HULAMIN EXTRUSIONS

DESIGN MANUAL 2016

Think Future. Think Aluminium.

 Hulamin Extrusions

When you combine the generic benefits of aluminium

as a material with the extrusion process, you have
the potential for an outstanding product design and
performance.

With this in mind, we are sure the Extrusion Design

Manual will encourage creative solutions based on
aluminium extrusions.

Published by Hulamin Extrusions

2

Hulamin Extrusions

When you combine the generic benefits of aluminium

as a material with the extrusion process, you have
the potential for an outstanding product design and
performance.

With this in mind, we are sure the Extrusion Design

Manual will encourage creative solutions based on
aluminium extrusions.

Published by Hulamin Extrusions

 1

Contents

A. GENERAL SECTION
1. Introduction..................................................................................... 2
2. Aluminium extrusion paves the way forward...................................... 3
3. Aluminium extrusion applications...................................................... 4
4. Hulamin Extrusions – your aluminium partner.................................... 6
5. Aluminium – from bauxite to recycling............................................... 10
6. The properties of aluminium.............................................................. 13
7. Extrusion design and manufacture..................................................... 14
8. Surface treatment............................................................................. 17
9. Fabrication....................................................................................... 18
10. Packaging and transport................................................................... 19
11. Recycling......................................................................................... 19
12. Purchasing extrusions from Hulamin Extrusions................................. 20
13. Things to remember when considering extrusions.............................. 21

B. TECHNICAL SECTION
1. Alloys.............................................................................................. 24
2. Properties........................................................................................ 24
3. Overview......................................................................................... 26
4. Corrosion......................................................................................... 27
5. Types of extrusions.......................................................................... 29
6. General design principles.................................................................. 30
7. Joining............................................................................................ 33
8. Fabrication...................................................................................... 46
9. Plastic forming................................................................................. 50
10. Surface treatment............................................................................ 51
11. Surface criteria................................................................................ 57
12. Tolerances....................................................................................... 58
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1. Introduction

Our Extrusion Design Manual has been written assembly, fabrication and surface treatment
and illustrated for a wide ranging audience: to support you in the process of developing
your ideas.
• for our staff, so that they can better
understand the capabilities of extrusions; Our entire organization strives to support
• for aluminium stockists and distributors, customers with quality extrusions, service and
 so that they can help their customers with support.
design and specification support;
• for our customers, so that they can optimize Contact us directly at any of our plants as
the development of new and existing indicated on the back page or visit our web
products with an understanding of the site at: www.hulaminextrusions.co.za
aluminium extrusion process;
• for people new to aluminium extrusions
and its application such as students at
tertiary institutions or the creative
individual, looking to create new and
innovative solutions.

The Extrusion Design Manual is a source of

information and inspiration. In it you will
find practically all there is to know about
aluminium extrusions and the opportunities
they offer as a material. Once your idea has
got off the ground, we are only too willing
to help you find a solution. Together, we
can realize functional, cost-effective and
profitable product solutions!

The book is divided into two parts. The General

Section (A) gives a broad overview of our range
of activities and products. It is followed by the
Technical Section (B), which goes into more
detail, giving in-depth information on aspects
such as extrusion alloys, design principles,

2. Aluminium Extrusion paves the way forward
Aluminium has been correctly described as
‘the material of opportunity’ and, after steel,
is currently the most widely-used metal.
A mere recital of its characteristics is
impressive. Few other metals exhibit such
a unique combination of properties – high
strength and low weight, good electrical and
thermal conductivity, excellent formability,
good resistance to corrosion, attractive
surface finishing and it’s affordable – which
means it can be used in practically all design
contexts and product applications. Some
alluminium alloys have strengths higher than
that of structural steels! There is no limit to
the number of times that aluminium can be
recycled. None of its properties reduce and
the recycling process consumes only 5% of the
initial input energy used to extract aluminium
out of its natural state.
Creative Design
The extrusion process provides virtually
unlimited opportunities to adapt the shape of
the product as required. Functions can be built
in that cut costs by using fewer components,
reducing finishing operations and simplifying
assembly. Aluminium extrusions are a
prerequisite for, and inspiration to creative
designs and technical solutions that improve,
simplify and reduce costs. Furthermore, the
cost of dies are, relatively speaking, very low in
comparison to other high volume production
processes such as roll forming, pressure die
casting and machining.
Extend the limits
The use of aluminium extrusions is increasing
rapidly throughout the world and it is
continually being used in new applications.
As a construction material, aluminium
extrusions provide the opportunity to think
along completely new lines and extend
the limits of what is possible. It was only a
couple of decades ago that aluminium ladders
were a big innovation, heavy vehicle trailer
chassis manufactured fom aluminium were
3
an impossibility, construction components
such as aluminium windows were virtually
unthought-of and major load-bearing
constructions of extrusions were not feasible.
Today, you have a ladder made from extrusions
supplied by Hulamin Extrusions on top of
Mount Everest! Heavy vehicle trailer chassis
of aluminium are quickly becoming a common
sight. Architects now specify the majority of
window frames in coastal and inland areas in
aluminium. This is due to aluminium’s good
corrosion resistance, esthetical qualities
and low maintenance that the products
require together with the increased life span.
Aluminium and aluminium extrusions are not
just a reality. It is a part of everyday life and
a necessity for your business giving a long
operating life, saving energy and providing
good economics. Who wants to carry a
wooden ladder around that weighs more than
one made of aluminium, is not as strong,
will not last as long and can not be recycled?
Which haulage contractor chooses a platform
of wood and steel that substantially reduces
the load capacity, increases fuel cost and last
half as long? Only the uninformed …. but that
is why Hulamin Extrusions is here to pave the
way forward!
Think Freely !
Hulamin Extrusions will continue to
revolutionise your way of developing and
providing new designs and product solutions.
Hopefully our Extrusion Design
Manual will inspire you
and give you some
new ideas. We
are here to help
you.
Think freely
- think
H u l a m i n
Extrusions!
4
3. Aluminium Extrusion Applications
Once an unknown metal, Aluminium has
grown in application since 1886 when the
process to extract Aluminium from its oxide
was discovered. Today it is the second most
common metal used with varied applications
in practically all businesses, products and
environments. Let’s take a short trip through
your daily life and point out some interesting
examples.
Are you or your goods on the move?
Aluminium is widely used in some of the
w o r l d s ’ exclusive automobiles and the
use of aluminium extrusions in
the transport sector is
increasing rapidly. Buses,
trains, aircraft, trucks,
trailers and boats all benefit
from the good properties of
aluminium, creating strong
and light weight constructions
with long working lives and a
good resistance to corrosion.
Every kilogram in weight reduction
increases the load capacity (income
earner) and cuts fuel consumption
(profit reducer). The resulting
decrease in carbon emissions,
so widely spoken about today, is
significant. Contribute towards
your environment. Choose
Hulamin aluminium!
In need of some distraction?
Entertainment and e-commerce, accessed
through computers, are setting the pace of
trade and leisure today. The equipment used
to print photos of your family and friends,
which you obviously framed in an extruded
aluminium picture frame, contain components
manufactured from a myriad of extrusion
profiles such as heat sinks and specialised
frame elements all designed to fulfill a certain
function. TV’s, DVDs, Blu Ray all have a shelf
life today. In a short time it’ll be obsolete,
making space for new technology.
The Aluminium used in that equipment will be
recycled and re-used in the new technology
you’re going to purchase! And for businesses
there are specially designed cabinets providing
all the benefits required by the electronics
that are neatly and safely stacked inside. Now
wouldn’t you want your company’s IT backbone
in one of these? Aluminium = versatility! Built-
in functions in the extrusions that reduce the
number of components and simplify assembly
and component connections as well as an
attractive finish and good thermal conductivity
are just some of the strong arguments for the
use of aluminium in these products.
Are you thirsty after mowing the lawn or
painting the garden wall?
No problem; just grab hold of the aluminium
door handle of your refrigerator for that ice cold
can, which is most likely also manufactured
from aluminium plate. After all the
exertion, lunch is almost ready in the
aluminium electric cooker. Sometimes
you wonder why you bought it, since
“braai”-ing gives you an excuse
to relax a while but you instantly
remember it was a gift you gave your
wife. She was overawed by its stunning
ergonomic design and how well it
works. Truth be told, everywhere you

look in your kitchen there is aluminium,
from the freezer to the fittings on the
cupboard doors, frames, pots, pans
and trims. Even hidden away in the
microwave to protect the electronics
from overheating you know you’ll find
an aluminium heat sink. Aluminium’s
characteristics provide for so much
more with attractive surface finishes. It is
easy to keep clean and handle due to its low
weight, yet it is durable and strong.
Let’s get active!
This will mean that you have to focus your
energy where you need it most. It requires
resilience and strength combined with low
weight, formability and a high-quality surface
finish of your sport equipment, manufactured
out of aluminium to give you the edge.
Now where shall we go?
No matter whether you stay at home or go out
for a night on the town, you’ll find windows and
doors to look through; framed and supported
by esthetically pleasing aluminium window
systems. How ‘bout comfortably leaning back
on the 5th story balcony at your beachfront
apartment, and supporting yourself with the
balustrades, while non-chalantly sipping on
your cocktail; no worries in mind; quietly
thankful that you used aluminium.
No hard work sanding and repainting like
your neighbour has to do every year…Minimal
maintenance, strength and low weight,
high stability and long service life are the
guidelines when choosing aluminium building
components. The construction industry is
one of the largest consumers of aluminium
extrusions.
Want to make your work easier?
The frame of the white board in the conference
room on which you are deftly laying out the
future strategy of the company is made from
aluminium. You notice the hanging strips
lining the walls in the modern boardroom,
knowing it made your team’s life easy when
you were hanging all the sheets in your
5
strategy-
brainstorming
session, picking the best ones
from the wall and refining them.
Before the revamp you remember
the last plastic ruler you broke out
of shear frustration of having to
use sticky tape (if you could find
any!) to stick the papers to the wall.
Now you’ve got an indestructible
ruler, like your new strategy. The
architect, in his wisdom, gave
you an aluminium ruler with his
logo on it! You’ll be doing business
with him again. As you leave
the boardroom you have one
last look before you close the
door.
The wood grain finish on the extruded
aluminium table frame catches your eye…
Wow! No more water stains on the boardroom
table! You swipe your hand on the inside of the
wall and darkness falls upon the boardroom as
the LED lamps die in their aluminium holders.
Now that you’ve got an appetite for
aluminium, go and buy yourself a pepper steak
pie. Then you can hold the aluminium pie dish
in your hands while you devour the delicious
treat. Many more examples of products made
wholly or partially of aluminium, whether it is
extrusions or rolled products, could have been
added here. Who knows… maybe your product
will soon be on our list!
6
4. Your Aluminium Partner
Hulamin is Africa’s leading
manufacturer of semi-
fabricated aluminium and has been
providing solutions in South Africa
since 1935 when Aluminium Limited of
Canada (Alcan) opened a sales office in
South Africa, which was followed in 1940 by
the registration of the Aluminium Company
of South Africa. Since then the company
has gone through a number of corporate
changes and has made significant strides in
recent years – expanding its manufacturing
capabilities and the expertise of its people.
Hulamin’s listing on the JSE took place on the
25th of June 2007 when the Tongaat Hulett
Group Limited unbundled and uses the stock
exchange ticker HLM. Today Hulamin consists
of many divisions dealing in semi-fabricated
Aluminium products of which Hulamin Rolled
Products and Hulamin Extrusions are the
biggest.
As the names indicate, Hulamin’s major semi-
fabrication activities are concentrated in the
rolling and extrusion of aluminium.
The Hulamin rolling mill in Pietermaritzburg
meets the stringent requirements of ISO
9001: 2000 for quality assurance and control
systems. The Rolled Products division also
boasts Lloyds, RVA, SANAS, DNV and ABS
accreditation. This means both local and
international customers can be assured that
quality matches (and often exceeds), world
standards.
Hulamin is known world-wide for its
commitment to customer service and quality.
The company supplies many different semi-
fabricated products into a variety of market
sectors. The major categories in the company’s
rolled products sector are: mill finish and
pre-painted coil, heat-treated and non-heat
treated plate, flat and embossed sheet, tread
plate and Treadbrite®, clad products for heat
exchangers, foil, can-end and closure stock,
circles and fin stock.
These products are supplied to local and
international market sectors which include
the general engineering, building, transport,
automotive, cookware and electrical markets.
Coated can-end, tab stock, closure sheet and
foil are supplied specifically to the packaging
markets.
Hulamin Rolled Products has significantly
grown its market presence and has had
several major rolling mill expansion projects
of which the most recent two projects not only
quadrupled the capacity to 200 000 tons but
also added technologically advanced twin cast
rollers which makes use of continuous casting
processes to increase productivity and output
even further. We now supply customers in
more than 60 countries. Our soundly managed
market entry strategies are complemented by
the supply of consistent high-quality products
to our customers; no matter where they are.
Having built a formidable reputation as
a globally competitive semi-fabricator of
aluminium products, Hulamin has embarked
on an ambitious growth strategy that is driven
by the exacting needs of our customers,
the imperatives of developing downstream
capacity, and the promotion of industrial
growth in Southern Africa.
 7

Rolling Mill at Camps Drift

Pietermarizburg plant

Sheet rolling

Machining plate
8

The aluminium extrusion business of Hulamin

Extrusions was founded 75 years ago by Alcan.

Today we have production plants in Olifantsfontein, Pietermaritzburg

and Cape Town. Our expertise and name emanates from our diverse
shareholder-background which includes:

• Alcan – the founding company.

• Huletts Corporation – acquired majority shareholding from Alcan in

1974.

• Tongaat Hulett – Huletts Corporation merged with The Tongaat Group

in 1981 and the name was changed to Hulett Aluminium in 1982. Alcan
subsequently sold its remaining 26% shareholding and Hulett Aluminium
became a wholly owned subsidiary of Tongaat Hulett in 1986.

• Hydro Aluminium Extrusions – one of the world’s leading extruders

and a shareholder in the extrusion division during the period of 1997
to 2008.

• Hulamin Extrusions – in June of 2007 Hulamin listed on the stock

exchange and subsequently Hulett-Hydro Extrusions changed its name
to Hulamin Extrusions.
 9

International service Capabilities and facilities

Our mission at Hulamin Extrusions is to build a
reputation with our customers for our quality
and service:
• Mutual Respect
• Working Safely and Responsibly
• Honesty and Integrity
• Customer Value
• Teamwork
Our customer base covers all the major market
segments in the Southern African market
Customer service is provided by experienced,
dedicated personnel.
We are the leader in developing extrusion
applications in a diverse range of markets and
in stimulating these markets to design products
using the benefits of extruded aluminium.
Quality from start to finish
Hulamin Extrusions operates a quality
management system approved to ISO
9001:2000. This system allows quality
management from an initial contract review
process through to product shipment.
Laboratory facilities are also available to assist
with quality assurance and any necessary
metallurgical testing.
• Five Extrusion presses ranging from 1500
Metric Tons (MT) to 3800 MT.
• One of the most comprehensive ranges of
standard shapes in the world (metric and
imperial sizes).
• Anodising and Powder Coating.
• Fabrication.
₋ ₋ Four axis CNC machining centres
₋ ₋ Cut to length double-headed saws
₋ ₋ Mitre cutting saws
₋ ₋ Drilling and counter sinking equipment
₋ ₋ Eccentric presses for punching and
blanking
₋ ₋ Roll forming
₋ ₋ Welding
• Advanced die-making technology.
• Technically knowledgeable design and sales
staff.
• Laboratory facilities.
• Extensive library.

We also boast the prestigious ISO 14001:2004

Environmental Management Systems accredi-
tation, proudly looking after our environment
and promoting the recycling of Aluminium and
other process wastes.

Hulamin Extrusions has a proud record

of extrusion supply, locally as well as
internationally. Our ongoing commitment is to
quality and customer service.
10
5. Aluminium – from bauxite to recycling
Background
Aluminium is the most abundant metallic
element, and the third most abundant of
all elements in the Earth’s crust, making up
8% of the crust by weight. Only oxygen and
silicon are more plentiful. It is a silver-white
metal, very light in weight with a density of
2700kg per cubic meter, yet in alloyed form it
compares closely to structural steels in terms
of strength.
Aluminium is a reactive metal, and does not
occur naturally in the metallic state. Therefore,
it was unknown as a separate element until the
1820’s, although its existence was predicted by
several scientists who had studied aluminium
compounds. It was first produced in
metallic form independently by
the Danish chemist and physicist,
Hans Christian Oersted, and
the German chemist, Frederich
Wohler, in the mid-1820’s. The
commercial extraction process
was simultaneously discovered more
than half a century later on 23
February 1886 in France by Paul
Héroult and in the USA by Charles
Martin Hall. The Hall-Héroult
process today is based on these
discoveries and is named after its
discoverers.
Bauxite being loaded at
Cabo Rojo, Dominican
Republic, to be shipped
elsewhere for processing;
The name aluminium was derived from alumen,
the Latin name for alum (an aluminium sulfate
mineral). The metal was called aluminium
with the ‘-ium’ ending being the accepted
ending for most elements at this time. This
usage persists in most of the world except
the United States, where the last ‘i’ has been
dropped from the name.
Bauxite
Bauxite is the main source of aluminium (over
99% of metallic aluminium) and is the ore
from which alumina is extracted. It consists of
50 - 60% aluminium and is named after the
Southern French region of Les Baux where it
was first discovered in 1821 by the geologist
Pierre Berthier. The largest bauxite deposits
today are found in the Republic of Guinea
in West Africa, Australia, Brazil, Vietnam,
Jamaica and China.
Bauxite is the name for a mixture of similar
minerals that contain hydrated aluminium
oxides. These minerals are gibbsite (Al(OH)3),
diaspore (AlO(OH)), and boehmite (AlO(OH)).
Because it is a mixture of minerals, bauxite
itself is a rock, not a mineral. Its colour varies
between reddish-brown, white, tan, and tan-
yellow. It is dull to earthy in luster and can
look like clay or soil. Bauxite forms when silica
in aluminium-bearing rocks (that is, rocks
with a high content of the mineral feldspar)
is washed away (leached). This weathering
process occurs in tropical and subtropical
weathering climates. Alternative sources
of aluminium might someday include
kaolin clay, oil shales, the mineral
anorthosite, and even coal waste.
However, as long as bauxite reserves
remain plentiful and production
costs are low, the technologies to
process these alternative sources
into alumina or metallic aluminium
will likely not progress beyond the
experimental stage.
 11

Bauxite production
(x1000 tons, Numbers for 2009 estimated)
Country Mine production Reserve base

2008 2009

Guinea 18,000 18,000 8,600,000

Australia 62,400 63,000 7,900,000

Vietnam 30 30 5,400,000

Jamaica 14,600 15,000 2,500,000

Brazil 24,800 25,000 2,500,000

Guyana 1,600 1,600 900,000

India 19,200 20,000 1,400,000

China 30,000 32,000 2,300,000

Greece 2,220 2,220 650,000

Suriname 4,900 4,500 600,000

Kazakhstan 4,800 4,800 450,000

Venezuela 5,900 5,900 350,000

Russia 6,400 6,400 250,000

United States NA NA 40,000

Other countries 7,150 6,800 3,800,000

World total
202,000 205,000 38,000,000
(rounded)

Alumina
Most bauxite is processed to make aluminium oxide, referred to as alumina, through a cleaning
process, often in plants close to the bauxite mines. If not, it is then exported. Alumina, a white
granular material, is lighter than bauxite because the water and other impurities have been
removed, and it flows readily in processing plants, unlike bauxite which has a sticky, muddy
consistency.

Aluminium
The Aluminium is extracted from the alumina by electrolysis
(reduction). This involves dissolving the aluminium oxide in cryolite
at a high temperature during which aluminium and oxygen ions
are formed. The application of a DC current in the electrolysis
furnace deposits the aluminium on the cathode while carbon
dioxide is released at the carbon anode.

The aluminium sinks to the bottom of the electrolysis cell from

where it is transferred by vacuum to a crucible for transport to
the cast house. Aluminium made by this process is called primary
aluminium.

Bauxite mining
12

Extrusion ingots
The liquid aluminium is cleaned in the cast
house and alloying materials are added.
The starting materials for future production
processes are then cast as required – extrusion
ingots, foundry alloys, wire rod and sheet
ingots.

The extrusion log is the raw material used

in the extrusion process. The logs used by
Hulamin are cast in lengths of up to 6.5m Aluminium oxide
with diameters between 150mm and 254mm.
It is made in a wide range of alloys to meet
the demands for various product properties
tensile strengths and so forth.

Hulamin Extrusions casts their own logs from

recycled process scrap and primary ingot and
also sources alloyed billet from international
Primary Smelters.

Aluminium is good economy

The production of primary aluminium is a high
energy consumptive process. However, when
viewed from the perspective of its life cycle Electrolysis process
where the metal’s energy-saving properties
are taken into account another picture
emerges.

The energy consumed in producing the raw

material is more than compensated for by
the savings at a later stage through lighter
products with longer service life and reduced
maintenance requirements. The energy gains
are quite easy to see with the use of aluminium
in the transport sector.

Vehicles with lower weights (cars, trucks, Liquid

trailers, buses, trains, boats, etc.) require less aluminium
fuel and can increase their payloads.

Aluminium and the extrusion production

technique are an especially powerful
combination. This material and this technique
make it possible to produce extrusions with
integrated, labour-saving functions that cut
costs in the form of reduced requirements for
fabrication, labour and simplified assembly.

Extrusion ingots
 13

The green metal safe environment in

Aluminium is the ideal metal for recycling.
It is so simple, easy and environmentally
friendly to recycle that it is often called the
green metal. A mere 5% of the original energy
consumption is needed when remelting
aluminium products, and it can be recycled
time and time again! None of the natural
properties are lost and, in contrast to many
other materials, aluminium’s properties never
change even when it is recycled over and over.
its production plants
and its surroundings.
We co-operate with our
customers in the process of
producing final products that
minimize the consumption of
resources as well as being better,
more environmentally friendly and
economical.

Aluminium is therefore a valuable raw material

- irrespective of where the natural cycle is to
be found. Hulamin Extrusions has an efficent
process for the recycling and remelting of
aluminium.

An advantageous life cycle analysis

Many companies today analyse both old and
new products from the life-cycle perspective.
Here the whole flow is analysed from the
idea through to the design stage; through
prototypes and production to machining,
assembly, functions, maintenance, service
life and recycling. In this overall analysis,
aluminium has major advantages and stands
up very well to conventional construction
materials.

The environmental picture

The Hulamin Extrusions system ensures that
all the process waste products are sorted,
recycled and re-used. All scrap metal is
remelted and re-used in the extrusion process.
Our anodizing plants are amongst the most
modern and cleanest in South Africa.

By continually improving and increasing

efficiency in production processes,
minimizing emission and focusing clearly and
consistently on environmental questions,
Hulamin Extrusions has created a good,
14
6. The properties of aluminium
Aluminium has a unique and unbeatable
combination of properties that make it a versatile,
highly usable and attractive construction material.
Weight
Aluminium is light with a density of 2 700 kg/m³.
Steel’s density is 3 times that of aluminium (8400
kg/m³).
Strength
Aluminium is strong with a tensile strength of 70 to
700 MPa, depending on the alloy and manufacturing
process used. Extrusions of the right alloy and
design are just as strong as structural steel.
Elasticity
The Young’s modulus for aluminium (E = 69 000
MPa) is a third that of steel (E=210 000 MPa). Thus,
for an aluminium profile to only deflect the same
distance as a steel profile, the moment of inertia
of the aluminium profile has to be three times that
of the steel profile.
Formability
Aluminium has good formability in both the hot
and the cold condition, a characteristic that is used
to the full in the extrusion process. Aluminium can
also be cast, drawn and rolled.
Machining
Aluminium is very easy to machine. Ordinary
fabrication equipment (saws and drills) and
machining equipment (lathes and milling machines)
can be used.
Joining
Aluminium can be joined using all the normal
methods available such as welding, brazing,
adhesive bonding, crimping, screwing and riveting.
Corrosion resistance
A thin layer of oxide is formed in contact with
air, which provides very good protection against
corrosion even in corrosive environments. Unlike
the rust layer of steel that peels off, the oxide
layer that forms on the aluminium adheres to the
surface, drastically slowing down the process of
corrosion. This layer can be further strengthened
by surface treatments such as anodizing or powder
coating.
Conductivity
The thermal and electrical conductivities are
excellent even when compared with copper.
Furthermore, an aluminium conductor has only
half the weight of an equivalent copper conductor.
Heat conductivity
Aluminium’s heat conductivity is half that of the
equivalent sized copper (8 900 kg/m³) element but
has a density (2 700 kg/m³) of less than a third
of that of the copper element. The equivalent
aluminium element therefore comes at less than
half the price and is much easier to handle because
of its light weight!
Linear expansion
Aluminium has a relatively high co-efficient of
linear expansion compared to other materials. This
should be taken into account at the design stage to
compensate for differences in expansion.
Non-toxic
Aluminium is not poisonous and is therefore highly
suitable for the preparation and storage of food.
Reflectivity
Aluminium is a good reflector of both light and
heat.

7. Extrusion design and manufacture
7.1 Design for manufacturing
and assembly
The whole manufacturing and production
process starts at the drawing board. It is here
that the extrusion takes shape and features are
built in for easier connection, minimal finishing
work and simpler assembly. Here we can take
advantage of all the benefits of aluminium
and the extrusion technique in order to make
a product with optimal functions, attractive
appearance and the best cost-effectiveness.
We have the resources to help you from the
design and development stages through to
the machining of finished extrusions. Our
technical service and product development
departments contribute with every extrusion
design. Your design can also be adapted with
functional features and environmentally
friendly solutions added to it.
We can create the solution you require using
our advanced 3-D CAD system. It allows us to
evaluate the connecting ideas and simulate
movement to establish any interference with
mating, rotating or sliding parts. All this is
done without the need to produce a single
die or prototype extrusion. To assist with the
development process we can also provide a
3D printed sample made from ABS plastic so
that you can hold it in your hands before you
make your final decision.
7.2 Extrusion process
Raw material
The starting material for making aluminium
extrusions is an aluminium ingot that is either
made of primary aluminium or recycled,
secondary aluminium. The extrusion ingot
is made by casting lengths of up to 6,5m
and is available in a wide variety of alloys
and dimensions to suit specific needs and
requirements. After the casting process the
ends are sawn off to remove any impurities
and to provide a clean square edge. The 6.5m
15
end product is now called an extrusion log
and is then either cut into ready-to-use sizes
called billet or shipped in log form to the
extrusion plant to be cut into billets at the
plant. The most common extrusion billet used
by Hulamin Extrusions is 152 mm, 203 mm and
254 mm in diameter and 400 to 900 mm long,
depending on the capacity of the press and
the length of the finished extrusion.
Billet Preparation and Preheating
At the plant the correct length extrusion
billet is prepared for the extrusion process.
This entails determining the weight of the
Aluminium needed to produce the specific
order. Billets are then cut to optimum
lengths, taking into account process
boundaries such as minimum
and maximum billet length
and process scrap (end pieces
damaged by the jaws of the
puller and stretcher etc.). The
billet is then preheated in a billet
heater utilising induction heating
principles to heat the Extruded product
billet to a temperature complete with
end caps
of between 450°C
and 500°C. Once
the billet is at
temperature it is
ejected and moved
onto the loading
table where it will
then wait to be loaded
into the extrusion press.
Thermal Ageing
The extrusion
moves onto a
cooling table
16
Extrusion
Extrusion involves pressing the preheated
aluminium billet under high pressure (1 500
– 3 800 tons depending on the size of the
press) through a die, the opening of which
corresponds to the cross-section of the
extrusion.
The extrusion press speed (normally between
5 and 50 meters per minute) depends on the
alloy and the complexity of the die opening.
The main parts of the press are the container
where the extrusion ingot is placed under
pressure, the main cylinder with piston that
presses the material through the container
and the die and die holder. The extrusion
principle is shown in the diagram below.
Cooling and stretching
When the extrusion leaves the press it moves
onto the run-out table where it is cooled with
air or water depending on its size, shape, the
alloy involved and required properties.
To get straight extrusions and eliminate any
stress in the material, it is then stretched.
As the metal cools down it is moved to the
saw to be cut into lengths ranging between
3 and 14.4 meters. If shorter lengths are
required by the customer the extrusion is
cut into multiples of the required length that
Control pockets
in die plate
Inspection of a
die plate
adds up to over 3 meters and then cut to
the required length at the Further Finishing
department. The metal, once cut, is packed
into baskets to either go to Packing if the
order requested T4 condition, or to the ageing
oven to be aged to T6 condition.
Ageing and packing
The artificial aging process substantially
increases the mechanical properties of
the profiles. Clients usually opt for the T6
condition if they are going to apply fabrication
processes not hampered by the increase in
mechanical strength of the aluminium.
The client must therefore consider the follow-
on processes when placing an order and
choose the aged condition best suited for
their requirements.
Ageing takes place in large ageing ovens at
about 185°C. The Aluminium is kept at this
temperature for approximately 6 hours and
then removed from the oven to cool down.
Once it has cooled down, a final quality
check is done to ensure that the extrusions
are still within tolerance. The extrusions
are now packed according to the customers
requirements and ready for delivery to the
customer.
Extrusion requires high force 1 500 -
3 800 tons depending on the size of
the press. Picture shows an extrusion
press with an external profile
 17

7.3 Dies

Hollow and solid dies

A heated eluminium billet is pressed through a die

the opening of which corresponds to the cross-
section of the extrusion.

The dies are divided into two groups, those for solid extrusions and
those for hollow extrusions. The dies for solid extrusions consist of
a die plate, which forms the external shape of the extrusion. The
dies for hollow extrusions consist of two parts where the aluminium
first flows through the die ports in the body created by the bridges
that fix the mandrel to the rest of the body, and then re-weld as it
flows over the mandrel during pressing. The mandrel protrudes
from the body and pushes into the die plate, responsible for the
forming of the outside surface of the extrusion.

Up to ten identical extrusions – depending on the size – can

be pressed in multi-cavity dies.

(Licensed use through the Creative Commons Attribution

ShareAlike 3.0 Licence. Found on Wikipedia – Extrusion)

The dies are made of high temperature resistant steel and the die’s opening is
made by wire cutting in CNC controlled machines.

Occasionally, solid extrusions have a design that makes the use of solid
die inappropriate. A die with a deep tongue and a narrow gap will not
withstand the extrusion pressure, resulting in the tongue breaking off.
Therefore the die will be designed with a mandrel to support the
tongue even though it is a solid extrusion. This concept is known
as a ‘semi-hollow’ die.

Low costs
The cost of extrusion dies is significantly lower than the
cost of tools used in the production of conventional
building materials as these tools consist of a number
of machined components (eg. rollers, punches
etc.) and often custom mounting plates.
The die costs vary with the size and type
of extrusion. Low cost dies also make
the extrusion process affordable
for the production of trials and
prototypes.
18

8. Surface treatment

In its natural state, aluminium has a clean and attractive surface with good
corrosion resistance. There are a number of types of surface treatments that
improve resistance to corrosion and mechanical wear. They can also provide a
decorative appearance or alter the properties of the surface.

Anodising
Anodising is an electrochemical process
where the thickness of the naturally occurring
oxide layer on the aluminium surface is
artificially increased. The process involves
lowering the extrusion into an electrolytic
bath where a DC current is connected to the
extrusion, which acts as the anode in the
circuit. While the natural oxide layer is only
0.02 µm, anodising increases the oxide layer
to between 5 and 25um depending on the
product characteristics required. With the
anodizing process, aluminium’s natural colour
(naturally anodised) can be retained, or a
colour from a wide range of alternatives can
be chosen.
Powder coating
Powder coating offers a virtually unlimited
choice of colours and is very durable. The
profiles are pre-treated in order to clean and
prepare it before it is sent through the spray
booths where the electro-statically charged
powder is sprayed on and attracted to the face
of the profiles to form an even coating. Once
the profiles are coated, it moves through a
baking oven that melts the powder to form
an even paint coating that adheres to the
surface of the profile. The recommended film
thickness is 60 micron.
Other methods of surface treatment
Other methods of surface treatment include
screen printing and the use of protective foils.
Grinding, polishing and barrel processing are
examples of mechanical surface treatments.
For more information see Technical Section, page 51.
 19

9. Fabrication

In the extrusion design stage it is already
possible to design an extrusion that minimizes
the need for further work and makes fitting
and assembly more efficient. However, some
form of fabrication is often required.
Aluminium’s ductility makes it, and its
extrusions, highly suitable for all types of
fabrication. The bulk of the extrusions we
deliver go through some form of fabrication
such as surface treatment or machining.
We have all the resources required to deliver
your extrusion in exactly the right design,
shape and size for your finished product.
Who does the processing – you or us?
Read more about the possibilities and
technology under Processing in the Technical
Section, page 46.

Our complete programme of fabrication, using

our own or outside resources(*), includes:-

Surface treatments
• Anodising
• Lacquering*
• Mechanical surface treatment*
• Chemical surface treatment*

Machining
• Cutting
• Deburring
• Drilling
• Turning
• Milling
• Tapping

Joining*
• Welding
• Adhesive bonding
• Bolting
• Riveting

Plastic forming*
• Bending

Hulamin Extrusions – a powerful resource

for your business!

By allowing us to coordinate your

processing, you free up investment resources,
reduce stock levels, optimize staff resources,
cut production time and improve the utilization
of capital.
20

10. Packaging and Transport

We use a wide range of different packaging methods. Together we can

come to a solution that best suits your extrusions and requirements.
In this way we avoid unnecessary costs and ensure that the goods are
delivered safely and undamaged. Common methods of packaging:

• Bundled.
• On a pallet.
• In a carton.
• With or without polythene wrap.
• With or without interleaving.

11. Recycling

Aluminium is a valuable raw material and is easy to recycle. When

remelted it uses only 5% of the energy required to make primary
aluminium, in the remelting process.

At Hulamin Extrusions all scrap aluminium is recycled in our

remelt facility at our production plant in Pietermaritzburg.
Our efficient scrap handling system allows for the
recycling of all process scrap by remelting it and
casting it into extrusion logs.
 21

12. The A-Z of Extrusions Planning

Hulamin Extrusions strive to produce the exact Do you need help with drawings, product
extrusion solution that meets your requirement development, design or construction?
for performance, quality, precision and You’ve got an idea! It might be a rough
economy. The earlier we can take part in the drawing, but you’re not quite sure how to
development process, the better, as you will move forward? Or you have a drawing that
then be able to access all our experience, skill, needs to be optimized. Contact us and we’ll
know-how and resources while developing get things moving!
your concepts. Here is a short guide to make
your extrusion planning and your first contact What does it cost?
with Hulamin Extrusions easier: We can give you a breakdown of the costs
involved for dies and production, fabrication
Sales and customer service and surface treatment at the idea
Contacting our sales and stage. Phone us and our specialist
customer service team is quick team will tell you more.
and easy. Our friendly sales
staff can assist you with any Please draw up a
questions you might have specification of
regarding your existing requirements!
and new projects. Our The more prepared you
customer service staff at are when you contact us,
our extrusion plants look the better we can help you
after the orders on hand, with qualified advice. That
monitoring deliveries etc. is also why we have compiled
this Design Manual for you. It
Please contact us or visit www. helps you to draw up a preliminary
hulaminextrusions.co.za for more specification of requirements – call it
information about your nearest Hulamin your ‘shopping list’ - for your product.
Extrusions customer service How is it going to be used? Where -
team (see the back cover indoors or outdoors, at the coast
for details). or inland? Will it be subjected to
large or small loads? Is it visible
Can a boat hook be or concealed? Will it be large
extruded? or small, a solid or a hollow
You may ask the extrusion? Are there any specific
question “Can my product surface requirements? Etcetera.
be made in aluminium?” or
“Can a boat hook be extruded?” Good relationships
Obviously we are only too Good and lasting relationships with our
pleased to answer your customers are the very foundation of
questions about aluminium our business. By getting to know you,
and aluminium extrusions your requirements and your product
whenever you have them. well, we increase the possibility
We can then steer you in of achieving our common goals in
the right direction from the providing you with quality and service.
very beginning.
22
13. Things to remember when considering extrusions
This Extrusion Design Manual provides you with
a range of variables to take into account when
drafting and designing aluminium extrusions.
All are important for both performance and
economy.
Technical co-operation
At Hulamin Extrusions we can combine the roles
of the extrusion supplier and development
partner. Feel free to contact us at the initial
stage, so we can produce an extrusion that
offers the best performance and economy
together.
One-stop shop
Taking advantage of Hulamin Extrusions’ special
skills releases the resources in your company.
Through Hulamin Extrusions you gain access
to a partner who takes full responsibility
for solving your processing and surface
treatment requirements. It’s rational,
time saving and economical.
Alloys
Choose the right alloy to meet
the required characteristics and
performance of the product.
High-grade aluminium alloys
are more expensive and
not as easy to extrude.
It is therefore
paramount that
the alloy fits the
function.
Optimal design
Study the advice and tips in the Extrusion
Design Manual. Creative extrusion design with
built-in functions simplifies the next stage and
cuts costs.
Optimising materials
Materials can be optimized using creative
design even in extrusions with requirements
for high strength. Put the material where it is
needed and do not make the extrusion heavier
and more expensive than is necessary!
Surface requirements
Not all the extrusions’s surfaces need to be of
the highest quality. There is no doubt that the
surface demands for an extrusion built into a
truck are different from those that is part of
the front panel of a hi-fi fascia panel. The right
finish for the right application saves money!
Fabrication
An increasing number of extrusions are
machined after pressing into finished
components. The need for fabrication can be
minimized even in the early design stage. In
the same way, extrusions can also be designed,
adapted and prepared, bearing fabrication in
mind. All of this is done for rational and cost-
effective production.
Correct quantity
Optimise your orders or extrusion deliveries.
Small volumes mean higher costs.
Recycling
Aluminium is a valuable raw material and
we recycle all process scrap emanating from
production.
EXTRUSIONS

Technical
Section
24
1. Alloys
The choice of material is a critical decision
in all product development as each material
has its own set of unique characteristics and
properties. Aluminium makes it possible to give
the product suitable physical and mechanical
properties at the same time as achieving an
aesthetically pleasing appearance. This is done
by combining aluminium with various alloying
elements to create a range of application
oriented aluminium alloys. Refer to the table
for the mechanical properties of the different
alloys.
Furthermore, the extrusion technique,
combined with the correct aluminium alloy
and proper thermal treatment, offers an
Aluminium alloys used for extrusions generally
falls within the following serial numbers:
1000 series – Al
6000 series – Al + Mg + Si
7000 series – Al + Zn + Mg
1000 series
The alloys in this series are not heat treatable.
infinite number of application opportunities. It
also forms the basis for product improvement.
The thermal condition of the product can be
changed artificially or naturally and is referred
to as the “temper” of the alloy indicated by
symbols as shown in Table (add table number
here) shown below i.e. 6061 T6 or 6082 F.
Pure aluminium is only used in a limited way
commercially. The majority of extrusions are
made from aluminium that is alloyed with
other metals. The most common elements used
are magnesium (Mg), silicon (Si), manganese
(Mn), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu). They make up
between 0.2 and 0.7 per cent of aluminium
alloy compositions depending on the alloy.
It is often selected for products where high
thermal and electrical conductivity are desired
above strength as it has a low mechanical
strength due to the low alloying element
content.
The 6000 and 7000 series are the most
commonly used extrusion alloys and have a
wide range of applications.

6000 series
This series generally has good extrudability
but this is reliant on a couple of factors. As the
mechanical properties increase it lessens the
extrudability. The complexity of the profile also
affects the extrudability – the more complex
the shape the more one has to carefully pay
attention to the alloy selection, change in
wall thicknesses of adjacent walls etc. This is
covered in more detail in later sections of this
manual.
The 6000 series alloys can be solution heat
treated (T4 condition) at the extrusion
temperature and artificially aged after it was
cooled down at the press (T6 condition).
Furthermore, these alloys have medium to
high strength, are easy to weld and offers
good resistance to corrosion, even in marine
environments. The bulk of extrusions used
in load bearing constructions, whether on
land or at sea, usually require the properties
mentioned for this series.
The magnesium and silicon contents of various 6000 alloys
can overlap in certain cases (see diagram above). Alloys can
therefore be made up with the focus on the end use. Today, a
number of variants of the alloy types above exist that have been
adapted to suit specific conditions.
6063 offers medium strength (T6 = 225 MPa)
and is easy to extrude even for complicated
cross-sections. This alloy is one of the most
used extrusion alloys. It has good formability
during bending in the T4 condition. Typical
applications are extrusions for window and
door systems, lighting solutions, awnings,
25
handrails and furniture. This material is highly
suitable for anodizing, both for decorative and
protective reasons.
6060 alloy offers virtually the same production
possibilities as 6063 and both alloys can
be used in the same type of applications.
When compared, 6063 has a slightly higher
mechanical strength and is also marginally
more difficult to extrude, especially if the
cross-section is complicated.
6005 alloy has higher strength than 6063 and
is slightly harder to extrude. The material
withstands comparatively little elongation
before there is permanent deformation in the
heat treated condition. This alloy is susceptible
to greater intergranular corrosion than 6060,
6063 and 6082. It is suitable to be anodised
for protective purposes but the quality of
the surface makes a decorative finish more
difficult.
The 6061 and 6082 alloys have a high yield
strength and are suitable for extrusion of cross-
sections that are not too complicated. Typical
applications are load carrying structures in
seafaring crafts, offshore structures, transport,
general engineering and the building industry
such as platforms, bridges, stairs, scaffolds and
handrails. The alloys are suitable for anodising
for protective purposes.
Special material properties van be achieved with special thermal
hardening. With, for example, extended heating, ie. thermal
hardening longer than the optimal hardening time, lower is
achieved but in return the alloy becomes tougher and in certain
cases has greater resistance to corrosion.
26
7000 series
The 7000 series has the highest strength of
all the aluminium alloys used in any
construction and fabrication application.It has
good weldability and after welding obtains
a lower percentage reduction of mechanical
strength in the heat affected zones (HAZ) than
the 6000 series. Its corrosion resistance and
formability is, however, not as good as that of
the 6000 series but by adding small amounts
of Zr, Cr or Mn this can be improved. Typical
applications are automotive parts, aircraft
containers, bicycle frames and components
for high speed boats.
The 7108 alloy has high strength and good
fatigue strength but has limited extrudability
and formability. The alloy is susceptible to
stress corrosion in areas with high stresses.
The resistance to stress corrosion is slightly
increased with over ageing as it toughens
the metal but it should be noted that the
mechanical strength will decrease due to the
longer heat treatment time. It’s appropriate
to place the weld in low stress areas as it
will have a drastic impact on the fatigue
life if placed in high stress areas. Typical
applications are structures for building and
transport applications where high strength is
required. The material is suitable for anodising
for protective purposes.
Temperature – mechanical properties
Although aluminium has many great properties
and qualities one should always carefully
evaluate the application environment before
making a choice on the material to be used.
High temperature properties
For safety sake it must be noted that
aluminium does not glow red as steel does
when it is heated. It remains the same colour
and it is extremely difficult to see whether the
workpiece is hot or cold. Always first test it
by holding the outside of your hand close to
the workpiece. If proper Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) i.e. gloves are not available
avoid physical contact with your skin until
you are satisfied that the temperature is low
enough for it to be handled.
Care should be taken when using aluminium
at high temperatures. Mechanical properties
could significantly be reduced at temperatures
above 100°C, especially if the material has
been thermally hardened or cold worked.
High temperatures applied for extended
periods will lead to metalurgical changes in the
grain structure resulting in grain growth and
other intergranular changes. In simple terms
the component will gradually anneal loosing
its mechanical strength and other properties
for which it was selected in the first place!
In general the 6060, 6005, 6061 and 6082
alloys should not be used in structures at
temperatures above 100°C. The tensile strength
decreases as the temperature increases while
elongation on fracturing usually increases. It
should be noted that the characteristics are
dependent on alloy, temperature and time.
If the designer is unfamiliar with the exact
temperature characteristics of a given alloy, it
can then, as a starting point, be assumed that
properties such as tension, shear and fatigue
strength vary in proportion to the tensile
strength.
Having said that, if sufficient cooling is provided
aluminium can be used in rockets as was done
in the upper stage of the Agena rocket where
a regeneratively cooled aluminium design was
used in the thermally critical throat region.
Yes it is a finite lifetime design but the high
thermal conductivity of aluminium was used
to its advantage. Fatigue was not given any
real consideration – only brutal strength to do
the job successfully…. once!
Low temperature properties
In contrast to steel, aluminium alloys do
not become brittle at low temperatures. In
fact aluminium alloys increase in strength
and ductility whilst impact strength remains
unchanged. As the temperature decreases,
below 0°C, the yield strength and tensile
strength of aluminium alloys increase.
 27

Summary of alloys

Values for the mechanical properties can vary for different process parameters. The values given are typical and can
be guaranteed on the assumption that a special agreement has been reached.

The relationship between some accepted methods for measuring hardness.

28

2. Corrosion resistance

One of the principal reasons for choosing aluminium and its alloys for
construction applications is their high corrosion resistance. Although
aluminium is chemically very active as a metal, its behaviour is stabilised
by the formation of a protective film of aluminium oxide on the surface.
Generally, this film is stable in aqueous solutions with a pH of between 4
and 8.5. Further considerations need to be made if the pH value falls outside
these limits or the environment contains chloride.

Even though aluminium is very
stable, it is still subjected to
corrosion. The most common
types of corrosion, which can
occur on aluminium alloys, are
summarized below:
General corrosion
The entire surface of the metal
component is attacked uniformly. With
aluminium and its alloys this type of
corrosion is mainly seen in very alkaline
or acidic environments where the solubility
of the natural oxide film is high. Inside
the pH boundaries this is seen as the least
dangerous form of corrosion as the corrosion
rate is reasonably predictable.
Pitting corrosion
Pitting corrosion is the most common type of
corrosive phenomena with light alloys, and
is characterized by localised discontinuities
in the oxide film such as locally reduced film
thickness, ruptures, localized concentrations
of impurities or alloying elements and the like.
Aluminium is sensitive to pitting when chloride
ions are present as for example in tap water
and sea water). Pits develop at weak spots in
the surface films and at sites where the oxide
film is mechanically damaged.
Pitting can penetrate several millimeters
during a short period of time in extremely
unfavourable conditions where the pH falls
outside the 4 to 8.5 range. The pits can be
of different shapes, wide or narrow. In high
strength applications the narrow pits can
often be dangerous since the pits could be
deep and difficult to detect and lead to stress
corrosion. Fortunately in most cases the pits
are limited to a depth of 0.4 mm and the
increase in pit size decreases to near zero over
a three year period because the pit fills with
the impermeable products of corrosion.
The correct choice of alloy and surface
treatment for example anodising, powder
coating, coating with anodic layer (Zn),
cathodic protection with sacrificial anodes
or applied current, or by use of inhibitors,
are methods which can be used to limit or
prevent pitting corrosion. Frequent cleaning,
as well as ventilating of dense constructions
and a profile design avoiding accumulation of
stagnant water, are recommended.
Intergranular corrosion
Intergranular corrosion (IGC) is a selective
corrosion where the boundaries of the grains
(crystallites) of the aluminium alloy are more
susceptible to corrosion than its insides. There
is no appreciable attack on the grain itself. The
reason for the IGC is a difference in corrosion
potential between grain boundaries and the
bulk of the immediately adjacent grains.
The difference in potential may be caused
by the difference in chemical composition
between the two zones (local galvanic
corrosion).
This situation may for example develop as
a result of slow cooling after extrusion or

welding.
In this case the grains will be larger and the
intermetallic particles will precipitate on
the grain boundaries, thus increasing the
difference in potential between the grain
boundaries and the interior of the grain.
Due to the low metal consumption, inter-
crystalline corrosion is difficult to detect
visually and even less by measurements of
weight loss. However, if the corrosion is
permitted to propagate into the metal, the
mechanical properties of the material will
severely deteriorate.
Alloys in 6000 series are normally resistant to
IGC; however, this is dependent on the chemical
composition. Recrystallised structures in
addition to high content of Silicon (Si) or
Copper (Cu), may give corrosion of this type.
Addition of Mn or Cr will prevent or minimize
the recrystallisation.
IGC of alloys in 7000 series is linked to the
Magnesium-Zinc (MgZn) precipitates, which
are very anodic, compared to aluminium.
IGC can be prevented by the correct choice of
alloy. The other countermeasures suggested
for “Pitting corrosion” will also assist in
eliminating IGC.
Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion may occur in narrow
crevices, filled with liquid such as water. The
use of sealant prior to joining may prevent
the penetration of moisture. Using the correct
profile design will minimize the risk of crevice
corrosion.
Water staining is is a very common type of
crevice corrosion and is caused by water or
moisture entrapped between densely stacked
profiles or the profiles and its wrapping.
The appearance varies from shining in mild
cases, to white, grey or black in more severe
instances. Water stains on profiles are normally
removed by finishing methods (grinding,
29
sanding, etching etc.) or powder coating.
Profiles without any surface treatment should
never be stored outdoors, even though
plastic wrapping is used, because of risk of
condensation. It must be stored in places with
a maximum Relative Humidity (RH) of 45 %
and a maximum temperature variation of ±5°C.
During transportation from a cold to a warmer
area, the temperature should be increased
gradually to avoid condensation.
Galvanic (or bi-metallic) corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two metallic
materials are in contact and an electrolyte is
present. Corrosion will increase on the least
noble material (the anode which is negative
in this case) and decrease on the noblest (the
cathode which is positive in this case).
Since aluminium is less noble than most
commonly used construction materials,
with the exception of zinc, magnesium and
cadmium, this can have a serious impact on
the corrosion of the aluminium component.
The protective effect from the oxide layer is
detrimentally affected by the coupling of the
aluminium to a more noble material. This is
especially dangerous in atmospheres or water
with high concentrations of chlorides or other
aggressive chemical compounds.
Most types of aluminium corrosion can be
related to some kind of galvanic coupling with
30
a dissimilar material. Galvanic corrosion can
be avoided or minimized by means of the
following preventative actions:
• If possible, avoid the use of materials far
from each other in the galvanic potential
difference series of the actual environment
(stainless steel not included). However, if
that is not a practical solution, the different
materials must be properly electrically
insulated. It is very important to use
insulation material that has the proper
electrical resistance required and to avoid
metallic contact in the entire construction.
This can be checked by resistance measure-
ments using a multimeter.
• Aluminium may be protected by means of
sacrificial anodes. The most noble material
can be surface treated with for example a
metallic coating (A1 / Zn), an organic
coating (lacquer, paint, plastic, rubber) or
a special coating used for screws and bolts.
This is the minimum requirement. However,
where possible the surface treatment must
be done on the least noble material as
well. If it is not done this way and only the
least noble material
(most reactive) is
coated a defect in
the surface coating may
generate a very
unfavourable cathode /
anode ratio (a large
cathode area in
relation to a small
anode area results in a
high corrosion rate).
• Galvanic corrosion in combination with
crevice corrosion results in concentrated
attacks. Based on that, it is important to
avoid entrapment of liquids (water and
other) in crevices between materials of
varying nobleness.
• Avoid the transfer of ions of noble materials
to aluminium surfaces, for instance droplets
from a copper tube on an aluminium surface
will generate precipitation of copper metal.
The result is corrosion of aluminium
(deposition corrosion). Following on this
will be micro galvanic corrosion between
aluminium and the copper particles in the
aluminium surface. Severe pitting may
occur within a few weeks.
Filiform corrosion
Filiform corrosion (FFC) on passivated surfaces
exhibits itself as thin, threadlike and shallow
attacks progressing below surface layers such
as paint. The corrosion normally starts in
coating defects (e.g. on mitres) and follows
certain directions for example the extrusion
direction of the profile.
The front of the attack is supported by
moisture which penetrates the surface layer
and becomes depleted of oxygen making the
area anodic.
FFC is mainly an aesthetical problem, but
corrosion products may cause deformation
in narrow crevices or delamination of surface
treatment.
The extensive FFC attack observed during
corrosion testing can be attributed to a
reactive uppermost surface region showing
an unpredictable chemical composition which
may be formed during thermo-mechanical
transformation of the alloy.
It is proven that sufficient metal removal of
aluminium (2 g/m²) by chemical etching prior
to properly performed chromating, is required.
Providing this is done properly, aluminium
extrusions in 6060 / 6063 will exhibit high FFC
resistance.
 31

Corrosion resistance in different environments

The Atmosphere
Corrosion is insignificant in clean country air. Aluminium does not corrode where there are high
levels of sulphur dioxide but can under certain circumstances become dark or matt in appearence.

Water
Pitting can occur in stagnant water. The composition of the water is the important factor as the
presece of copper, calcium chloride and bicabonates ions increase the risk significantly. This
can be prevented however by regular cleaning and drying. In this way the aluminium is highly
suitable for making saucepans for example.

Seawater
Alloys containing silicon, magnesium and manganese show good resistance to the corrosion
in seawater. Copper alloys on the other hand should be avoided.

Soil
The resistance to corrosion is to a great degree dependent on the moisture in the soil
and its pH. Aluminium surfaces in contact with the soil are best treated with a thick
layer of bitumen or a powder coating.

Acids
The majority of inorganic acids have a very corrosive effect on aluminium -
expert nitric acid. High tempreture, high acid concentrations and high levels
of impurities in the level of the aluminium increase the rate of corrosion
significantly.

Alkalis
Strong alkalis are very corrosive. Sodium hydoxide reacts violently with
aluminium. The rate of corrosion can be reduced in environments
where the pH is between 9 and 11 by using silicates. Wet cement
has a high pH and therefore corrodes aluminium alloys.

Organic compounds
Aluminium is highly resistant to the majority of organic
compounds. corrosion can occur however with some
anhydrous liquids.

Other material
In practice the corrosion problem caused
by the contact with other materials is
for the most part small. The natural
oxide layer provides protection.
32

3. Types of extrusions

As described in the Extrusion process earlier
on in this Design Manual there are two types
of dies: a solid and hollow die. Following on
this you get three types of extrusions utilising
these types of dies namely:
• Solid extrusions – solid die arrangement
(a flat bar)
• Hollow extrusions – hollow die arrangement
(a round or square tube)
• Semi-hollow extrusions – hollow die
arrangement
The first two are self explanatory through the
examples given. With a semi-hollow you have
a profile that could be viewed as a solid (such
as a “u” channel) if it is not for the big ratio
between the square of the narrowest width of
the tongue and the cross-sectional area of that
tongue “above” the neck (narrowest width) of
the tongue. This is otherwise referred to as a
“deep tongue”.
The Circumscribing Circle Diameter (CCD) is
a measure of the extrusion’s size and has an
influence on:
• the material thickness,
• tolerances,
• die size and
• price.
• Profiles outside these limits are subject to
enquiry
• Contact Hulamin Extrusions for solid
profiles with irregular shapes
Hollow extrusions
(These limits also apply to semi-hollow
extrusions)
The following limits apply to hollow extrusions:
• Square tube maximum 140 x 140 mm
• Rectangular tube maximum 260 x 30 mm
• Round tube max diameter, 170 mm
• Contact Hulamin Extrusions for hollow
profiles with irregular shapes
The maximum sizes can vary depending on
the alloy, material thickness, complexity and
tolerances. Please contact us for defined
limits. Hulamin Extrusions make extrusions
weighing up to 12 kg/m under normal
production conditions. Extrusions of up to
20kg/m is possible under certain conditions
but depending on the shape and wall thickness
the properties might not be guarenteed.

Below are the manufacturing

limits within which Hulamin
Extrusions can supply aluminium
extrusions.

Solid extrusions
The diagram shows the range of
maximum dimensions for a solid
extrusion.
• Any profile that fits into a
CCD of 230 mm with a
maximum height of 170 mm.
• A maximum spreader profile
of 320 mm wide and 70 mm
high.
 33

4. Design
A dream for the creative designer

If you work with the development and improvement of both existing and new products, using
aluminium as a construction material gives virtually unlimited design opportunities. To achieve a
successful design of a product, some design guidelines for extrusion design will be very helpful.
These guidelines will help the designer to achieve extrusions with better functionality and
extrudability and by that also lower production costs and better all round economy.

The following pages provide information to help with your design work.

Contact us if you need any more help.

Uniform wall thickness

Uniform wall thickness within a section
reduces the loading on the die and therefore
minimises the risk of it being damaged. Big
differences in wall thicknesses within a section
should also be avoided in order to minimize
differences in surface appearance after
anodising. Uniform wall thickness is obtained
by changing the shape of the extrusion and
putting the material where it is most needed.

Symmetry
With symmetrical extrusion designs, a
balanced flow of material through the die is
achieved. The result is that at the same time
the load on the die is evenly distributed. The
extrusion shape is more accurate while the
risk for broken dies are significantly reduced.

Rounded shapes
As a rule all corners should be rounded.
Normal radii are 0.4 to 1.0 mm.

The diameter of the circumscribing circle

Always try to reduce the circumscribing circle
of the extrusion. Apart from making it easier
to produce the extrusion, it also helps keep
the die and production costs down.
34

Simplify and facilitate

A change that has no effect on the functional appearance of the extrusion but which simplifies
and facilitates production means lower production costs and better economies. Here are some
examples.

Fewer cavities cut costs A move towards a hollow Increased size can cut
extrusion gives better the weight and increase
dimensional control. the rigidity.

Heat sinks
The design of the flanges increases or decreases the exposed surface of the extrusion and
thermal conductivity through the metal.

Decorative lines
Decorative lines in an extrusion can conceal irregularities as well as protect against damage
during handling and fabrication.
 35

Tongue ratio chart

36

5. J oining

Using the opportunities provided by the extrusion process for creative designs gives strong, stable, rapid and effective
joints. Whether it is for joining one extrusion to another or for joining an extrusion to another material.

There are many advantages to be obtained by joining several

smaller extrusions to the larger unit. Handling is easier.
Extruding, surface treatment and a large amount of
the machining can be done on a more rational
basis.

Smaller extrusions can be produced with a

thinner wall thickness, better accuracy and
in many cases lower die costs.

The following examples show a

wide range of joining methods.
We hope this will inspire the
extrusion designer to create
better solutions.

Screw grooves
With edge joints, assembly of covers and so forth in mind, aluminium extrusions
can be designed and produced with screw grooves for self-tapping screws or
plastic screws.

The material consumption of the screw grooves is insignificant, but

the fabrication costs will be significantly lower compared with
the conventional way of drilling and threading screw holes.

Obviously screw grooves for machine screws can

be threaded in the normal way.
37
38

6. B olting

Should it be necessary to dismantle an For bolted joints with heavy loads, the hole
assembly of parts, a bolt with a washer and should be reamed and the difference in
nut is the best way to join parts together. diameter between the hole and the bolt
Normally galvanized or stainless steel bolts should be 0.15 mm at the most. If hot-dip
are used. Painting contact surfaces with zinc galvanized bolts are used, the difference in
chromate or epoxy bitumin and then a sealing diameter should be about 0.3 mm based on
compound can be a good way of stopping the diameter of the bolt before galvanizing.
galvanic corrosion. The length of the bolt should be chosen so
that the cylindrical unthreaded section passes
To assemble a corner joint correctly, drill and
through the entire length of the reamed hole.
ream the hole and then use a bolt with a close
fit. The difference in diameter between the
bolt and the hole can be up to 1 mm. In simpler
joints, reaming the edges is not necessary but
then the bearing stress in the hole and the
shear stress of the bolt should be lower than
the recommended.

Steel bolts should be insulated from the

aluminium structures in strongly corrosive
environments. The most usual insulation
materials are neoprene and nylon. When
neoprene is used, it should be a type that
does not contain carbon as an additive.

1) Without insulation, one or more of the corrosion inhibiting measures should be used.
2) Zinc coating has a limited life even if insulation is used.
 39

7. C lip joints

The elasticity of aluminium makes it ideal

for clipped joints. This is an effective way of
joining two extrusions with many advantages.
The greatest is that, if required, the two parts
can quickly be separated to give access to the
internal parts. Designed in the right way, this
joining technique is ideal for many applications.
For example, many extrusions can be clipped
together to create a whole panel. Extrusions that
cannot be produced as a single unit can be made
as two parts and then clipped together. The risk
of permanent changes in shape through the
material losing its elasticity should be taken into
account when designing snap connections. This
applies especially to connections that are often
joined and separated. In such cases plastic clips,
steel springs or similar should be used for the
spring function.

7. E xtrusions to extrusions

When joining one extrusion to another, they can

either slide together longitudinally in specially
designed tracks or snap together. Locking can
either be by specially designed deformations,
screws or cylindrical plugs.

Electronic enclosures are often built by cutting

an extrusion and then joining the two halves
together. They are locked together by
fitting a cover. This technique makes
for easier assembly of the electronic
components as well as reducing die
costs by replacing a relatively more
expensive hollow extrusion with a
solid aluminium extrusion. This is
easier to extrude and thus cheaper to
produce.
40

8. J oint functions – hinges

Aluminium extrusions provide many opportunities

for designing integrated joint and hinge
functions. Correct design can give a movement
of 90°C without any need for machining.

Fitting screw grooves to the extrusions for the

assembly and connection of other parts is a good
idea.

9. R oll forming

Roll forming is a good solution if a permanent

joint between two extrusions or an extrusion
and another material is required.

This uses Aluminium’s excellent characteristics

to the full and at the same time it gives the
designer the opportunity to optimize the design
of the aluminium extrusion.

Long, narrow gaps in the extrusion that cannot

normally be extruded can be produced by
opening the gap and then rolling it together to
the required dimension.
 41

10. Butt joint

Butt joints are made by using guide pins or by screwing in lengthways.

11. Connected extrusions

Dividing a large extrusion into several smaller

ones can often be economically advantageous.
With this in mind aluminium extrusions can be
designed so that together, the same extrusion
or a combination of different extrusions create a
larger structure with sufficient strength to cope
with even bigger loads.

12. Corner joints

Simple joining of two extrusions Corner joint using a Extruded corner cleat are
that are screwed, riveted or steel cleat. screwed, riveted or bonded
bonded
42

13. Sleeve joint

A sleeve joint gives durable and permanent joints.

14. Riveting

Joints using blind nuts or nutserts are often

used when it is impractical to thread thin wall
extrusions. It’s also used for joints that will be
continually joined and separated.

Riveting is a useful method for permanent joints.

15. Joining to other materials

When joining to other materials,

extrusions should be designed
taking into account the other
material’s properties such as
elasticity, strength, tendancy
towards corrosion an
so forth. By devising
clever extrusion
solutions, strong and
functional joints can
be achieved with the
majority of materials.

16. Adhesive bonding
Adhesive bonding is an important complement
to the conventional joining techniques.
Aluminium is by far the material that is most
frequently bonded with adhesives. Adhesive
bonded joints in aircraft have been used
since the 1940s. Many other examples exist
where aluminium is bonded to aluminium or
other materials. One such an example is brake
linings for cars that is bonded to aluminium
brake shoes.
There are a number of adhesives together with
surface pretreatment and bonding methods to
choose from. It is not always easy to select the
right combination of these, neither is bonding
free from risk without the required know-
43
how. The distance between the molecules in
the material to be bonded and those in the
adhesive should be 0.5 nm (a half a millionth
of an mm) at the most to be able to apply a
load. To achieve this closeness means that the
adhesive has to have a lower surface tension
than the material to be bonded otherwise the
adhesive will form a drop rather than flow over
the surface. Different surfaces have different
properties. The presence of impurities and
oxide means that the expected interaction
between the adhesive and the aluminium does
not happen. The surfaces to be joined should
therefore be clean and reproducible in order to
achieve an even bonding result in a production
facility.
44

Adhesive types
To make the right choice of adhesive, detailed information should be available on:
• Which materials are to be bonded together as well as any surface treatment
• The environment to which the bonded joint is to be exposed (indoors, in the country, industrial,
marine, hot, cold, humid, aerobic etc.)
• Normal, maximum and minimum temperatures
• Loads, load frequency and load type
• The size and shape of the bonded area, preferably with a drawing
• Production conditions (batch size, productivity requirements, possibility of heat curing)
• Any other requirements for the joint (aesthetic, easy to separate)

Advantages and limitations

An adhesive bonded joint has many good properties. To make the most of these properties it is
important to think about adhesive bonding already at the design stage.

Advantages with bonding

• various materials can be joined
• galvanic corrosion can be avoided
• the joint is permanent
• stronger and more rigid surfaces
• an even distribution of loads and stressess in the joints. Stress concentrations are avoided.
• the adhesive seals and bonds at the same time, crevice corrosion can be avoided
• low costs for finishing
• good fatigue characteristics
• dampens vibration
• reduced weight and number of components

Limitations with bonding

• handling directly after bonding is poor
• high temperatures result in reduced strength
• a bonded construction is difficult to disassemble for repair and service
• the need for pretreatment of the surface before bonding
• essential for structural bonding and to obtain satisfactory quality in corrosive environments
• it is necessary to ensure that the adhesive wets the surface
• health, environmental and safety aspects

Construction of the joints

It is important to know the types of loads to which
the joint will be exposed. When joining by means
of bonding it is essential to:
• maximize tension, shearing and compression,
Shearing
• minimize peeling and cleavage and
• maximize the area over which the load is spread

Peeling

Cleavage

Tension / Compression
 45

Basic adhesive bonded joints

It is possible to group the majority of joints into four basic types.
Examples of solutions (the arrows show in which direction the bond best absorbs loads):

1. Angle or corner joint

2. T-joint

3. Butt joint

4. Lap joint

Surface treatment prior to adhesive bonding:

A bonded joint is a chain with a number of links where the weakest one determines the strength
and service of the joint.

One or more of the following processes can be used for pre-treatment before bonding:
• Cleaning – degreasing (acidic, alkaline or solvent based)
• Grinding or blasting with subsequent cleaning
• Chemical etching, conversion coating, anodising
• Primer

It is no problem in this context to find a pre-treatment that gives sufficient quality. The problem
is to specify how high the quality should be and to find a treatment that achieves this while at
the same time being economically and environmentally justifiable even in mass production.
46

17. Welding

Correctly applied, the major design opportunities offered by aluminium

extrusions can facilitate the assembly and eventually eliminate the need for
welding or other demanding fabrication processes. For the best possible results
there should therefore be drawings of the proposed joining methods at the inquiry
stage and a description of the joint’s function.

The majority of aluminium alloys can be welded using conventional methods even though special
welding methods have been developed for aluminium. Welding has the following advantages as
joining method:

• Welding is the safest and easiest method of making airtight and watertight joints
• It is possible to weld materials of thicknesses from 0.4 mm (with the cold metal transfer
process) up to several centimeters. Using special equipment it is possible to weld foils
• Welding is fast and can compete economically with other joining methods
• In general welding saves materials when joining

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Oxide formation Specific heat capacity

One disadvantage with welding is aluminium’s
tendency to form oxide. This means that
directly fusing two aluminium components
is not possible. The oxide layer has two
properties that affect the result of the weld.
The high melting point (2 060°C) means that
the oxide does not melt during welding and
the heat applied combined with oxygen
accelerates the formation of oxide. Removing
the oxide layer when welding, can be carried
out in several ways – during the welding
process using flux that dissolves and removes
the oxide, or before welding with a steel brush.
When welding in a protective atmosphere (TIG
or MIG), the electric arc breaks the oxide layer
at the same time that the gas protects the
fused mass against the oxygen in the air and
prevents the formation of more oxide.
The thermal conductivity of aluminium is three
times higher than steel. This should mean that
three times as much heat is needed to heat
aluminium as opposed to steel to achieve the
same local temperature. This is not however
necessarily so as other properties of the metal
have an effect.
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat
measured in Joules, required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of material by 1°C. The
specific heat capacity of the various aluminium
alloys does not differ significantly and is in
general nearly double that of steel.
Melting point
The melting point of pure aluminium is about
660°C and between 570°C and 660°C for the
majority of the alloys. The melting point
of steel is about 1 535°C. When compared
to steel, aluminium requires a bigger heat
input into the weld pool to keep the metal in
melted form as aluminium is more efficient
in conducting heat. Despite aluminium’s
lower meting point the heat will therefore be
conducted away from the weld to the cooler
parts surrounding the weld and theweld pool
will solidify quicker without the additional
heat input. The additional heat required can be
calculated using the specific heat capacity and
thermal conductivity constants for aluminium.
Pore creation
The risk of porosity in the weld results from

hydrogen dissolving in the smelt. If the amount
of dissolved hydrogen is too great the excess
separates as gas during cooling and creates pores
in the joint.Hydrogen can be absorbed from things
like moisture and impurities in the metal and filler
material as well as from the gas flame or electric
arc. Alloying additives also affect the molten
metal’s tendency to absorb hydrogen.
Crack formation
The tendency to form cracks is associated with the
material’s strength and elasticity as well as the
stresses that arise because of uneven heating and
expansion during welding. Strength properties
are reduced at temperatures close to the melting
range. The risk for cracks forming is great if
deformation is prevented through tight clamping
of the parts. Welding cracks can either occur in
the weld joint or in the interface between the
weld joint and the material itself. A long cooling
time increases the risk for cracks forming while
rapid welding appears to have the opposite effect.
FUSION WELDING
The most common fusion welding methods are
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding and Metal Inert
Gas (MIG) welding. In general both these methods
give good results. Gas welding is used on a limited
scale and metal arc welding is used even less.
Fillers
The thickness of the parts to be welded
determines the amount of filler. Fillers are
standardized and are available in wire or rod
form with diameters from 1 to 6 mm. 1 mm wire
is used for materials 1 to 2 mm thick and 1.2 to
2 mm wire for a material thickness of 8-10 mm
depending on the process and equipment used
as it changes with the development of new and
better welding equipment. Welding rods also vary
in diameter depending on material thickness but
“stick welding” is not commonly found in the high
volume production environment of aluminium
products. It is important that the filler is clean
and dry. If the surface is contaminated, it can be
cleaned by passivation or brushing. Refer to the
table for a choice of fillers.
TIG welding
The TIG method does not require flux, which
makes it highly suitable for aluminium. It is well
suited for materials with a thickness of 0.7 mm
to 10 mm and especially for shorter joints. It can
be used on all alloys that can be welded. If done
correctly, TIG gives the most fault-free welding
47
of the conventional methods. Manual welding is
already fast and can be significantly speeded up
by mechanisation or automation.
MIG welding
MIG welding has been developed from TIG welding
in order to speed up the welding process. The
difference between the two methods is that MIG
uses a welding wire electrode instead of tungsten
electrode. The wire electrode provides the filler
material and is automatically fed through the
welding torch as it gets melted in the electric arc
and deposited in the weld. This method can be used
for all types of joints and all welding positions of 3
mm and up but special welding equipment allows
that materials down to 0.3 mm can be welded. The
main advantage of MIG welding is high welding
speed and good penetration. The width of the
area affected by the heat otherwise known as the
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is less than with any
other welding method because of the speed of
the process. Welding deformation will therefore
be less than with TIG welding. The high speed of
welding can be a disadvantage of short joints in
inaccessible places.
The disadvantage with the method is that it is too
difficult to use on thin material without the use of
robotic equipment. The investments required to
weld both thick and thin materials are therefore
substantially higher than if only thicker materials
(1.5 mm and up) are to be welded.
MIG welding equipment requires thorough
maintenance and cleaning and costs more to
buy than other welding equipment. The welding
speed is around 50 to 100 cm / min. for 3-20 mm
thick materials. To ensure the correct weld for the
application you must use the right equipment,
weld preperation where required and the correct
shielding gas such as argon or CO2. Consulting a
certified welding engineer at institutions such as
the South African Institute of Welding (SAIW) is
always recommended in safety crititcal designs or
new applications.
48

a) Alternative to be used in some applications.

b) Alternative to be used for decorative anodising afterwards

1) Account must be taken during preheating that cold worked and age-hardened material softens at temperatures above
about 150°C.
2) Relative values

Extrusion designed for simplified welding

Welding work can be simplified and the joint’s strength increased at the design
stage. Consequently extrusions can be optimised for welding by taking
into account the joint preparation, the alloy used, ensuring the
profile is thick enough in the area where there will be
welded, providing backing plates and reducing the
number of welds by including extrudable
features that will allow for bolted
connections or simply combining the
two profiles being welded together.

Other welding methods

Other welding methods include spot and
seam welding, flash welding as well
as cold and hot pressure welding.

Methods such as explosion, high frequency laser, ultrasound and electron

beam welding are all used under special circumstances.

Friction Stir Welding
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is no longer a
new method for joining but still a specialised
technique as it can not be done by human hand.
Therefore the investment requirement is high
and usually the reason companies take so long
to adopt it. It is used succesfully in automated
production lines building train carriages and
electric motor housings.
FSW is a solid-state joining process (meaning
the metal is not melted during the process)
and is used for applications where the original
metal characteristics must remain unchanged
as far as possible. This process is primarily
used on aluminum, and most often on large
pieces which cannot be easily heat treated
post weld to recover temper characteristics.
It was invented and experimentally proven by
Wayne Thomas and a team of his colleagues at
The Welding Institute UK in December 1991.
In FSW, a cylindrical-shouldered tool, with a
profiled threaded or unthreaded probe pin is
rotated at a constant speed and fed at a constant
traverse rate into the joint line between two
pieces of Aluminium extrusion, sheet or plate
which are butted together. The parts have to
be clamped rigidly onto a backing bar in a
manner that prevents the abutting joint faces
from being forced apart. The length of the pin
is slightly less than the weld depth required
49
FSW requires that neither filler nor a protective
atmosphere and creates a Weld that is virtually free from
heat deformations.
and the tool shoulder
should be in intimate
contact with the work
surface. The pin is
then moved into the
work piece along
the weldline, or vice
versa.
Frictional heat is
generated between the
wear-resistant welding tool
shoulder and pin, and the material of the
work pieces. This heat, along with the heat
generated by the mechanical mixing process
and the constant heat within the material,
cause the stirred materials to soften without
reaching the melting point (hence cited a
solid-state process), allowing the traversing
of the tool along the weld line in a plasticised
tubular shaft of metal. As the pin is moved
in the direction of welding, the leading face
of the pin, assisted by a special pin profile,
forces plasticised material to the back of the
pin while applying a substantial forging force
to consolidate the weld metal. The welding
of the material is facilitated by severe plastic
deformation in the solid state, involving
dynamic recrystallization of the base material.
The method requires neither filler nor a
protective atmosphere and generates a weld
virtually free from heat deformations. The
method is suitable for joining aluminium
extrusions of between 2 and 8 mm thick and
the welding speed is about 1 m/min.
A rotating tool is pressed down in
the metal and run along the joint.
50

18. Fabrication

Some form of fabrication may be required even if the extrusion’s properties and
functions have been optimized. Generally extrusions made of aluminium can be
fabricated using all the methods available for other metals.

In the same way all the usual engineering machines can normally be used for
fabricating aluminium. During the last few years however a series of special
machines (including CNC controlled multi-operation and long-length machines)
have been developed for fabricating aluminium. These give faster, more rational
and more cost effective processing.

Machining and forming

The machining and related finishing processes that are fequently applied to
aluminium are:
• Sawing • Tapping
• Milling • Shearing or pressing
• Drilling • Deburring
• Turning

Sawing
Higher sawing speeds can be achieved with aluminium than with steel. The
majority of aluminium alloys allow far greater sawing speeds and in most
cases the method is economic and a very advantageous solution. The good
sawing properties of aluminium do not just depend on the alloy and its temper
condition but also the interaction between metal, the tool and its design and
the lubricant to be used. Generally it can be said that sawing work is best
achieved economically and rationally if tools are used with a large cutting
edge angle and chips are effectively removed.

Aluminium extrusions can be sawn accurately without the formation

of burrs. The appearance of the cut, the alloy used and the
extrusion’s strength determine the size of the teeth, the number
of revolutions per minute of the saw blade, the number of
teeth, the diameter of the blade and the feed. The number
of teeth should be sufficiently large to give a clean cut
effectively. When sawing thin extrusions, several teeth
should always cut in the material and cutting lubricant
should always be used.

Milling
Milling machines for fabrication of aluminium
have larger teeth pitches than equivalent
tools for steel and therefore a more spacious
groove for chips. As with cutting, a high speed
is required for a good result. A high surface
quality demands higher power and stability in
the tool and feed mechanism.
There is a difference between end and
peripheral milling machines depending on
where the surface to be milled is situated in
relation to the milling spindle’s central line.
The milling diameter should be at least 20%
larger than the width of the surface being
treated when surface milling with an end mill.
²/³ of the surface should be moved against
and 1/3 with the cutting direction during
milling. The milling teeth should move in the
line of feed (down-feed milling) when milling
peripherally (i.e. slab milling cutter, shank-end
mill, side-milling cutter or spindle moulding
cutter).
Drilling
As with most machining, drilling should be
carried out at a high speed. When using
standard bits, they should be sharpened so as
to reduce the pressure required and obtain a
better result. Special bits for aluminium are
only required for deep holes or soft alloys.
It is important to note that the hole will be
considerably larger than the bit diameter when
drilling in aluminium, especially if the diameter
is large. Cooling is therefore essential to avoid
the hole expanding.
Turning
Aluminium can be turned in standard, special
and CNC lathes and should be carried out at
high rotation speeds. Parts to be turned should
therefore be fitted securely to avoid vibration.
Spacers between the part and the mounting
prevent marks on the metal and deformation.
Milling Drilling
51
Tapping
Internal and external threads can be made
using all available machining methods as well
as through plastic deformation. Heat treatable
alloys give especially high quality results.
Taps for steel can be used for threads under 6
mm but special taps should be used for larger
diameters.
Internal threads can either be made with taps
in series or with a single tap. The groove for
chips should be large and wide, well rounded
and polished as well as have a large cutting
edge angle.
The back surface should run radially or be
undercut so that the chips do not fasten
between the tool and the thread when the tap
is drawn out.
Special threading taps are normally divided
into three types.
• The first hole is polished with the pitch
against the cutting line so that the chips are
pushed forward in front of the tap during
threading.
• Another type is designed so that the thread
is interrupted from groove to groove.
• Finally there is one that has a spiral chips
groove for lighter cutting with better pressure
during threading.
External threads are made using ordinary
threading tools or screw cutting dies. The
threads can also be formed plastically by
rolling without any chips being formed. This
creates a very strong thread. The external
diameter of the part to be threaded should
be 0.2 to 0.3 times the size of the screw pitch
compared to the nominal thread diameter. It
is very important that the centre lines of the
metal part and the tool are aligned.
Turning Tapping
52

Shearing / pressing ability to conduct are commonly used.

Press work is normally carried out in eccentric
presses with a cutting (shearing) tool. The
press tools for aluminium are slightly different
from those designed for other metals.
The punch and die are manufactured from
hardened tool steel. Burrs are avoided by
regularly sharpening the punch and the die.
In the first the extrusion is pressed in one piece
and a closed space in the extrusions is filled
with polyurethane. When the polyurethane
has set, the extrusion is divided into two parts
held together by the polyurethane. In this way
the thermal bridge is interrupted (fill and mill).

Furthermore, the cutting face is ground at an In the other method two extrusions are joined
angle (shear). The angular ground part should using polyurethane or polyamide strips. These
at least be equivalent to the thickness of the are rolled into position. This way of insulating
part of the material that is to be cut out. makes it possible to use different frame colours
on the inside and outside windows.
In certain cases, especially when punching
holes, it can be an advantage to grind the
punch at an angle while keeping the die flat.
The punch should be left flat irrespective
of the shape of the die if the part cut out is
to be used. It is important to maintain the
correct clearance between the punch and
the die during the actual cutting process.
The clearance is determined by the material’s
composition and the thickness of the material
to be punched or sheared.

Deburring
Deburring is a process for removing small
chips and any remaining burrs on the extrusion
cut. The most common method is mechanical
using a brush or a grinding machine. Abrasive
tumbling, where fragments are removed by
friction using circulating stones, is a suitable
method for deburring smaller and medium
large parts.

Thermal break
Aluminium’s high coefficient of thermal
conductivity is not so desirable in applications
where low heat transfer is wanted such as in
windows. There are many ways of insulating.
Two techniques that greatly reduce the

Shearing / Pressing Deburring - Barral processing Deburring - Brushing Thermal Break

 53

Plastic forming
Aluminium extrusions can be bent using the
same equipment as for other metals. The need
for bending should be taken into consideration
at the design stage. Bending can take pace
in the T6 temper for larger radii but smaller
ones usually require soft annealed or T4 (half
hardened) metal. It is possible to heat-treat
T4 material to the harder T6 temper after
bending.
Bending should always be carried out before
anodising if a complete anodized layer without
cracks is required.
The four main methods used for bending are:
Bending
Bending gives high shaping accuracy. The
extrusion is held tightly at both ends and the
shaping takes place by the moving tool.
Stretch forming
Stretch forming can be done with or without
internal and external supports. The extrusion
is held tightly and rotates with the tool. This
method is suitable for small radii and can be
carried out repeatedly.

Roller bending
Large batches should
Roller bending is used to bend extrusions with
not be produced in
large radii. The extrusion is rolled between
the T4 condition as
three wheels of which one is adjustable. It
there is a risk that
is possible to vary the radius on the same
the material will be
component using CNC controlled machines.
left standing and will
harden naturally and
Press bending
adversely affect the Press bending is suitable for simpler operations
bending. in large batches. The parts are shaped in a
two part tool in, for example, an eccentric or
The material in the hydraulic press or other similar equipment.
bend can be harder
than the rest in the
event of high stresses,
for example with
very small radii. This
is important if the
original material is in
the T4 condition and
is to be hardened to
T6. In such cases the
bend can be annealed.
54

19. Surface treatment

There are two main reasons for surface treating aluminium extrusions, for
aesthetic purposes or to give the surface special properties.

The treatment methods are divided into four main types – mechanical, chemical, electro-
chemical and organic – which cover a series of different techniques. Some of the properties
that can be changed and improved by surface treatment are corrosion resistance, surface
structure, hardness, wear, reflectivity and electrical insulation capacity.

Shaping the extrusion

The extrusion process provides opportunities
for improving the surface as early as the
design stage.

Wide extrusions can be divided and the

structural variations of extrusions with uneven
material distribution can be hidden by, for
example, decorative grooves in the surface.

Many problems can be avoided if the visible

surfaces in the final product are shown with
dashed lines on the drawings at the enquiry
stage of extrusion development.

Methods of surface treatment

* These plating processes are maily carried out electrochemically

 55

Mechanical surface treatment

Special surface finishes can be achieved by mechanical treatment such as polishing and brushing.
These methods remove all small faults on the surface, give a uniform surface and make further
treatment possible to give a reflective or decorative surface.

Polishing
Polishing is a process that consists of grinding,
oiling and polishing with chamois leather in
several stages, whether automated or manual.
A smooth, brightly reflective and scratch-free
surface with good luster can be achieved with
negligible loss of material.

Grinding
Grinding gives a decorative, non-reflective
surface that can vary from a sandblasted to a
velvety appearance. Ground surfaces should be
anodized or painted to inhibit corrosion.

Barrel processing
Barrel processing is a very good method for
smaller aluminium parts to remove burrs, smooth
sharp edges and to polish to a certain extent.
56

Chemical surface treatment

Etching
Etching is a process that either takes place
in acid or alkali solutions. It removes small,
evenly distributed impurities on the surface
such as oil, dirt and the ever present oxide
layer.

A matt, grayish surface can be achieved

depending on the alloy, the condition of
the surface, the chemical composition and
temperature of the bath, and the dwell time. Anodising

Etching is used as a pre-treatment before

anodising or powder coating.

Chromating / phosphating
Chromating or phosphating are carried out to
improve the adhesion between the aluminium
substrate and the powder coating. The
corrosion resistance is improved as well.

These two conversion coating methods are also

used for the surface treatment of components
that require good electrical conductivity.

Chemical brightening and polishing

Chemical brightening gives the surface a
mirror finish but at the same time the surface
is very sensitive and should therefore be
treated further by anodising or painting

Chromating
Plating with copper, nickel, silver, tin
Plating with copper, nickel, silver or tin is a
surface treatment method that provides for
good soldering, reflective and conductivity
properties for both electricity and heat.

These methods are used on components for

telecommunications as well as electrical and
other technical applications.

Electrochemical surface treatment
Anodising
Anodising is an electrochemical process that
creates a significantly thicker layer of oxide
than than that which naturally occurs on
the surface of the aluminium. This provides
protection against mechanical wear and
corrosion at the same time as electrically
insulating the surface.The process involves
preparing the extrusion with degreasing
and washing processes and then placing the
extrusion in an electrolyte bath with a DC
current where the extrusion acts as the anode
(hence the name). When the current is applied
a thicker oxide is formed, which becomes an
integrated part of the material. The thickness
of the layer is determined by a combination of
the temperature and composition of the bath,
the applied current and anodising time. The
oxide layer created consists of a number of
Anodising Properties
The anodic oxide layer formed by anodising
provides very good resistance to corrosion.
The surface is not normally affected by
contact with solutions and substances with
a pH between 4 and 8.5. The surface can be
stained and damaged by strongly alkaline
substances. This is something to remember for
aluminium building components, which should
be protected during work against concrete,
cement, etc. Aluminium’s natural oxide layer
has a thickness of about 0.02 micron. By
anodising, the thickness of the oxide layer can
be increased to 25 microns. The hardness of
the anodized layer exceeds that of steel, nickel
and chromium and is the same as corundum
(a form of crystalline alumina, α-aluminium
oxide). At the same time the melting point
of the surface increases to around 2000° C.
57
open pores that make the material sensitive to
corrosion. The process is therefore completed
by closing the pores by sealing it in boiling
water. The anodic oxide layer can also be
coloured in a wide range of shades. Colouring
takes place prior to sealing.
The oxide layer formed by anodising has good
insulation properties and a breakdown voltage
of 50-600V at a thickness of
12 – 15um. The wear and corrosion of
resistance of the surface can be improved by
increasing the thickness of the anodized layer.
The table below gives recommended thickness
for various applications.
Anodised extrusions are suitable for a range
of architectural and decorative applications
that require a beautiful and durable surface.
Anodised aluminium extrusions minimize
the need for maintenance. They should
however, for aesthetic reasons, be cleaned
regularly with, for example, water and neutral
detergent. Strong acids and alkalis should not
be used.
58

Colour anodising
Before the final sealing of the pores, the
anodic oxide coating can be coloured. Two
methods are used:

• Dying is carried out directly after anodising

in a separate step. Either organic or
inorganic colouring agents can be used.
The process is completed by sealing. A
variety of colours are available. However,
the organic dye stuffs are not resistant to
UV light and this method is most suitable
only for products that are to be used
indoors.

• Electrolytic colouring is carried out

in a separate step after anodising using
an AC current. The pigments, which consist
of metallic salts, penetrate into the pores.
This process is followed by sealing. The
resulting colour is very resistant to the
effects of UV light and is highly suitable
for products to be used outdoors. The
colours range from golden bronze to
black.

Organic surface treatment

Powder coating
The powder coating of aluminium extrusions
is a solvent free and environmentally friendly
method that gives access to a wide colour
spectrum. The method has the following
advantages:

• A wide range of colours

• Variety of surface finishes
• Good corrosion resistance
• Good wear and low surface friction
• Powder coatings are resistant to UV light
and therefore suitable for products to be
used outdoors.

Correct treatment is important to achieve

a satisfactory and durable result. Normal
pretreatment consists of degreasing and
etching as well as chromating.
 59

Screen printing
A durable and decorative result can be achieved
on aluminium extrusions using screen printing.
This can be carried out on both untreated and
anodized surfaces.

Especially durable results can be achieved if

the screen printing is carried out between the
anodising and sealing processes.

The pores in the oxide layer absorb the link and

the final sealing closes the pores and therefore
provides extra protection against wear.

Protective foils
Protective foils can be applied to the majority
of extrusions to protect visible surfaces against
damage during machining, transport and
assembly.

The best results are achieved in application

machines with press rollers suited to the shape
of the extrusion and at temperatures between
15°C and 40°C.

The thickness of the film should be taken into

account when it comes into contact with process
equipment where tolerances are playing a role.
60

surface criteria

Surface qualities, painted extrusions

 61

20. Tolerances

The tolerances below apply to general extruded products.

Tighter tolerances can be considered upon request.

Dimensions in millimeters
62

Dimensions in millimeters
 63

Dimensions in millimeters
64

Dimensions in millimeters
 65

Dimensions in millimeters
66

Notes
 67

Contacts

HEAD OFFICE AND MIDRAND OPERATION

Tel: +27 11 206 0200 Post: P O Box 25

Fax: +27 11 206 0206 Olifantsfontein
Address: Corner of Main & Olifantsfontein Road 1665
Olifantsfontein South Africa
Midrand
GPS coordinates:

PIETERMARITZBUG OPERATION AND EXPORT SALES OFFICE

Tel: +27 33 395 6911 Post: PO Box 74

+27 33 395 6244 (Local Sales) Pietermaritzburg
+27 33 394 7395 (Export Sales) 3200
Address: Moses Mabhida Road South Africa
Pietermaritzburg
GPS coordinates:

CAPE TOWN OPERATION

Tel: +27 21 53 5531 Post:

PO Box 160
Fax: +27 21 534 7073 Eppindust
Address: Bertie Avenue 7475
Epping Industria 2 South Africa
Cape Town
GPS coordinates:

Southern Africa enquiries: Extrusions@hulamin.co.za

International enquiries: ExportSales@hulamin.co.za
Website: www.hulaminextrusions.co.za
68

www.hulamin.co.za