“
a p“.,,, .- a,,u”,
;- ●Ll,s -.. -s.1... -..-1 +..
us GqUa, !“ +l.-
LUG
the operation. A substitution of Eq. 7 in 13q. 1 yields:
cumulative hydrostatic pressure of the annular fluids above
that point and the required annular backpressure.
The first three schematics of Fig. 2A summarize the fluid
p’”=pc’-[v’~:d’l[
(+)..- (~~o..~
displacement for this stage.

Stage 2 — Intermediate Dkplacement

‘[v’~:’”’l[(*)o..,lvJ’<v
. . . . . . . . .‘V(M8X
. (8)
The change in the annular liquid hydrostatic attributed The fluid displacement for this stage is depicted in sche-
to a transition in liquid densities in the annulus subsequent matics D and E of Figs. 2A and 2B.
to the total displacement of the drill pipe may be expressed
mathematically as: Stage 3 — Gas Production
The liquid hydrostatic and the annular gas head are
variable as the gas leaves the annulus and is produced. At
‘Ap)’=
[(v
~:d’)l[(a{
-(3).111 V. P< V, <VT. . . . .’ . . (5)
the initial point in this stage, the original drilling mud
overlying the gas has been displaced from the annulus so
that the annular liquid hydrostatic varies in accordance
The effect of gas expansion on the liquid hydrostatic in with the volumetric displacement of the gas by the under-
the annulus is given by the relationship: 1ying fluids. The change in the annular liquid hydrostatic
attributed to the continual vertical displacement of the
annular fluids by the containable fluid is given by Eq. 5.
‘Ap)2=[v’~:’=’l[(~)o..lvc~vcmx
~~‘6) The effect of a decrease in the gas volume on the liquid
hydrostatic during this stage can be determined by the
A combination of the pressure changes in Eqs. 5 and 6 expression:
and the initial liquid hydrostatic provides an instantaneous
-----
dr=terminatimn fif th- mmm,,ln- Iifit,irl h.,ri~n.+n+b.
. . .. . .. ...”.. “. .,, - C, L.r. u,q, ,,y”,u .,, ”,”.-.,-.

ALH, = ALH,.l + Ap, – Ap, . . . . . (7) icmu<vc <v. . . . . . . . (9)

This expression indicates that the volumetric behavior A combination of Eqs. 5 and 9 and the initial liquid
of a non-ideal gas decreases the annular liquid hydrostatic hydrostatic yields:
and subsequently tends to increase the annular backpres-
sure. Conversely, the replacement of the original drilling ALH = ALH,., + (Ap), – (AP),
v. ~mu=.=
<v. <yA , , , , , , , (!0)

A) (c) (D) As the gas is produced, the annular gas head is a func-
1000 s tion of the gas volume remaining in the annulus. The
Psl I
0-
e
655
0
659
0
3 2 -
0
PSI PSI

4 -
x

1-
L 6 -
1
:
n 8 -
u
n
J 10

~,21
0 100 171 900
VOLUME OF NEW MUD PUMP ED- BBLS.
START DI SP. DRILL NEW GAS WELL GAS DISP. WELL
OF DRILL PIPE MUC IN AT PRODUCING OUT ORIG. OPERATION
OPERATIOk PIPE DISPLACED ANNULUS SURFACE GAS MUD COMPLETE

Fig. 2A—Fluid position during a well control operation. Fig. 2B-Fluid position during a well control operation.

IiwI JO UR!UL OF PETROLEUM TECH NO I>OGY

annular gas head at any given instant within the gas pro- The gas deviation factor for a given gas may be esti-
duction stage is determined by’ mated from its specific gravity. The correlation charts’
for pseudo-critical properties of naturaI gases were used to
derive empirical equations expressing pseudo-critical pres-
. ...-. ~-~ t-m~~r~+,l.a. ;“ ~errn~ of
S.U1 c. a,,u .Gu. ywxcz. ”. “= . . .
cnecific
-r--...-
mavitv:
~-_.-.,

. . . . . . . . . . . . (11)
P..= 702 – (50) (y. ) . . (17)
The substitution of Eqs. 10 and 11 in Eq. 1 provides in-
TP. = 213.5 + (245) (y.) . . . . . . (18)
stantaneous annular backpressure solutions for this stage:
These equations represent linear relationships derived
Iv, - ~d,l [(~) _ (l!!l\ 1 + by a method of averages and are valid for the interval
PAB = ~,q
- ‘LH’- [ c. J [\dx)c.,, fdx)o..”] between 0.6 and 0.7 specific gravities.
The temperatures encountered during the gas expansion
[ *’4-::-W*)J 1
[“”0187’w$’:)(hG)
v,ma=<vc<va . . . . . . . . . (i2)
phase can be represented by pseudo-reduced temperatures
between 1.5 and 2.2. The individual plots of the correla-
tion curvesf for this interval reveaied an essentially iitiear
relationship between the gas deviation factor, pseudo-
The fluid positions during this stage are illustrated in sche-
reduced pressure and temperature for pseudo-reduced pres-
matic F of Fig. 2B.
sures greater than nine. A linear empirical equation
Stage 4 — Final Displacement expressing this relationship was derived by a method of
The complete displacement of the extraneous gas from averages. The derivation initially considered one variable
the wellbore initiates this final stage of the well control T,, temporarily constant and related z and p,, for each
cycle. According y, the annular liquid hydrostatic varies value of TP, by an equation of the type.
as a function of the transition in liquid densities resulting
from the displacement of the remaining original drilling
mud by the containable fluid. The relationship defining For each value of T., corresponding values of z and pp.
this incremental pressure transformation has been formu- were divided into two groups of three each and added. A
lated in Eq. 5. simultaneous solution of the summation equations yielded
The total liquid hydrostatic represents the summation values of m and b for each TP,. Beyond this point, the
of the initial liquid hydrostatic and the pressure increment procedure required that 171and h be expressed as functions
from Eq. 5: of T,,,
ALH= ALH,., + (Ap), . . . . . . . (13) ~=+(T9r) . . . . . . . . . .. (20)
The substitution of Eq. 13 in Eq. 1 yields the instan- b=h(Tp,) . . . . . . . . . . .(21)
taneous annular backpressure as a function of the volume
of the containable fluid circulated during this stage: The final equation becomes.

w< – V,pl ridp F(z) = #D(Tp,)G(Ppr) + II(T,r) . . (22)

PA, = PM– ALH,=,–
[ CA ]b)~if ‘(%] A semi-logarithmic plot of the independent variables m
VA< VC< VT, ..,,... .. (14) and b with T., established a linearity according to the
equations:
The fluid displacement is summarized in schematics G, H
and I of Fig. 2B for this stage. log Tp, =m,m+A, . . (23)
The complete displacement of the original fluids in the log Tp, =m2b+A, . . . (24)
system by the containable fluid terminates this stage and
concludes the well control operation. The solutions to the slope and Y intercept for these equa-
tions were evaluated using a method of averages. The sub-
Derivation of Non-Ideal stitution of the expressions for m and b in Eq. 22 yielded:
Gas Deviation Factors
0.55452 – log TV, log T,, + 0.00963
To complete the mathematical formulation, a set of z = P,, + p,, >9
empirical equations defining the real gas law deviation 5.1886 0.47273
factor : as a function of pseudo-reduced pressures and . . . . . . . . (25)
temperatures encountered within the gas expansion phase
was derived. The gas deviation factor is a dimensionless The maximum percent deviation between calculated and
quantity and, by definition. is the ratio of the volume a graphical values of the gas deviation factor for pseudo-
gas would actually occupy at a specific pressure and tem- reduced pressures greater than nine was less than 0.4 per-
cent for this empirical relationship.
perature to that volume it would occupy under ideal be-
havior? Pseudo-reduced pressure and temperature are de- F-or pseudo-reduced pressures iess than nine, iion-itkai
fined. respectively. as: gas deviation factors were evaluated by a linear interpola-
tive approximation. A two-dimensional array, representing
P graphical values of gas deviation factors corresponding to
pp. = —.. . . . .,, ,., ,. (15)
P.. the indicated pseudo-reduced pressures and temperatures,
provided the functional values for a linear interpolation.
and
The rows and columns of the z matrix represented pseudo-
T reduced temperatures and pressures, respective] y. A single
TV, = — . . . . . . . . . . . . (16) interpolation between columns provided approximate values
T,.
of the gas deviation factor co-linear with row values of
where pP, is the pseudo-critical pressure and T,. is the pseudo-reduced temperatures. For required functional val-
pseudo-critical temperature. ues interjacent to the matrix elements, two intercolumnar

891
interpolations, succeeded by an interlinear interpolation,
provided suitable values of the gas deviation factor. A
higher accuracy in the interpolated solutions could be ob-
tained by other finite dfierence methods if approximating
curves for this interval of the graph were derived.
Discussion
Computation and Verification of Model
Awell control operation’ typically encountered in South
Louisiana was selected for this study. A hand-calculated
solution to annular backpressure introduced by Records
et al? provided a reference for the justification of the
iterative computer t~hnique presented in this work. The
mathematical model developad in the previous section
formulated the basis for a source deck programmed in
Kingston FORTRAN II and analyzed by a 40-K IBM 1620
digital computer.
A comparison of the model output with the hand-calcu-
lated solution is shown in Fig. 3. An excellent agreement
between the two profiles occurs in stages 1, 3 and 4 where
the two curves are virtuaiiy superimposed. Tiie smaii cievi-
ation between the two profiles in stage 2 is probably due
to the differences in the initial temperature gradients used
and the interpolated z values computed by the model. The
hand-calculated method utilized a static mud temperature
gradient of 1F/ft for calculating an initial gas tempera-
ture. Successive gas temperature calculations were based
on a circulating mud temperature gradient of 0.00625 F/ft,
plus a surface temnw~.ture of 120F. All gas temperature
calculations by the model were based on a circulating mud
temperature gradient equal to the hand-calculated one. A
maximum departure between the two profiiea occurred for
:-*-.--1..*-A
m LG1 puId LGU .Z V~i”U6 lj@ bWWW~fi
sures of three and four where a maximum curvature of
the correlation curves occurs. Since the maximum pressure
difference for this interval was 32 psi, or a 1.79 percent de-
viation between the profiles, the model provides a vafid
prediction of annular backpressure for all stages of a well
control operation.
n;.x~ n.... nlsumy
r lCIUWs U2...--.
tively. The measured increase in the active pit volume indi-
cated that approximately 21 bbl of the extraneous gas had
entered the annulus prior to initial shut-in. A 3 Y2 -in. OD
drill string in an average hole size of 7% in. formed the
hole geometry. Two hours elapsed between initial shut-in
and the start of the well control operation. A computer
solution for these data was compared with the actual sur-
face casing pressures recorded during the well control op-
eration.
Fig. 4 illustrates considerable disagreement between the
model annular backpressure profile and the surface casing
pressure profile recorded for the well control operation.
The disagreement may be attributed largely to the ascent
of the gas bubble in the annulus during the 2-hour shut-in
period prior to the start of the well control operation, and
the circulating friction loss in the annulus. This is indicated
by the maximum surface casing backpressure occurring
approximately 90 bbl earlier than the maximum annular
backpressure predicted by the model. The maximum back-
pressure in both cases correspond to the arrival of the
gas at the surface and are 1,450 and 1,710 psi, respec-
casing pressure of 1,000 psi was applied at the surface
during the total displacement of the drill pipe by the con-
tainable fluid. Shut-in pressures taken at total displacement
of the drill pipe indicated a 200 psi differential between
Considering these results, it may be that the applied
casing pressure during the total displacement of the drill
pipe could have been too low, permitting a limited infil-
tration of additional gas into the annulus. Since the gas
j3Seii&i-iMkiCed piZS-
was at a point up in the annuh.is at the start of the well
control operation, it underwent a more rapid expansion
during this stage and subsequently would have required
greater surface casing pressures to balance formation pres-
sure. The additional 88 bbl in excess of the total hole
volume required to complete the well control operation
also supports this possibility, since it is about equal to the
dri!i nine
~.~-
riicnla nf S!7 ~~!. ~~~
-----------------
cement
-. --
~~ffi-~l~!~~ ~~ rn-~~~-

To illustrate the effect ot field variables on annular taining the correct surface casing pressure in this type of
backpressure profiles, an actual case history of a gas kick situation is realized since a constant drill pipe pressure
was investigated. The well control data recorded at the cannot be maintained due to the displacement of the
wellsite revealed that a 15.32 lb/gal formation gas kick original drilling mud in the drill pipe by the containable
occurred at 10,800 ft while drilling below 7s%-in. casing fluid; and an increase in pit volume must be anticipated
.w#uh,~ ~~.~ Il.
lU/
/.-.-1
Sal
-..,.!
lllUU .
7%-
1 llG
:-:+:..1
Illltlal
.L...
S1lUL-lll
:- --- . ...--”
JJl mSU1 CS
--
U1l
due tQ !h~ ~~nansinn
r-.------ of ~he g~~.

the drill pipe and casing were 350 and 1,000 psi, respec- This field case demonstrates that careful judgment on

g~~b . . .,, ,., ..

IF1ELDRE7
x x
‘1
-20 A 1 AS
m
n.
,!,
32

I — MODEL
m
m
u
ti9
L
F=n
!;L VOLUME

FI~
200
OF

3-Comparison
CONTAINABLE
400

of model and hand calculated

solutions for a well control operation.
MUD
\

600
CIRCULATE
800
D-BBL
100IJ
L---_hd
o
VOLUME

Fig. 4-Comparison
100
OF CONTAINABLE
200

of model solutions and surface

pressures for an actual well control operation.
300
MUD CIRCULATED-BBL
400 500

casing

892 JO IIRNA1. OF PETROLEUM TECH NO I.OCY

the part of experienced well control personnel must be
exercised in the interpretation of calculated annular back-
pressure profiles and in the actual conduct of a well con-
trol operation. The backpressure profile represents a the-
oretical prediction and the effect of field variables may
seriously affect its shape.
Utilization of the Model
A prime objective of this work is to establish the sig-
nificance of an optimum mud density, a minimum gas
influx and precision backpressure control as essential cri-
teria in the formulation of minimum annular backpressure
and equivalent fluid density profiles in unforeseen gas
kicks. To permit a qualitative prediction of these values,
various sized well kicks were evaluated for two gas specific
gravities. The estimation of formation pore pressures’ was
based on a normal pressure gradient of 0.465 psi/ft, a
sealing depth of 8,000 ft. and an abnormal pressure gradi-
ent of 1.0 psi/ ft below the sealing depth. This relationship
may be mathematically expressed as:
PE = 0.465Ds + l.o(~~.i – 19.\ ) . . .
PR = D.4~ – 0.535 D., . . . . . .
A 500-lb/sq in. underbalance between the original drilling
mud hydrostatic and the formation pressure was assumed
for all simulated well control operations. This produced
an equivalent shut-in drill pipe pressure of 500 lb/sq in. at
initial shut-in.
A separate program was formed to calculate the initial
conditions for 18 simulated well control operations. The
operations were characterized by gas influx volumes of
10, 40 and 80 bbl at kick depths of 10,000, 12,000 and
14.000 ft for 0.6 and 0.7 specific gravity gases. The flow
geometry consisted of a uniform 41A in. OD drill string in
an average hole size of 121/4 in.
A string of 13% -in., 68 lb/ft J-55 surface casing set at
3,500 ft provided a critical depth at the casing point for
evaluating equivalent tluid densities. The calculation of a
fracture gradient for a normai, pressured formation at this
depth is given by the relationship”
A comparison of annular backpressure and equivalent
fluid density profiles for the 80 bbl influx at 12,000 ft is
presented in Fig. 7 to show the effect of annular back-
pressure on equivalent fluid densities during a well con-
trol operation.
The simulated operation for a 40 bbl gas influx at
12,000 ft was selected arbitrarily y to illustrate the effects
of specific gravity and hole geometry on annular back-
pressure and equivalent fluid density profiles. The com-
puter solutions for 0.6 and 0.7 spec~lc gravity gases are
presented in Figs. 8 and 9. The profiles for 4.5 and 9
annulus-to-drill pipe volume ratios are compared in Figs.
10 and 11.
To point out the effect of a gas-cut drilling mud over-
lying the gas, the simulated operation for a 40-bbl gas
influx at 12,000 ft was selected. A 0.3 and 0.5 lb/gal reduc-
tion in annular mud density was assumed, and the com-
puter solutions are plotted with the original results for
comparison in Figs. 12 and 13.
To determine an optimum fluid density for a well con-
trol operation, the simulated operation for a 40-bbl gas
. (26)
influx at 12,000 ft was again selected. Four additional
computer runs were made for circulating mud densities
(27) lighter and heavier than the containable mud density of
12,38 lb/gal required to balance formation pressure. The
lighter mud densities were 11.58 lbt gal, representing no
r I
CURVE A - 10 BBL GAS INVLUX
CURVE B - 40 BBL GAS INFLUX
[ CURVE C - 80 BBL GAS INFLUX

F = 0.465+ K(O.535) . . . (28)

I!”i’u
o 400 800 1200 1600
VOLUME OF CONTAINABLE MUD CIRCULATED-BBL
Matthews and Kelly have shown that the matrix stress
Fig. 5—Eflecr of gas influx volume on annular
coefficient K and fracture gradient for wells at this depth
backpressure profile.
in the Louisiana Gulf Coast are approximately 0.45 and
--,. -..,
u. me I~/sq in.i ft. respective y. $h.sbsequenti y, the equivalent
fluid density profiles for each hypothetical operation in-
vestigated were compared with 0.7 lb/sq in./ft and 0.8
lb/sq in./ft fracture gradients at this critical point. Since
formations characterized by these fracture gradients pos-
sess a greater susceptibility to parting than the overlying
12 c
casing. the effect of the latter has not been entered, for ~ -~~~~--GwD--:-Q.8--
----------------------------
comparison, on the equivalent fluid density graphs. The
competency of this casing exceeded the maximum equiva-
PRES GRAD = 0.7
lent fluid densities imposed by all the simulated operations ---------------------
investigated. A computer solution of the predicted annular 4
backpressure and equivalent fluid densities for the indi- GAS INFLUX 5
6-
CURVE A - 10 BBL
vidual simulated operations was obtained. A three-variable CURVE B - 40 BBL GAS INFLUX
CURVE C - 80 BBL GAS INFLUX
correlation representing annular backpressure, volume of
containable mud circulated and gas influx volumes for the
0.6 specific gravity gas at 12,000 ft is presented graphically
in Fig. 5. The pressure profiles represent precision back- o 400 800 1200 1600
pressure control for an optimum fluid density equivalent VOLUME OF CONTAINABLE FLUID CIRCULATE D-BBL
to formation pressure at total depth. A similar graph was
constructed for the equivalent fluid density solutions (Fig. Fig. 6-Ef7ect of gas influx volume on equivalent fluid
6). density profiles.

.\l’C[l ST. llJfil! 893

increase in original drilling mud density and 12.0 lb/gal corresponding annular backpressure profiles characterized
representing an intermediate mud density. The heavier by the various mud densities.
mud densities utilized were 12.68 lb/gal and 12.88 lb/gal Several diagnostic curves are presented in Figs. 16
representing, respectively, 0.3 ibigai and 0.5 ib/gai in- through ifi to illustrate the behavior of cer’&iii V21T&it?S
creases in mud density. A three-dimensional crossplot during the progress of a well control operation. Fig. 16
(Fig. 15) of equivalent fluid density vs volume of fluid provides a useful correlation between annular gas volume
circulated, permitted excellent visual interpretation of and volume of the containable fluid circulated. The gas
the effect of various mud densities on equivalent fluid expansion curves for 10, 40 and 80 bbl influx volumes
density profiles. The co-planar curves in Fig. 14 relate the were plotted for the 0.6 specific gravity gas kick at 12,000
PL .
VL.- —.-:—..—
I1lC. lndxllllullluuLdulcu
..-1..—-
Uy UIG gas
VUIU1llC
-LL.:..,J
W1lG1l it
i... +1.e. -,.- . ..ha.. .

reaches the surface may be determined graphically by

constructing a 45° diagonal through ordinate and abscissa
values equal to the annular volume. The ordinate
value represents the maximum gas volume if the annulus
were completely filled with gas. The point on the abscissa
equals the annular volume with no gas in the annulus.
The intersection of any gas expansion curve with the
diagonal provides ordinate values equal to the maximum
gas volume when it reaches the surface. The vertical line
drawn from the point of intersection to the abscissa gives
~CURVE A - EQUIV. FLUID DEN. PROFILE the volume of containable fluid circulated at the instant
z
J ~
ICURVE B - ANN. BACK PRES. PROFILE
\!
the gas arrives at the surface. This solution of V.~,X can
be used to determine the corresponding annular backpres-

: “o~, 400 800 1200 1600

VOLUME OF CONTAINABLE
Fig. 7—Ej7ect of annular backpressure
fluiddensit yprofiles.
i sure and the equivalent fluid densities for this point.
The gas expansion curve also represents thechange inpit
MUD CIRCULATEO-BBL level due to gas expansion during the well control opera-
on equivalent tion.

x
-t _ 15
CURVE A - ANN/DP = 4.5
CURVE B - ANN/OP ❑ 9.0

z CURVE B - 0.7 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

2
$
<o . “o 400 . 800 1200 1600
0 400 800 1200 1600
VOLUME OF CONTAINABLE MUD CIRCULATED-BBL
voLuME OF cONTAINABLE MUD CIRCULATED-BBL
Fig. 10-Eflect O} hole geometry on annular
Fig. &E#ect of specific gravity on annular back-
backpressure profiles.
pressure profiles.
416
a ..-.-----__-___ -?Bg>-.--GBAp2--=- _QLe--_. -_-__ ------_,
0
\
* A
1
B -i
z
_14
m --?R-E5.L_GB_AQ-..
-.=.
-9-.
-z------------------------------
z I \ i
:
e12
2
CURVE A - 0.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
i [ Y 7
1-
CURVE B - 0.7 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
~

y 10
z
u-l CURVE B = ANN/OP = 9.0
a
> I 2
>

St—e———d
o
VOLUME OF
400
CONTAINABLE
800
MUD
1200
CIRCULATED-BBL
1600
?s~
J

o 400 800 1200 1600

VOLUME OF CONTAINABLE MUO CIRCULATED-BBL

Fig. 9-Eflect of s;ecific gravity on equivalent fluid Fig. 11—Eflect of hole geometry on equivalent fluid
density profiles. density profiles.

JOURNAL OF PI!TROLE(’M TECHNOLOGY

 Results of Investigation circulated. A maximum backpressure of 1,348 psi occurs at
point 5 when the gas reaches the surface. This point cor-
Effect of Gas Influx Volusne responds to 1.252 bbl of containable fluid circulated, and
Fig. 5 shows the adverse effect of large gas influx vol- an equivalent fluid density of 12.38 lb/gal. Since this rep-
umes on annular backpressure profiles. The selection of resents a 3.72 lb/gal reduction below the maximum equiva-
10, 40 and 80 bbl feed-ins represented probable minimum, lent fluid density, the maximum backpressure at point 5
average and large magnitudes, respectively, for this param- does not present so great a threat to lost circulation as
eter. The pressure profile for the 10 bbl influx at 12,000 do the pressures existing between points 1 and 3, par-
ft indicates that the maximum backpressure occurring at ticularly, and between points 3 and 4 on the annular back-
total displacement of the drill pipe and at the instant the pressure profile. The significance of equivalent fluid den-
gas bubble arrives at the surface are approximately equal. sitv, =––-––––
mofiles is that they directly relate the effect of required
The 40 and 80 bbl influx curves show that the maximum annular backpressure to minimum fracture gradients that
backpressure occurs when the gas bubble reaches the are tolerable by exposed casing strings and underlying for-
surface. For this hypothetical case, influx volumes less mations.
than 10 bbl would have a maximum annular backpressure
at
,4:....1.,.---”+ ,.C +r.a
tds! Ulaplaeclllcllb U1 UIG
.4.:11
U1 111
..:..
plpG.
- D -e..
Jxcaul
I+..
La
of ~fi

earlier work by W. A. Rehm indicated the maximum Figs. 8 and 9 show that the annular backpressure and
annular backpressure is directly proportional to the square equivalent fluid densities for a 0.6 specific gravity gas are
ran+
, ““.
r.f
“,
A-
U,U
“..
p,”v,”cw
~as “.,,.s,
:“s.. ”
pl, a,,, c.c, a a,=
I,,,,”*,
.
,,=,”
. . . . ..M.4 Atr. m. ,.. ..--+-.. ..- I.-1A -..= ....= ~. —.-.
cliuhtlv urt=atc=.r (),7 ~--
~h~~mavitv
.-., gas, whfle the
~~Qs~ f~~ ~

constant. Thus, the maximum annular backpressure for a gas remains within the annuhts. Fig. 9 indicates that a
40 bbl gas influx would be twice that of a 10 bbl gas kick. fracture gradient of 0.7 psi/ft at the critical depth would
r+ .r.fil.l~
IL a,,”u, u r.-“G ..,.+a~
,I” LGLJA..+
u,a L d.:. -.-+:- il..
tills, saaG’,L’a,,y, :. ...Lm+m,.
,> W,,at , LE. ,c “,
-~ not h~v~ ~~~~~in~d either Qf fhese fwn gas kicks. A frac-
the subject paper indicates. ture gradient of 0.8 psi/ft at critical depth would have
Fig. 6 reveals an interesting relationship between the tolerated either gas kick if precision backpressure control
equivalent fluid densities resulting at critical depth and had been observed.
volume of containable fluid circulated as a function of ~ff~gf Qf Ho!~ Genmetrv
--- —-- .
gas influx volumes. The shape of the profiles is changed Figs. 10 and 11 illustrate the adverse effect of small
significantly as a different fluid traverses this critical point. hole geometries on annular backpressure and equivalent
The interval between points 1 and 3 for each influx curve fluid density profiles. A reduction in hole geometry com-
represents the traversal of the original drilling mud in the presses the profiles and creates higher annular backpres-
annul us across the critical depth and into the casing. The sure and equivalent fluid densities. This is due to the
shape of this segment of the equivalent fluid density pro- longer annular space occupied by the gas in smaller hole
file is similar to the corresponding interval on the annular geometries.
L,.,.b.. -... ”..-a
ud&qJ1cmulc U1ll C, allu
-.-al-
lcpl
pl
.-A
CSC1l L> d ualllpcllrxr cxpulltm-
----------- - J. —----A ---------

Fig. 11 indicates that the maximum equivalent fluid

tial curve due to the hydrostatic pressure of the contain-
able fluid in the annulus. The interval between points 3 density for the annulus-to-drill pipe volume ratio of 4.5
and 4 shows a rapid decrease in equivalent fluid densities occurs when the gas bubble arrives at the critical depth.
as the gas traverses the critical point. The shape of the A formation with a fracture gradient of 0.8 psi/ft prob-
..I.l..
dUl y
. . . . . ...1.4
WUUIU
l.-.,.?.
Ua V G
L-,.r, a..
WI U?.G1l
A.-...
UU
>..
W 11
.,+
_ L
H.; . .
.11,-
..-;
y“,,,.,
S++ .;”Z.-
0.,---
+ha
..,-
equivalent fluid density profile to the right of point 4
equivalent fluid density slightly exceeds this fracture gradi-
is independent of gas influx volumes and varies accord-
ent. A fracture gradient of 0.8 psi/ft at the critical depth
ing to the liquid densities below the critical point. The
would have sustained the equivalent fluid densities pre-
interval between points 4 and 5 represents the traversal
dicted for the annulus-to-drill pipe volume ratio of nine. A
of the original drilling mud (below the gas) across the
formation with a fracture gradient of 0.7 psi/ft would
critical point and into the casing. Point 5 marks the
have broken down at initial shut-in for both kicks.
arrival of the containable fluid at the critical point. A
balanced U-tube of the containable fluid exists below the Effect of Gas-Cut Annulus
critical depth at this point, and the equivalent fluid densi- Figs. 12 and 13 show the detrimental effect of a gas-cut
ties equal the containable mud density for the remainder annulus on annular backpressure and equivalent fluid den-
of the well control operation. sities. The initial shut-in casing pressures and equivalent
A 0.7 psi/ft fracture gradient at the critical depth would fluid densities are greater for gas-cut annuli. Fig. 13 indi-
not have sustained these kicks. A 0.8 psi/ ft fracture cates that the maximum equivalent fluid densities for the
gradient would have sustained the 10- and 40-bbl influxes. 0.3 lb/gal and 0.5 lb/gal gas-cut annuli occur at initial shut-
but would not have tolerated the 80-btd influx. in. Fracture gradients of 0.7 psi/ft or 0.8 psi/ft at the
critical depth would not have sustained these two kicks.
Effect of Annular Backpressure on The lower curve represents a kick, without a gas-cut an-
Equivalent Fluid Density Profiles
l-— - -L . . . .. .L - –., -A. -—– L:.– . . . . . –.— -L– –——. .,-— L- –,.
nulus. that would have been tolerated by the 0.8 psi/ft
rig. / snows me relauonsrup r3ecween me annular back- fracture gradient. A formation having a 0.7 psi/ft fracture
pressure and equivalent fluid density profiles for the 80 bbl gradient would have broken down at initial shut-in for
influx. Note that the two maximum equivalent fluid den- this kick.
sities occur at the total displacement of the drill pipe
(point 2) and at the arrival of the gas at the critical point Effect of Ckcuhting Mud Densities
(point 3). Both are approximately equal to 16.1 lb/gal. Fig. 15 illustrates the effect of five different circulating
This figure indicates that the threat of lost circulation is mud densities on equivalent fluid density profiles at the
greater at these two points for the well control operation. critical point for simulated well control operations. The
Since the interval between points 1 and 3 is only slightly three-dimensional crossplot of the profiles may be viewed
curved, the danger of lost circulation is imminent untif as an irregular trough with the optimum mud density pro-
the gas is circulated above the critical point for fracture file delineating its base, and the profiles representing mud
gradients slightly greater than 16.1 lb/gaL Point 3 on the densities lighter or heavier than optimum forming the
equivalent fluid density profile corresponds to an annular side of the trough. The profiles representing mud densities
backpressure of 815 psi at 948 bbl of containable fluid lighter than optimum have equivalent fluid densities higher
a9s
than the optimum values after total displacement of the
drill pipe. The maximum equivalent fluid densities for the
lighter muds occur when the gas reaches the critical point.
The high equivalent fluid densities at the end of the well
control operations for the lighter muds are due to the
shut-in casing pressures representing a pressure differential
between bottom-hole pressure and the hydrostatic head of
the lighter mud densities. The equivalent fluid densities
for the mud densities greater than optimum exceed the
optimum values at a point during the initial displacement
of the drill pipe when the hydrostatic head of the liquids
in the drill pipe and the effective pump pressure below the
bit exceed the bottom-hole pressure. Beyond this point, the
profiles for the heavier muds remain greater than the
optimum profile. The maximum equivalent fluid densities
for the heavier mud densities occur at the total displace-
ment of the drill pipe, The high equivalent fluid densities
at the end of the well control operations for the heavier
muds are due to the difference in hydrostatic heads be-
tween the heavier muds and the optimum fluid.
A mud density that will exactly balance bottom-hole
pressure is the optimum mud density with which to prop-
erly contain a well. (See Fig. 15.) Mud densities other
than optimum produce higher equivalent fluid densities
at a Ciiibi Ckj3i21 ~iid Zie Cit?i~iIli~ii’@l t(l ~ ‘WW COi]&CJi
operation. The lighter mud weights impose a further ag-
gravation since they produce shut-in casing pressures at
the end of a complete circulation. This analysis is based
on a procedure that maintains a constant circulating drill
pipe pressure subsequent to the instant the total hydro-
static head internal to the drill pipe equals bottom-hole
pressure. Obviously, if a loss of circulation occurred at
initial shut-in or during the well control operation, mud
weights lighter than optimum are necessary in an attempt
to remedy this dilemma. Fig. 14 summarizes the annular
backpressure for the 11.58 lb/gal, 12.88 lb/gal and 12.38
lb/gal (optimum) mud densities.
Uses of Model
The results supportan earlier work concerning the im-
portance of annular backpressure profiles associated with
controlled gas kicks. More significantly, the iterative com-
puter technique presented permits a rapid determination
of minimum equivalent fluid density profiles that are toler-
able at a critical point within the wellbore for various
sized well kicks and fracture gradients. This diagnostic
feature of the model is oriented toward the appropriate
location of casing points, efficient progress in drilling with
minimum mud weights and a safe tolerance in the event a
+h.a.
L,,,w. +a”aA
Q’,eu l.l
“,”A..,a,.
W”LJC t ..
;. a“,.,-.,,”t,maA
-11-””,1.-lku.
The advantage of this computational technique is real-
ized when a change in any input variable necessitates the

‘1 I
:12 CURVE A - 12.88#/GAL “MUD
1 x
CURVE B - 12.38+i/GAL MUD
-15
m CURVE C - 11.58#/GAL MUD
‘lo -
m —-.
L “\
1
~8 ---- +.
2
m
:6
n. F A -,
U
:4
CURVE A - MUD NOT GAS-CUT
m
CURVE B - 0.3 #/GAL GAS-CUT MUD
w CURVE C - 0.5 #/GAL GAS-CUT MUD
52
3 I H
2 -o
z 400 800 1200 1600
ao VOLUME OF NEW MUD CIRCULATED-BBL
o 400 800 1200 16OO
VOLUME OF CONTAINABLE MUD CIRCULATED-BBL
Flg.14-Eflect of circiilating mud densities onannulur
:Fig.12-Efiect of gas-cut annuli cm annular backpressur epro,files.
backpressure profiles.
(1) - 11.58#/GAL
(2) - 12.oo#/GAL
\Yy, (3) - 12.38#/GAL

CURVE A - MUD NOT GAS-CUT

CURVE B - 0.3 #/GAL GAS-CUT MUD
CURVE c - 0.5 #/GAL GAS-CUT MUD
7

i
J
8A
400 800 1200 1600
VOLUME OF CONTAINABLE MUD CIRCULATED-BBL VOLUME OF NEW MUD CIRCULATED-BBL

Fig. 13-E,f)ect of gas-cut annuli on equivalent fluid Fig. 15-Eflect of circulating mud densities on equivalent
density profiles. fluid density profiles.

:,<,,, J4)I’RN.\L OF PETROLEI’M TECH!SOLOGY

 .

formulation of new solutions. In light of this investiga. F = fracture gradient, psi/ft

tion, the utility of the model should form an integral part K = matrix stress coefficient. dimensionless
in the design and accomplishment of drilling programs.
Subscripts
Conclusions i = index for a volume iteration
A = annulus
This mathematical model, when used within the frame- ODM = original drilling mud
work of the assumptions made in the derivation, provides c = circulated
a realistic prediction of the annular backpressure and dP = drill pipe
equivalent fluid densities associated with controlled gas c m.x = volume circulated at instant gas reaches sur-
kicks. face
Low gas specific gravities, large gas influx volumes and AB = annular backpressure
gas-cut drifling muds produced appreciable or pronounced csi = shut-in casing pressure
increass in annular backpressure and equivalent fluid den- CM = containable mud
sity pn fdes, and are detrimental to a well control opera- T = downhole fluid volume
tion. A substantial increase in annular backpressure and h4P = mid-point
equivalent fluid densities results when mud densities either G = gas
in excess of or lighter than optimum are used. Large well- R = reservoir
bore geometries and small hydrostatic underbalances min- pr = pseudo-reduced
imize fluid pressure distribution within an annulus. An PC = pseudo-critical
optimum drilling mud density should be the minimum mud N = normal pressured
weight to safeiy contain the formation ~~t3SYtiit3 =iid il~- .~AN = abn~-~.ai Pressured
verse hole conditions encountered, as well as to allow the
critical depth to withstand the equivalent fluid densities References
created by an unexpected threatened blowout. 1. Records, L. R., Everett, R H. and Bergeron, W. J.: “Blow-
A knowledge and observance of these conclusions shouId out Control of Drilling Wells”, The Stooksberry Tank Com-
contribute to the formulation of minimum equivalent fluid pany Well Control Unit, Inc. (April, 1962).
density and annular backpressure profiles, and in increased 2. O“Brien, T. B. and Goins, W. C., Jr.: “The Mechanics of
efficiency in the control of a threatened blowout. The safe Blowouts and How to Control Them”’, API Dwlsion of
and expeditious accomplishment of a drilling objective by Production, Southern District (March, 1960).
properly applied well control technology results in a mini-
mum expenditure in exploration and development capital,
and forms the basis of a successful drilling venture.

Nomenclature
ALH = annular liquid hydrostatic, psi
V = fluid volume, bbl
C = annular capacity between drill pipe and aver-
age hole size, bbl/ft
dp/dX = Liquid pressure gradient, psi/ft
p = pressure, psi
T = temperature at bottom of gas column, “R
z = non-ideal gas deviation factor, dimensionless
AGH- = annuiar gas head, psi
y, = gas specific gravity, dimensionless I
h = annular height, ft 0.8 ; 1600
400 800 1200
D = depth. ft VOLUME OF CONTAINABLE MUD CIRCULATEO-BBL

sib
-.=. 17_var~a~~on
-, jn ga$ deviation factor
during a well
control operation.

0
0 s -
0
.

: p=. :

0 60
0 400 800 1200 1600
VOLUME OF CONTAINABLE MUD CIRCULATED-BBL VOLUME OF CONTAINABLE MUD CIRCULATEO-BBL

~~g. ~~.~flnli!gr gas expansion curves for simulated well Fig. 18-Ga.s pressure and temperature profiles /or a well
control operations. control operation.

\I”C115T. 1068 897

 .

3. Schurman, G. A. and Bell, D. C.: “An Improved Procedure

for Handling a Threatened Blowout”, J. Pet. Tech. (April,
1966) 437-444.
4. Griffin, Phil: “A Graphical Method of Blowout Control”,
Pet. Eng. (March, 1966) 86-98.
5. Craft, B. C. and Hawkins, Murray, F.: Applied petroleunl
Reservoir Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
N. J. (1959) 14-25.
6. Brown, G. G., Katz, D. L., Oberfell, G. B. and Alden,
R. C.: Natural Gasoline and Volatile Hydrocarbons, NGAA
( 1948) 44.
7. Standing, M. B. and Katz, D. L.: “Density of Natural J. L. LeBlanc (right) received hi.!BS and MS degree.s in
Gases”, Trans., AIME (1942) 146, 159-165. petroleum engineering from the U. of Southwestern Louisi-
8. Ham, H. H.: “A Method of Estimating Formation Pres- ana in 1958 and 1967, respectively. During thal time he
sures From Gulf Coast Well Logs”, Trans., Gulf Coast worked as a petroleum engineer for The Pure Oil Co. and
Assn. of Geol. Societies (1966) XVI, 185-197. Drilling Well Control Inc. He is currently enrolled in the
9. Matthews, W. R. and Kelly, J.: “How to Predict Formation graduare school of The U. of Texas. Ronald L. Lewis (lejt)
Pressures and Fracture Gradient From Electric and Sonic is an assistant professor in the petroleum engineering de-
Logs”, Oil and Gas J. (Feb. 20, 1967) 92-106.
partment of the U. of Southwestern Louisiana. A graduate
10. Le Blanc, J. L.: “A Mathematical Model of the Effects of of the Colorado School of Mines with BS and MS degrees
Non-Ideal Gas Intrusions and Related Field Phenomena on
Well Control”, MS Thesis, The U. of Southwestern Lou- in petroleum engineering, Lewis joined USL in 1963 after
isiana, Lafayette (Aug., 1967 ). working as a petroleum engineer for Mobil Oil C!orp.

11)1 Ii\.\l. OF PKIROI. EIM 1}:(:H.N01.0G%