Aluminium-Extrusions-Technical-Design-Guide Pag20 92 124

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ALUMINIUM EXTRUSIONS
— a technical design guide
i;c
Forfree, objectiveadviceon allmatters relating to aluminium
extrusions contact:
TheShapemakers Information Service

Broadway House
Calthorpe Road
Birmingham
B151TN
Tel: 021 4562276

Fax: 021 4562274
—a technical design guide
PUBLISHED BY THE SHAPEMAKERS

—the information arm of the UK Aluminium Extruders Association
'I
©TheShapemakers
Broadway House
Calthorpe Road
Birmingham
B151TN
DISCLAIMER
This book is intended for use by technically skilled personnel. The use of the
information contained herein by suchtechnicallyskilled personnel, is at the risk of
the user. While all reasonable skill and care hasbeen exercised in the preparation of
this book, there are no warranties, express or implied, as to the accuracy or
completeness of this work,either by the author or the publisher, both ofwhom deny
responsibility or liability for any results obtainedor damagescaused as a consequ-
enceofthe usethereof .The publisher and the authorhereof grantno licence withthis
book and disclaim all liability for suitability, practicability, infringement of property
rights of third parties or non-conformance with anycodes, standards or regulations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT TO BSI
Extracts from British Standards are reproduced with the permission of BSI. Com-
plete copies ofthe Standards canbe obtained by postfromBSI Sales, Linford Wood,
Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE.
First published October1989 Reprinted July 1991 Reprinted August 1994
Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press Ltd

Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk
VI
PREFACE to the 1994 reprint — by Howard Spencer
Since this manual was originally published, British Standards havepublished a new
aluminium structural code, BS 8118 1991, whichsupersedes BS CP118 1969:
— Part 1: Code of Practice for Design

— Part 2: Specification for Materials, Workmanship and Protection
There is at presenta change-over periodwhere both design codes are valid, but at
some time in the future BS CP118 will be withdrawn. This new code is intended to
bring aluminium structural design into line with othermetals and also with European
standard codes, which will simplify future preparation of an overall European
structural code for aluminium.
I intend here to give users ofthe manual averybrief outline of how the new codes will
affect the use of aluminium. It is impossible to go into too much detail. Those
requiring additional information should refer to the codes themselves, available
from British Standards (see address below).
The New Code

The new code is based around a new design approach, based on the principle of
'limitstatedesign'. Thisprinciple is concerned with ensuring that anygivenstructure
cancarry the loadsand forces placed upon it withoutfailure, up to a pre-determined
limit. The factored resistance of a structure must therefore never be less than the
factored loading. The following equation can be applied:
Y12R = Y4S
= overall resistance factor

R = calculated resistance
= overall loading factor
S = maximum design load
The resistance is calculated from the effective sectional properties, the limiting
stressand a material and connection factor. The loading effectisfactored fortypeof
load, i.e. dead load, imposed load, wind load and temperature induced forces.
The new code also covers the calculation of elastic instabilities. Aluminium sections
with verywide, thinelements are susceptible to local buckling underhigh compres-
sive stresses. The relevantcalculations have been simplified in the new code by
adopting a classification system based upon a factored relationship between the
width or depth of the element and the thickness. Three categories are listed for
moment resistance — compact, semi-compact and slender. For compact sections,
I
no further check is required as theywill not suffer fromlocal buckling. (For example,
afl the sections listed in BS 1161 "AluminiumStructural Sections" are compact.)
Semi-compact resistance is obtained by using the quoted limiting stress of the
material. Sections defined as slender, however, are assessed on the basis of a
reduced effective wall thickness and the extent of the reduction can be obtained
from a seriesofcurves. Only the compact and slender categories are allowed when
calculating the axial resistance of struts.
Therecommendation fordeflection levels hasnot changed, but a word of caution is

included in the specification against imposing too tight a standard on aluminium
structures when the particularapplication does not merit it.
The section on welding has been greatly extended from that in the original code.
Guidance is provided on the design of weldstaking intoaccount the strength ofthe
weld metal and a partial reduction in strength in the heat affected zoneof the parent
metal. The limiting stressesfor both filler and parent metal are given with factorsfor
designing butt and lap joints for both traverse and longitudinal welds.
Adhesively bonded joints are only recommended for secondary stressed connec-
tions. The factored resistance of a bonded joint can be calculated from an expres-
sion containing a failing standard, obtainedfromtesting, and a material connection
factor for bonded joints, If validated test data is available, it can be used in the joint
resistance expression.
The section on fatigue has also been greatly extended, incorporating information
fromboth UK and European research. The tablesfor both welded and non-welded
structures contain detailed sketches illustrating the typeof construction, direction of
stress, fluctuation and possible cracklocations. Thetables are based upon BS 5400
Part 10: Bridges and give the classification for a range of structural detail.
Full supporting data including mathematical formulae relevanttothe design calcula-

tionsand curvesused in the codeare setout in the appendices of the new codeand
can be used to assistcomputer aided design.
All references in the manual to BS CP1 18 now apply to BS 8118 and, as the new
code does not cover permissible stress levels, table 3.2 and figure 3.3 are not
applicable. Tables 3.4 and 6.11 have also been modified as the standard elastic
modulus for all wroughtaluminium alloysis now 70,000 N/mm2
Reviewing the worked examples given in the manual, the pedestrian balustrade
(pages 113—122) results in marginal modifications to some sections whenworkedto
the new code but gives similar overall results. In the case of the unloading ramp,
however (pages 111—112) there could be a slight saving in the thickness of the
section when meeting the new code. The column example (pages 123—125)refers
to alloy2014AT6 which is no longer astandard material inthe newcode. Although it
can be used, the limit statestresses would have to be established and, in this case,
the sectionthicknesswould haveto be slightly increased.
VIII
Competently used, the old code should still give an acceptable level of design. It
should be noted, however, that if the calculations are to be officiallyapproved then
only the new code is valid. Furthermore, the up-dated information in the new code
can result in a more economical structural useof the material.
Codes referred to: BS 8118 Part 1: 1991Codeof Practice for Design

BS 8118 Part 2: 1991 Specification for Materials,
Workmanship and Protection
These are available from:

Sales Dept, BSI, Linford Wood, Milton Keynes, MK14 6LE, or any HMSO.
ix
INTRODUCTION
Aluminium is a highly versatile, light and strongmaterial whichcanbe produced in a

varietyofalloysandextruded intoan almost infinite number ofshapes. Thispowerful
combination of factors enables the user to be more innovative and facilitates cost-
effective design.
Comprising 8% of the earth's crust, aluminium is a plentiful resource. It is a

modern material, first used in commercial production in 1886. Since then, the list of
applications has grown immensely. Now, designers working in a whole range of
different sectors, including generalengineering, construction, transport, packaging
and consumer products, are reaping the benefits gained by using aluminium
extrusions.
The Shapemakers was established by the Aluminium Extruders Association

(AEA) in 1984 to provide independent guidance on all matters relating to extruded
aluminium. Representing the UK's top extrusion companies, The Shapemakers is
ableto drawupon thesecompanies' considerable resources and expertise.
This technical design guide contains a wealth of information on aluminium itself,

as well as giving details on the extrusion process, fabrication and finishing. Also
included is a comprehensive design section, which outlinesthe important design
considerations and shows a number ofworked examples.
Forreasonsofclarity, onlysix alloys have been incorporated intothemainbody of

the manual. These have been carefully selected to illustrate the various uses of
alloys — from general purpose to high strength. Additional alloys are listed in the
appendices. For details of the availability of anyalloy listed in this manual, please
contact the Shapemakers Information Service in Birmingham, Tel: 021 4562276.
The AEA would like to thank The Shapemakers' technical consultant, Howard
Spencer, forall his workin compiling thisdesign guide. Aspecial thanksalsogoesto
TheShapemakers' members, Hugo Ravesloot, Jim Peach and Chris Forman.
Derek Phillips
Chairman of The Shapemakers

CONTENTS
PRINCIPLES OF EXTRUSION 1
MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS 25
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 33
DURABILITY 45
SURFACE FINISHING 55
FABRICATION 63
CONDUCTIVITY 87
TEMPERATURE 93
FIRE 97
CARE AND CONTROL 101
DESIGN 105
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 127
APPENDICES 133
SECTION 1 - PRINCIPLESOF EXTRUSION
CONTENTS
Title Page No.
EXTRUSIONPROCESS 4
Direct Extrusion 4
IndirectExtrusion 5
Hollow Sections 6
EXTRUDABILITY 7
Extrusion Ratio 7
Shape Factor 7
SIZE 8
THICKNESS 8
SLOTS 10
SECTION CLASSIFICATION 11
CORNERS 11
TOLERANCES 12
List of Figures
Fig No. Title Page No.
1.1 TheDirect ExtrusionProcess 4
1.2 TheDiffering Operating

Principlesof Direct
and IndirectExtrusion 5
1.3 Extrusion of a Hollow Section 6
1 .4 Thick to Thin Transitionsin

Extrusion Cross Section 10
1.5 PressureHinge 10
1.6 SlotAspect Ratios 10
1.7 Standard Section Types 11
Listof Tables
No. Title Page No.
1.1 Shape Factor Value 8
1.2 A Guide to MinimumThickness 9
1.3 Toleranceson Diameter of Round

Bar Intendedfor use on
Automatic Lathes 12
1.4 Toleranceson Widths Across

Flats of HexagonalBar forthe
Manufactureof Nut & Bolts 13
1.5 Toleranceson Diameter of

Round Bar in the Controlled
StretchedCondition 13
2
List of Tables (contd.)
No Title Page No.
1.6 Toleranceson Diameter or Width

Across Flats of Bars for General
Purposes and on Width of Solid
or Hollow RegularSections 14
1 .7 Angular Tolerancesfor
ExtrudedRegul&Sections 15
1.8 PermittedCorner Radii 15
1 .9 Toleranceson Wall Thicknesses

of ExtrudedRound Tube
(classes A, B and C). 16
1.10 Toleranceson Thicknessof

Bars and Regular Sections 17
1.11 Toleranceson Open End of

Channelsand L Beams 18/19
1.12 Tolerances on the Outside

Diameter of All Extruded Round
Tube and on the Inside Diameter
of Class A and Class B Extruded
Round Tube 20
1.13 Toleranceson Thicknessof

Hollow Sections (classes A and B) 21
1 .14 Toleranceson Straightnessfor

ExtrudedBar, RegularSections
and Extruded RoundTubes 22
1.15 Toleranceson Length for All

Materials Suppliedin Fixed
Cut Lengths 23
1 .16 Tolerances on Concavity

and Convexityfor Extruded
Solid and Hollow Sections 23
1 .17 Toleranceon Twist for Extruded

Solid and Hollow Sections 24
3
EXTRUSIONPROCESS
Direct Extrusion
The direct extrusion processcan be clearly seen in the schematicdiagram in Fig. 1.1.
Cylindrical aluminium alloy billets of cast or extruded manufacture are heated to
between4500and 500° before being loaded into a container and the billet squeezed
through a die orifice using ram pressuresof up to 68OMPa. The die is supported by a
series of back dies and bolsters so that the main press load is transferred to a front
platen.
Ram cross head
Stem
Liner
Die slide
Dummy block
Platen
Container
Billet
Die
Backer
Sub bolster
Extruded section
Fig. 1.1 - The Direct Extrusion Process
4
On leavingthe die the temperatureof the section is more than 500°C and with heat
treatable afloys the quenching, or solution heat treatment, takes place in the
production line. Thiscanbe bywater bath, water spray or forced-draughtair, with the
latter being particularly useful for thin sections. The approximatetemperaturedrop
during the traverse of the quench box is 250°C. To avoid distortion care hasto be
exercised in handling sections with extreme aspect ratios and large variations in
thickness.
Afterextrusionthe section is guided downthe table by a puller on to a slatted moving

belt. Modern Pullers are based on linear motor s,stemsand operateon tables up to
40 metres long. On completion of an extruded length, the section is sheared at the
press end and lifted from the slatted table by eccentric pivoted arms. It is then
transferred by a walking beam or multi-belttransfertable to the stretcher bay where
it is given a controlled stretch to straighten and remove minor mis-alignments.The
section is then taken and cut to ordered lengths on high speed tungsten carbide
tipped saws.
If the material is requiredin the solution heat treated condition (T4) it is released at
this stage. If the full strength aged material (T6) is required, it is given a precipitation
treatment before release. In the caseof the T5 temper,there is limited cooling atthe
press exit and the material goes directly to precipitationtreatment.
Indirect Extrusion
In the traditional direct methodof extrusion,as described above, the die is stationary
and the press ram applies pressure on to the billet. In the indirect method,the ram
carriesthe die and appliespressureon tothe stationarybillet, inthe oppositedirection
of extrusion.There can be variationto this basic concept,but in every case the billet
remains stationary in relationto the container,thereby keepingfriction loss to a bare
minimum. See Fig. 1.2. Die
Extrusion
Die Billet
Extrusion
Indirect extrusion
Die Billet
Fig. 1.2 - The DifferingOperatingPrinciplesof Directand Indirect Extrusion
5
HollowSections
A bridgeor 'port-holedie' is usuallyusedto makehollowsections.Asolid billet isforced,

under pressure,through acompositedietoolthatfirstdividesthe metal intotwo or more
separate streams which then flows down under the bridge to be pressure welded
together and emerge, as an extruded section,through the orifice formed betweenthe
mandrel nose and the outer section shape which hasbeen cut in the die. See Fig. 1.3.
Any sample taken across the section would show an integralmaterial quality with no
reductionofstrength in the weld areas. Inspectionmethodsare usually by destructive
test samplingin line with that laid down by the British Standards for scaffold tubing in
specificationBS 1139. Productionmethodsfor this kind of section are wellestablished
and extruders will be pleased to advise on the feasibility of producing any hollow
section.
Some caution must be exercised, howeverwherethin hollowsections are required in

thestronger alloys,particularlyfromthebridgeorport-holeproductionmethods.Hollow
sections are usually produced in these alloys by using centre mandrelsthat are not
connectedtothedie but are passedthrough a boredor piercedhole inthecentre ofthe
billet and eitherconnectedorsupportedby the press rod. In this type of production,the
metalflow aroundthe mandrelis not interruptedandthereare no extrusionweld planes
inthe section. Theremaybesome restrictionintheavailabilityofthis type ofproduction
and in the range of sectionsobtainablefrom it. As the standardoftolerances may also
be wider further informationand advice should be sought from the extruderforstrong
alloy hollow sections.
area
Pressure
Bridge Mandrel nose
Fig. 1.3 - Extrusionof a Hollow Section
6
EXTRUDABILITY
Aluminium alloys offer a wide range of performance characteristics and important

amongst these is its extrudability. Linked with modern die-making facilities and
traditionalexpertisethe metal offersa virtuallyunlimitedvarietyof sectionshapes. The
feasibilityof any extrusionhasboth technicaland commercialconsiderationsand most
extruders use a numberof methodsto evaluateextrusioncomplexity. These methods
are usually based upon a combinationof extrusiontheory and experience.
ExtrusionRatio
Extrusion ratio isthe valueobtained bydividingthe cross-sectionarea ofthe extrusion

billet bythe cross-sectionarea of the extrusionto be produced. It dependsvery much
on the size and type of press available and is a factor that can only be considered by
the extruder. Optimumextrusion ratiosfordirect extrusionare usuallybetween30 and
50.
With lowvaluesof 7or under,there isvery littleworkingofthe materialduringextrusion.

This gives a correspondingdrop in mechanicalpropertiesand the possibilityof coarse
grain bands. Values of 80 and above require high breakthroughpressureswhich are
likely to cause die distortion and possible breakage.
In some casesthe extrusionratiocanbe improvedby usinga multi-holedie. Inthecase

of indirectextrusionmuch higherextrusionratios are possiblebecauseofthe relatively
low frictional force developed in the system.
Shape Factor
The resistanceof a sectionto extrusioncan be influencedby the shapefactor. This is

the relationshipbetween the periphery and cross-sectionareaof the section being
extruded. It is usualforextrudersto modifytheshapefactor value, interms of extrusion
weight, by dividingthe peripheryby the cross sectional area and multiplyingby .0027.
The shape factor of a proposed extrusion is usually compared with that of a similar
existing extrusionto obtain a measureof extrudability. This is not a precise method,
however, as any large difference in wall thickness canalter the ratio substantially. In
general, the higherthe value the moredifficult the extrusion and the more limitedthe
alloy choice thereby restrictingsome high strength alloys. Table 1 .1 sets out some
general values which can be used for reference.
7
Table 1.1 - Shape FactorValues
SectionType CCD Thickness Shape Factor

mm mm
L 142 2.5 300

L
I
70 1.5 500
112 5.0 152
O 142 solid 15
O 70 solid 30
© 50 3.0 247
© 50 1.5 494
ltiiiiiil 210 3.0 190
210 2.0 285
Iii 11J 140 2.0/6.0 183
40 2.0/1.5 430
I- I
SIZE
The sizeofanextrudedshape is determinedbythediameterof thecircumscribingcircle

(CCD) required to enclose the cross-section. The maximumCCD for any die size is
governed by the need to keep an unbroken structural ring aroundthe die orifice.The
minimumwidth ofthat ring can vary from 20 mm on an averagesize solid dieto 60 mm
or more on dies for large hollow sections. Most averagesectionsfit intoCCDs below
155 mm with a medium range of 250 mm and very large sections up to 400 mm.
The section, should, as far as possible, be distributedaroundthe centre of the CCD.

In anyextrusion,metalflow is slowertowardsthe outsideedge ofthe dieso the placing
of thicker parts of the sectionaway fromthe centre results in a more even metal flow.
THICKNESS
Factorsthat dictatethickness are influencedbysection shape,alloy, dieface pressure,

extrusionspeed and section stability duringsolution heattreatment and post-extrusion
handling. Ageneral guide to minimumthickness isgiven in Table 1.2 which is based
on 6063 material.
8
Table 1.2 - A Guideto Minimum Thickness
E
E
I-
0)
0)
rC-)
0)
0)
50 200 250 300

C C D in mm
a) Values for 6082 should be increasedby 25%

b) Thesethickness - GCDratios representaveragevaluesbased upongood working
practice.
c) The values up to 1 .25 mm thick are for small specialised presseswith very high
die face pressurelevels.
d) When ratios below those shown are required contact extruders.
The extrusionprocess will toleratevariations in sectionthicknessbut it is importantto

avoid abrupt change. Acceptabletransition betweenthicknessescanbe obtained by
using radii or blendingcurves, see Fig. 1 .4. Short spans of local thinning can also be
incorporatedin most sections. This is a useful methodof introducingpressurehinges
in section elementswhichwillbedeformedduring subsequentfabrication,see Fig. 1 .5.
9
p
Radius
p I Thin hinge
/ —
Fig. 1.4 - Thick to Thin Transitionsin Fig. 1.5 - PressureHinge

ExtrusionCross-Section
SLOTS
The formationofslots,or open boxchannels,in asection requiresafinger or box spigot

to be retainedon the die. As it is not possibleto reinforcethese spigots, which actas
local cantileversunder extrusion pressure,a practical limitmust be placed on the size
and type of slots available. Fig. 1.6 detailsthe normal methodofcalculatingslot aspect
ratios althoughwhere gaps are below 3 mm these ratiosare evenfurther reduced. The
maximum ratios are 3:1. Higher valuesare possible,particularly in 6063 alloy. Screw
ports and bolt slots are detailed under these headings in section 6 Fabrication.
— Gap — Depth
___ _____ Width
Aspect Ratio = —
Area =—
Aspect Ratio Depth
Gap2 Width
Fig. 1.6 - Slot Aspect Ratios.
10
SECTION CLASSIFICATION
There arethreestandardtypesof section - solid,semi-hollowand hollow. Thefirstand

last are self-explanatory.Semi-hollowdescribesthose solid sectionswhich have open
box recesseswith aspect ratios (depth/width)less than three. In general,the tooling
and productioncosts increasewith section categoriesfrom solid to semi-hollowand
then hollow.
Solid Semi-hollow Hollow
Fig. 1.7 - Standard SectionTypes

CORNERS
All corners are normally broken by a radius but where absolutely necessary,sharp
cornerscanbe incorporatedin asection either internallyor externallybut the life of the
die and thespeedofextrusionare both markedlyreduced.Suchcorners also introduce
problems where paintedfinishes are specified, introducingobvious sight lines. The
breakingof the corners,even by 0.5 mm radii is helpful in overcomingthese problems
but for ideal extrusion conditions, radii should be related to the overall size of the
section. Table 1.8 sets out preferredvalues.
11
TOLERANCES
Tolerance levels for regular sectionsare laid down in BS 1474, howeveras the bulk of
extrusions are non-standardthey are not covered in the standard. The extrusion
industry regards BS 1474 as a target level and is preparedto accept if for all general
business,apart from verythin or complexsections which will bethe subject of special
enquiry. Closertolerancescanbeobtainedfor some sectionsbut, again,this isamatter
betweencustomer and extruder.
In line with most productionmethods,tolerancesare necessaryto cover variationsin

the actual process and wearing of toolsand dies.
Most tolerances are quoted as plus or minus around a datum value but, if required,
unilateral tolerance can be obtained, either all positiveor all negative. It is essential,
however, to agree this requirement before die manufacture is commenced as the
dimensional datum of the die will be altered.
Alltolerancesshouldbe measuredat 160G. This isparticularlysignificantforthelength

tolerancesof long bars.
There is no laid-downstandardfor the surface smoothnessor texture of mill finished

extruded sections.
Table 1.3 - Tolerances on Diameter of Round Bar Intended

for useon AutomaticLathes
Diameter
Plus and minimum toleranceson
Over Up to and diameter
including
mm mm +mm -mm
10 18 0.05 0.10
18 30 0.08 0.13
30 40 0.14 0.14
40 60 0.20 0.20
60 80 0.30 0.30
80 100 0.40 0.40
100 160 ± 0.5% of specifieddiameter
12
Table 1.4 - Tolerances on Width Across Flatsof Hexagonal
Barfor theManufactureof Nuts & Bolts
Width across flats

Tolerance on width across flats
Over Up to and (all minus)
Including
mm mm mm
- 4.0 0.08
4.0 19.0 0.10
19.0 36.0 0.13
36.0 46.0 0.15
46.0 80.0 0.20
Table 1.5 - Tolerances on Diameter of Round Bar in the

Controlled Stretched Condition*
Diameter
Tolerances on diameter
Over Up to and (plusand minus)
including
mm mm +mm -mm
10 18 0.05 0.20
18 30 0.08 0.26
30 40 0.14 0.28
40 60 0.20 0.40
60 80 0.30 0.60
80 100 0.40 0.80
100 180 0.5% of 1.0 % of
specified specified
diameter diameter
* The controlledstretch
procedurereducesthe level of any residual stressesin abar
and is ideal for machining stock. SpecialTempersT6510 and T6511 refers.
13
Table 1.6 - Tolerances on Diameter or Width Across Flats of Bars
for General Purposesandon Width of Solid
or Hollow Regular Sections
Diameter, width or
width across flats
Tolerances (see notes 1 and 2)
Over Up to and
including
mm mm ±mm
- 3 0.16
3 10 0.20
10 18 0.26
18 30 0.32
30 40 0.40
40 60 0.45
60 80 0.50
80 100 0.65
100 120 0.80

120 140 0.90
140 160 1.00
160 180 1.10
180 200 1.20

200 240 1.30
240 280 1.50
280 320 1.70
NOTE 1: Tolerances in this table apply to solid materialsother than:

(a) round bar for use on automaticlathes (see table 1.4)
(b) controlledstretchedbar (see table 1.6)
(c) hexagonalbars for the manufactureof nuts and bolts (see table
1.5)
NOTE 2: Tolerances in this table apply to hollow regular sections

having awall thicknessnot less than 1.6mmor3%of the overall width,
whichever is the greater. In the case of non-heat-treatedmaterial or
1.6mm or4% oftheoverall width, whicheveris the greater,in the case
of heat treated material. The tolerance should be appliedto the width
measuredat the corners.
14
Table 1.7 - AngularTolerances for Extruded Regular
Sections
Nominal thickness of
thinnest leg Allowabledeviation from angle
(measured at the ex-
Over Up to and specified
tremitles of thesection)
including
mm mm j-
- 1.6 2°
1.6 5.0 1.5°
5.0 - 1°
Table 1.8- PermittedCorner Radii
For square and rectangularsections

Minor dimension
Radius on corner (max.)
Over Up to and
Including
mm mm mm
- 5 0.4
5 10 0.8
10 25 1.6
25 50 2.5
50 120 3.0
120 - 5.0
I
For regular sections (e.g. angle, channel, I- and - sec-
tions)
Thicknessof Radius on corner (max.)
section
mm mm
Up to and
including 5 0.8
Over5 1.5
15
Table 1.9 - Tolerances on Wall Thicknessof Extruded Round Tube
(classes A, B and C) (see note 1)
Class A ClassB Class C
Nominal Toleranc Wall thickness Tolerano Wall thickness Tolerance Wall thickness
wall on mean atany point on mean at any point on mean at any point
thickness wall wall wall
oftube thickness thickness . thickness .
(Max.) (Mm.) (Max.) (Mm.) (Max.) (Mm.)
mm ±mm mm mm ±mm mm mm ±mm mm mm
1.0 0.15 1.20 0.80 - - - - - -

1.5 0.16 1.71 1.29 0.18 1.74 1.26 - -
2.0 0.17 2.23 1.77 0.20 2.27 1.73 - - -
2.5 0.18 2.74 2.26 0.22 2.80 2.20 - - -

3.0 0.20 3.27 2.73 0.27 3.36 2.64 0.65 3.87 2.13
4.0 0.23 4.30 3.70 0.31 4.42 3.58 0.70 4.93 3.09
5.0 0.26 5.34 4.66 0.37 5.49 4.51 0.75 6.00 4.00
6.0 0.28 6.38 5.62 0.43 6.58 5.42 0.82 7.09 4.91
7.0 0.31 7.43 6.57 0.51 7.67 6.33 0.89 8.18 5.82
8.0 0.34 8.47 7.53 0.56 8.76 7.24 0.94 9.27 6.73
10.0 0.40 10.52 9.48 0.65 10.85 9.15 1.03 11.36 8.64
12.0 0.46 12.61 11.39 0.77 13.03 10.97 1.15 13.54 10.46
14.0 0.53 14.71 13.29 0.88 15.24 12.76 1.30 15.75 12.25
16.0 0.58 16.76 15.24 1.00 17.34 14.66 1.40 17.88 14.12
18.0 0.63 18.82 17.18 1.13 19.44 16.56 1.50 20.00 16.00
20.0 0.68 20.90 19.10 1.22 21.63 18.38 1.60 22.13 17.88
22.0 0.74 23.00 21.00 1.35 23.81 20.19 1.73 24.32 19.68
25.0 0.81 26.10 23.90 1.49 27.00 23.00 1.88 27.50 22.50
NOTE 1: BStoleranceclassesA,B and C forround tube denote a descendingorder of

tolerancestandard. All classesapplicable to 6063, 6063A, 6082, 6101A,
6463, Only Classes B & C are applicableto 2014A
NOTE 2: The tolerances given in this table apply to non-heat-treatedtube ofwall
thicknessnot less than 1.6mmor3% ofthe outsidediameter,whicheveris the
greater and to heat treatedtube ofwall thicknessnot less than 1.6mmor4%
of the outside diameter,whichever is the greater.
NOTE3: These toleranceson wall thickness do not apply where tolerances on both
outside and inside diameterare required in which case the eccentricity
toleranceon the resultantwall should be agreedbetweenthe purchaserand
the supplier at the time of the enquiry and order.
NOTE 4: Mean thicknessisdefinedasthe sum ofthe wall thicknessesmeasuredatthe
ends ofany two diameters at right angles, divided by four.
NOTE5: The toleranceon the wall thicknessof intermediatenominal wall thickness
should be taken as those of the next lower size.
16
Table 1.10- Tolerances on Thickness of Bars and Regular Sections
Widthacross Tolerances on specifiedthickness (plus and minus)

flats of bar
or width of Up to and Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over
section Including 1.6mm 3mm 6mm 10mm 18mm 30mm 40mm 60mm 80mm 100mm 120mm 140mm
1.6mm up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and
Over Up to and thick including including including including including including including including including including including including
Including 3mm 6mm 10mm 18mm 30mm 40mm 60mm 80mm 100mm 120mm 140mm 160mm
thick thick thick thick thick thick thick thick thick thick thick thick
mm mm mm ± mm ± mm ± mm ± mm + mm + mm + mm + mm mm + mm
± mm mm
- 10 016 018 - - - - -
020 022 - - -
10 18 018 020 022 024 026 .

—4
18 30 022 024 026 028 030 032 - - - - - - .
30 60 0 24 0 26 0 28 0 30 0 33 0 36 0 40 - - . .
60 80 0 28 0 30 0 32 034 0 37 0 40 043 0 45 0 50 - - - -
80 120 032 034 036 039 042 045 048 052 057 065 080 - -
120 180 - 036 040 045 050 055 060 065 070 075 082 090 100
180 240 - - 050 055 060 065 070 075 080 085 090 095 105
240 320 - - 060 065 070 075 080 085 090 095 100 105 1 10
NOTE:- For sectionsover 160 mm thick, the toleranceson thickness are thoseshown for comparablewidths (see Table 1.6)
Table 1.11 Tolerances on Open End Channels and L Beams
Overall width Wof Minimum thickness Inlernalor exte,nai tolerance on open end dimensionfor various deplhs of opening D(pius and minus)
channelor i-beam of webor flange
For 0 For 0 For 0 ForD ForD For 0 For 0 For 0 For 0 For 0 For 0
Over Up to and Over Up to and up to and over over over over over over over over over over
including including including 10mm 18mm 30mm 40mm 60mm 80mm 100mm 120mm 140mm 160mm
10mm up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and
deep including including including including including including Including including including including
18mm 30mm 40mm 60mm 80mm 100mm 120mm 140mm 160mm 180mm
deep deep deep deep deep deep deep deep deep deep
mm mm mm mm * mm + mm ÷ mm + mm * mm + mm + mm * mm + mm + mm + mm
- 10 - 1.5 026 032 0.41 - - - - - - - -

1.5 3.0 0.23 0.28 0.34 • • • - - - - -
3.0 - 0 22 0.26 0.30 - - - - - - - -
10 18 - 1.5 0.31 038 0.47 0.56 070 - - - - - -
1.5 30 0 29 0.34 0 40 0.46 0.55 - - - - - -
3.0 - 0.28 0.32 0.36 0.41 0.47 - - - -' - -
18 30 - 3.0 037 047 0.57 0.68 0.84 1.05 126 - - - -
3.0 6.0 0.37 044 053 0.62 076 093 1.11 - - - -
6.0 - 0.35 0.41 048 055 0.64 0 78 091 - - - -
30 40 - 3.0 0.45 0.55 0.65 0 76 0 92 1.13 1 34 1.55 1 76 - -
3.0 6.0 0.45 0.52 0.61 0.70 0.84 1.01 1.19 1.36 1,54 - -
6 0 - 0 43 0.49 0 56 0 63 0.72 0 86 0.99 1.12 1.26 - -
40 60 - 3.0 - 060 0.70 081 097 1.18 1.39 1.60 181 2.02 -
3 0 60 - 0.57 0 66 0.75 0 89 1 06 1 24 1.41 1 59 1.76 -
6.0 - - 0.54 061 0.68 0,77 0.91 1.04 117 1.30 1 43 -
60 80 - 3.0 - 0.65 0 75 0.86 1.02 1 23 1 44 165 1.86 2.07 2.28
3.0 6.0 - 0.62 0.71 0.80 0.94 1.11 1.29 1.46 164 1.81 1.99
6.0 - - 0.59 0.66 073 0.82 0.96 1.09 1.22 1.35 148 161
80 100 - 6 - - 0.90 1.01 1.17 1.38 1 59 1.80 2.01 2.22 2.43

6 - - - 086 095 1.09 1.26 1.44 1.61 1 79 1.96 2.14
100 120 - 6 - - 1.05 1.16 132 1.53 1 74 1.95 2.16 2.37 2.58
6 - - - 1.01 1.10 1.24 1.41 1 59 1.76 1.94 2.11 2.29
120 140 - 6 - - 1.15 126 1,42 1.63 1.84 206 2.26 247 265
6 - - - 1.11 120 134 1,51 1.69 1.86 2.04 221 2.39
140 160 - 6 - - 1.25 136 1.52 1 73 1.94 2.15 2.36 2.57 2.78
6 - - - 1.21 1.30 1.44 1.61 1.79 1.95 2.14 2.31 2.49
Table 1.11 (continued)
Overallwidth Wof Minimum thickness internal or external tolerance on open end dimension for variousdepths of opening D (plus and minus)
channel or I-beam of web or flange
or D For D For D For D For 0 For 0 For D For D For 0 For 0 For 0
Over Up to and Over Up to and up to and over over over over over over over over over over
Including including IncludIng 10mm 18mm 30mm 40mm 60mm 80mm 100mm 120mm 140mm 160mm
10mm up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and
deep Including Including including including including including including including including including
18mm 30mm 40mm 60mm 80mm 100mm 120mm 140mm 160mm 180mm
deep deep deep deep deep deep deep deep deep deep
mm mm mm mm mm + mm + mm + mm + mm + mm + mm + mm + mm + mm + mm
160 180 - 6 - - 1.35 146 162 183 204 225 246 2.67 288
6 - - - 1 31 1.40 1.54 1 71 1.89 2.06 2.24 241 259
180 200 - 6 - - 1.45 1 56 1.72 1.93 214 2.35 256 277 298
6 - - - 141 150 1.64 181 199 2.16 2.34 251 269
200 240 - 6 - - 1 55 1 66 1 82 2 03 2,24 2 45 2 66 2 87 3 08
6 - - - 151 160 1.74 191 209 2.26 2.44 261 279
-L 240 280 6 - - - 1 71 180 194 211 229 246 264 281 299
(0
280 320 6 - - - 1.91 2.00 2 14 232 2.40 2.66 284 3.01 3.19
Open end dlmens!on Open
Depth of 0 Depth of opeeng

Flonqe
Web
Table 1.12 - Toleranceson the OutsideDiameter ofAll Extruded Round Tube
and on the Inside Diameter of Class A and class B
Extruded RoundTube (see note 1)
Outsidediameter, Tolerance on Tolerance on

or inside diameter the actual themean
Over Up to and diameter(see diameter(see
Including notes 5 and 6) notes5 and 6)
mm mm ±mm ±mm
12 18 0.25 0.19
18 30 0.30 0.23
30 40 0.36 0.27
40 50 0.45 0.34
50 60 0.54 0.40
60 80 0.60 0.45
80 300 1%of 314%of
diameter diameter
NOTE 1. For detailsconcerningtheapplicabilityoftolerance

class (A or B) to alloy, see 1.9.
NOTE 2. The tolerancesare applicableto non-heat-treated
tubing ofwallthicknessnotIessthan1.6mmor 3% ofthe out-
side diameter, whichever is thegreater,and to heat-treated
tubing of wall thickness not less than 1.6 mm or 4 % of the
outside diameter, whichever Is the greater.
NOTE3. In the caseoftubing in straight lengths, the above
tolerancelimits are Inclusiveof ovality.
NOTE4. Whereatoleranceon wallthicknessisrequired,the
toleranceson diameter areto beappliedeithertothe outside
diameteror to the Inside diameter, but notto both.
NOTE 5. Tolerances on the actual diameter Indicate the
amountby which the diameter (inside or outside, as appro-
priatemeasured in anydirection maydepartfromthespeci-
fied diameter. Tolerances on the mean diameter(inside or
outside, as appropriate) Indicate the amount by which the
mean oftwo diametersmeasured In two directions at right
angles in the same plane may depart from the specified
diameter.
NOTE6. Thegiventoleranceson the actual diameter do not
apply to annealed tube, coiled tube, or tube having a wall
thickness less than 2.5 % of outside diameter. The toler-
ancesoftheseproductsandofcontrolledstretchedtube are
subject to agreement between purchaserand supplier.
20
Table 1.13- Tolerances on Thickness of HollowSections(classesA and B(
Width or widlh Tolerances on specified thickness

across flats
Class A Class B
Over Over Over Over Up to and Over Over Over Over Over
Over Up to and Up to and Over
3.0mm 6.0mm 10mm 18mm including 1.6mm 3.0mm 6mm 10mm 18mm
Including including 1.6mm
1.6 mm up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and
up to and up to and up to and up to and 1.6mm
thick including Including including including Including thick including including including including including
3.0mm 6.0mm 10mm 18mm 30mm 3.0mm 6.0mm 10mm 18mm 30mm
thick thick thick thick thick thick thick thick thick thick
mm mm + mm * mm * mm + mm * mm mm * mm + mm * mm mm mm + nm
- . . . - - - - - - - -
N) 10
- . - - 022 0.28 - .
-' 10 18 0.20 0.22
032 - . - 0.28 036 0.54 - .
18 30 026 0.28
. - 0.45 065 090 1 40 -

30 60 032 036 0.41 048 036
048 058 062 - 045 055 075 095 145 -
60 80 0,36 041
. 0 58 0.68 0 82 1 00 - 0.65 0 80 1 00 1.50 2 00
80 120 0.48
120 180 . 0.65 075 0.85 0.95 110 . 075 0.85 110 1 60 2.20
- - 095 1 05 1 20 1 40 - - 1 00 1 20 1 80 240
180 240
- - - 1 25 1 45 1 80 - - - 1 40 2 00 2 60
240 320
NOTE 1. For detailsconcerningthe applicabilityof tolerance class (A to B) to alloy, see Note 1 of Table 1,9
NOTE 2. The tolerancesapply to non-heat-treated sections of wall thickness not less than 1.6 mm or 3% of the overal width, whichever is the greater, and
to heat-treated sections of wall thickness not less than 1.6mm or 4% of the overall width, whicheveris the greater.
Table 1.14 - Tolerances on Straightness for Extruded Bar, Regular Sectionsand
Extruded Round Tubes (see below)
For bars, tubes Temper Nominal length Maximum derivation Maximum

or sections of bar, tube or S from straightnessof localized kink
within a section L length L (metres) in any 300 mm
circumscribing (see below) portion
circle
mm m mm mm
Up to and All tempers over 0.4 1.5 L 0.6
including 100
Over 100 F over 0.4 2.0 L 0.8
All other over 0.4 2.5 L 1.0

tempers
NOTE 1. The straightnessis measured by determining the maximum deviation from

straightnessSover length1,whenthe bar, sectionortubeis supportedonaflattable such
that the deviationis minimizedby Its own mass.
NOTE 2. Kink Is measured using a straightedge 300 mm in length(see below).
NOTE 3. Tolerances on straightnessfor annealed and controlled stretched materials

should besubject toagreement between the purchaserand thesupplieratthe timeofthe
enquiryand order.
Localized kink 300mm straightedge Bar,tube or section

ot length L
V 7/ / / / ///V/ ////4// // /// // / //

Maximum
deviation S Section through -
tiatness measuring
table
Length L
22
Table1.15 - Tolerances on Length for All Materials Supplied in FixedCut Lengths
Diameter, width Tolerances on length for givenlength (plus and minus)

across flats or (see notes 1 and 2)
overall width
Over Up to and Over Over Over Over Over Over

including 300 mm 1000 mm 1500 mm 5000 mm 7000 mm 10000 mm
up to and up to and up to and up to and up to and long
including including including including including
1000 mm 1500 mm 5000 mm 7000 mm 10000 mm
long long long long long
mm mm jmm jmm jmm jmm jmm jmm
- 60 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.5 4.0 6.5
60 100 2.0 2.5 3.5 4.0 5.5 7.5
100 140 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.5 8.0
140 180 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.5 8.0 9.5
180 240 4.5 5.0 6.5 8.0 9.5 11.0
NOTE 1. Tolerances on length are measured at a temperature of 16 5 C. Theyprovide

for out-of-squareness of cutto the extent of 10.
NOTE 2. Total tolerances (i.e. the sum of the plus and minus limits) may be applied
unilaterallyby agreement between the supplierand the purchaser.
Table 1.16 - Tolerances on Concavity and

Convexityfor Extruded Solid
and HollowSections
Width of section W Maximum allowable

deviationD(see figure)
Coocoolty
mm mm
Up to and
including 25 0.125
Over25 0.l2Sper2Smm
increment in width
(e.g. for 150 mm width
maximumdeviation D
permitted is 0.75 mm)
23
Table 1.17- Tolerances on Twist for ExtrudedSolid and Hollow Sections
degrees degrees
Under 20 3 7
20 up to and including40 5
Over 40 upto and including 80 0.5 3
Over 80:
Lengths upto and

including 8000 mm
Lengths over 8000 mm
Twist T
24
SECTION 2- MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS
CONTENTS
Title Page No.
ALLOYS 27
TEMPER 29
Solution Heat Treatment 30
PrecipitationHeat Treatment 30
25
List of Figures
2.1 Temper Cycles 29
2.2 Solubility Diagram 31
Listof Tables
No. Title Page No.
2.1 Chemical Composition 27
2.2 Alloy Characteristicsand Uses 28
26
ALLOYS
High purity aluminium,99.00% and above, hasexcellentdurability together with

high thermal and electrical conductivity.It is easily worked and afthoughit can be
strengthendby cold working it remains a low stength material.
For more general use, alloying elements are introduced, producingmaterialsthat

retain the general characteristicsof pure aluminium but have greater structure
strength (refer to Table 2.2). In the extrusion industry, the alloys most widely used
throughoutthe world are in the InternationalStandards 6000 series, to which the
British Standards alloys also conform.The main alloying constituents in this series
are silicon and magnesium(refer to Table 2.1).
Table 2.1 - Chemical Composition
COMPOSITION (%)
ALLOY
BS 1474 Others
(1987) SI Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr NI Zn TI Each Total Al
0.20- 0.45-
6063 0.60 0.35 0.10 0.10 0.90 0.10 - 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.15 REM
0.30- 0.15- 0.60-

6063A 0.60 0.35 0.10 0.15 0.90 0.05 - 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.15 REM
0.70- 0.40- 0.60-

6082 1.30 0.50 0.10 1.00 1.20 0.25 - 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.15 REM
* 0.30- 0.40-
6101A 0.70 0.40 0.05 - 0.90 - - - - 0.03 0.10 REM
0.20- 0.45-
6463 0.60 0.15 0.20 0.05 0.90 - - 0.05 - 0.05 0.15 REM
0.50- 3.90- 0.40- 0.20- 0.15-
2014A 0.90 0.50 5.00 1.20 0.80 0.10 0.40 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.15 REM
* 6101A comformsto BS 2898 ** T + Zr
27
Table 2.2 - Alloy CharacteristIcs and Uses
BS CHARACTERISTICS TYPICAL USES
6063 Suitable for intricate extruded Themost widely usedalloy. Architectural

sections ofmid-strength. Forms members i.e. glazing bars and window
well in T4 condition. High frames; windscreensections, roadtrans-
corrosion resistance. Good port.
surface finish.
6063A A stronger version of 6063 but Road and rail transport, general engi-
retaining mostofthat alloy'sgood neering, ladders and light structures.
surface finish and formability.
6082 The recommended alloy for Road and rail transport, scaffolding,
structural purposes with good bridges, cranes and heavy structures.
strengthand generalcorrosion
resistance.
6101A The best combination of Busbar,electrical conductorsand fittings

electrical and mechanical
conductor properties with
conductivity of 55% of the
InternationalAnnealed Copper
Standard.
6463 Based on high purity (99.8%) Motor car trim and other applications
aluminium, this alloy was requiringa bright finish.
developed to respond well to
chemical or electro-chemical
brighteningor anodizing. It has
excellent formability.
2014A A high strength alloy with Structures, aerospace,general

moderatecorrosion resistance. engineering.
28
TEMPER
Thepropertiesof alloysinthe6000 and2000range canbeimprovedby heattreatments

after extrusion.
These alloys, although available in the F, "as manufactured", condition, are more
usually produced in one of the followingthree tempers:-
T4 - solution heat treated
T5 - precipitationtreated (artificiallyaged)
T6 - solutionheat treatedand precipitationtreated (fully heattreated)
T5
PRECIPITATION
HEAT
___________ SOLUTION TREATMENT
(AGEING)
EXTRUSION_F
(QUENCHING)
:
-
Fig. 2.1 TemperCycles
The current procedure for producingthe T4temper is usually 'on-line". An extrusion,

emerging from the die at about 500°C, is rapidly cooled by air, water spray or water
immersion, depending upon the section shape and extrusion speed. The temper,
although strongerthan in the F condition, is stillof relatively low strengthand, with its
high elongationvalue, it is an excellent choicewheresevere forming is required. Some
natural ageing or hardening will occur which will, in some alloys, curtail the time
available forforming.
For thin sections a strongertemper, T5, is available. T5 is given greater strengthby

carrying out precipitation treatment without any solution heat treatment. This is
provided by heatingthe materialup to about 180°C and soakingfor several hoursin an
oven.
29
The final and strongest temper available (without the applicationof cold work) is T6
which combines both the solution heat treatment and the precipitationtreatment.
The relationship between mechanical properties and heat treatment of a range of

aluminiumalloyswasfirst discoveredbyWilm in 1906. Overtheyears,theprocesshas
been developed with improvementsand innovations being introduced which have
helped to make the "heattreated" alloys the most widely used extrusion materials in
the world.
in recent years, much greater use has been made of reheat treatment following low
temper or heat inducedfabrication operations such as bending and welding. This is
a property of aluminium that is well worth considering at the design and material
selection stage of fabricated components.
It is not the purpose of this manual to deal with detailed metallurgical aspects of
aluminium and its alloys,but the followingsimplifiedexplanationof heat treatmentmay
be of background interest:-
The thermal treatment consists of two phases:
a) solution heat treatment

b) precipitation heat treatment
Solution Heat Treatment
Thechemical constituentsofaluminiumalloys are to agreateror lesserextent soluble

in aluminium. The degreeofabsorptionvaries with the amount and typeofconstituent
andtemperature. The higherthetemperature,the greaterthe amount dissolved. Fig.
2.2 shows a typical solubility diagram where, at temperaturesabove point A , (the
Solvus temperature) the atoms are in solid solution and designated by the prefix
"solute". These atom phases ofconstituentsare thus dissolved in solid solution and a
rapid temperaturedrop,throughquenching,willpreventthe solute atomsfrom diffusing
out of solution. This condition, however, is not totally stable and a natural ageing will
take place, varying from several days to several weeks depending upon the alloy.
Duringthe ageing processa fine dispersionof clustersofsolute atomswilloccur. The
final stable condition is defined as T4 temper.
PrecipitationHeat Treatment
The precipitationheat treatment process, also known as artificial ageing, speeds up

and greatly increases the rate of precipitationand fine dispersion of the constituent
atoms,which are distributed in clusters over the whole matrix. Thealloy will nowtend
to resist material dislocation, resultingin a marked improvementin both strengthand
hardness, usually to a level well above that obtained by natural ageing.
30
Liquid
Liquid - solid
0
U)
CU
0
U)
E
U)
I—
Solid
5
% Constituent
Figure 2.2 - Solubility Diagram
31
Page blank
in original
SECTION 3- MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
CONTENTS
Title Page No.
INTRODUCTION 35
STRESS 36
Axial Loading 38
STIFFNESS 41
HARDNESS 43
FATIGUE 43
33
Listof Figures

3.1 Yield Point 36
3.2 Typical Stress Strain

Curves 37
3.3 PermissibleCompressive
Stresses in Struts 39
3.4 RelationshipBetween
Hardness Number and
Tensile, Yield Strengths 42
3.5 FatigueCurves For Some

Aluminium Alloys
(Rotating CantileverTests) 44
List of Tables
No. Title Page No.
3.1 Propertiesto BS 1474 35

(1987)
3.2 PermissibleStresses 38
3.3 EffectiveLengths of Struts 40
3.4 Moduli of Elasticity 41
34
INTRODUCTION
A wide range of mechanicalproperties is availablefrom aluminiumand its alloys with

the level of performancevarying withthe degreeof alloying and temper. The property
range forthe more generally availablecommercial alloys is given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 - Propertiesto BS 1474(1987)
ALLOY TEMPER MAX ULT. %ELONGATIONb)

THICKNESS 0.2% Ps STRESS
mm N/mm2 N/mm2 5.65y' 50 mm
Fe) 200 - 100 13 12
T4 150 70 130 16 14
6063 T5 25 110 150 8 7
16 150 160 195 8 7
T4 25 90 150 14 12
6063A 15 25 160 200 8 7
T6 25 190 230 8 7
Fe) 200 - 110 13 12

T4 150 120 190 16 14
6082 15 6 230 270 - 8
T6 20a) 255 295 8 7
6lOlAd) T6 - 170 200 10 8
T4 50 75 125 16 -
6463 T6 50 160 185 10 -
14 20a) 230 370 11 10

2014A T6 20a) 370 435 7 6
a) Thicker sections are possible and give higher mechanicalproperties. For

details contact extruder.
b) Theelongationisobtainedfrom atensiletestsampleon which agauge length
C)
/
is markedpriortotesting. Thegauge length is specified,being either 50 mm
long or 5.65 cross-sectionalarea. (So)
The properties of aluminiumvary with temperatureoutside an approximate
rangeof-50°Cto+80°C. They willincreaseat lowtemperaturesand decrease
at high temperatures. Thevalues vary with the alloy, seeTable 8.2.
d) Alloy 6101A conformsto BS 2898.
e) Values given for F condition are not specifiedproperties in British Standards
and are given for informationonly.
35
STRESS
Aluminiumdoes not exhibit a yield point. Stress/strainbehaviouris similar to that of a

numberof othermetals,includingsome alloy steels. It is necessary,therefore,toadvise
a recognisablepoint of departure from elastic to plastic behaviour. In the method
chosen, the stress level registeredat 0.2%. Permanentstrain is regardedas the yield
point. Theyield point can be obtainedfrom thestress/straincurve bydrawingtheoffset
of O.2% strain parallel to the elastic line for the alloy under consideration. The 0.2%
proofstress can be read atthe pointof intersectionofthe two lines, seeFig.3.1. Alloy
curves will have a different point of departurefor each temper condition.
200
/
/ 0.2 Ordinate
E
E
z
0,
CO
U)
/
/ NB. for reasons of clarity
/ the alloy curve is

exaggerated
20
/
0.50 0.60 0.70
% Strain
Fig. 3.1 - Yield Point
36
2014A T6
500-
Mild Steel
400 ——
/
//
//'7
E
300- 6082 T6
z
a, /
ci) /
'—'—I
(I)
200-
100-
I I I
0 5 10 15 20
% Strain
Fig. 3.2 - Typical StressStrain Curves
37
Table 3.2 - PermissibleStresses
AXIAL e) BENDING
ALLOY TEMPER N/mm2 N/mm2 SHEAR BEARING s
Pt Pc Pbt Pbc N/mm2 N/mm2
6063 15 62 69 37 117 106
6063 T6 87 96 52 139 81
6082 16 139 154 83 222 61
2014A T4 135 124 153 142 81 239 71
2014A 16 154d) 20 154d) 224 108 278 49
Pt AXIAL TENSION
Pc AXIAL COMPRESSION
Pbt BENDING TENSION
PbcBENDING COMPRESSION
s SLENDERNESSRATIO AT EULER BLEND POINT SEE FIG. 3.3
a) Permissible stress levels are laid down in BS CP1 18 TheStructural Use of

Aluminium".
b) 6063 values are applicableto 6101A and 6463.
C) 6063A is a new alloy, not yet allocateda value but from experienceit should
be slightly in excess of 6063 values (8%).
d) Arbitrarily reducedvalues to allow for inferior crack-propagationresistance.
e) Applies only when buckling is notthe criterion.
AxIal Loading
Foraxial loading,incolumnsand struts,the permissiblecompressivestress isobtained

by inserting the appropriate slendernessratio into the alloy/tempercurves given in
Fig. 3.3, and using the effective length factor from Table 3.3.
38
CM
E
E
z'a
CM
a)
(1)
a)
>
U)
(a
a)
0.
E
0
0
a)
.0
0)
0)
E
a)
100 1
A Slenderness Ratio
Fig. 3.3 - PermissibleCompressive Stressesin Struts
= K!.
whore = slendernessratio
K = end fixity factor (effective length)
L = spaninmm
r = radius of gyration of section in mm
also r =
= inertia
A = cross sectional area
39
Table 3.3 - EffectiveLengthsof Struts
End Condition Effective Length

ofStrut
Effectivelyheldin position and restrained
in direction at both ends 0.7 L
Effectivelyheldin positionat both ends

and restrainedin directionat one end 0.85 L
Effectivelyheldin positionat both ends,

but not restrainedin direction L

in direction at one end and partially
restrainedin direction but not heldin 1.5 L
position atthe other end

in direction at one end, but not held in 2.0 L
position or restrainedat other end
NOTE. L is the length of strut betweenpoints of lateral support.
Theextensive range of shapes and, over the last few years, the ability of the industry
to producethinner extrusions hasencouragedthe use of slendersections. Because
of low aspect ratios (width/depth)and high elementthickness ratios (width/thickness)
of the thinner extrusions they require examination for possible modes of elastic
instability. The modesoffailure listedbeloware particularlyrelevanttothin-walledopen
sections of asymmetricalshape in aluminium alloys.
a) Torsional warping
b) Lateral instability
C) Local buckling
All thefactors are influencedbythe shapeand dimensionsofthe section and, whilst (a)
and (b) are also relevantto span, (C) is not.
Althoughsafe valuesare oftenquoted in simpletermsforaspect and elementthickness

ratios,theyare not entirely reliableand should not be used. Ifthere is anydoubt about
the robustnessof asection in theformoffailures list above,it shouldbechecked, using
appendicesF, G, H and Kin BS CP 118- TheStructuralUseofAluminium".Thedesign
approach uses equivalent slenderness ratios in conjunction with alloy compression
curves. The strut curves in Fig. 3.3 can be used for torsional warping but will give
pessimistic values for lateral instability and local buckling, where the equivalent
slendernessratio falls on thestraight line partsofthegraphs: See BS CP1 18 Fig. 2 for
modifiedcompression curves suitable for solving lateral instabilityand local buckling.
40
STIFFNESS
The stress/strain relationshipis given by Hooke's Law which states that intensity of
stress is proportionaltostrain. Thisisapplicabletoaluminiumalloys toa leveljustbelow
the 0.2% proof stress, the slope ofthe line being obtained from:
Table 3.4 - Modull of Elasticity
E = Stress where E is the modulusof elasticity

Strain
ALLOY MODULUSOF ELASTICITY E

N/mm2
6063 65,500
6063A 65,500
6082 68,500
6101A 65,500
6463 65,500
2014A 72,000
These values are approximately one third of that of mild steel, 210,000 N/mm2.
Aluminium under elastic bending will therefore give deflectionsthree times greater
than those obtained from mild steel under similar loading conditions. This is not true
for self weight loadingwherethe light weightofaluminiumcounteractsthe effect ofthe
lower elastic modulus of aluminium. The advantage to be obtained from a low
modulus are greater impact absorption with shock loads and lower imposed stress
levels from movement in static structurescaused by temperaturevariationor support
settlement.The modulusof elasticitywill vary with temperature,see Table 8.2.
In applicationswhere deflection is the controlling design factor, the performance of

aluminium can be dramatically improvedby utilising the advantagesof the extrusion
process to position materialsstrategicallyaround the section. The geometric proper-
ties can also be increasedby small additionsto section depth.
This modification applies to all materials but can be more readily incorporated into
extrudedaluminium sections. Examplesare given in Section 11, Design.
Therelationshipbetweenlateral and longitudinalstrain,within the elastic limit, isgiven

by Poisson's Ratio which, for aluminium alloys, is usually 0.34.
41
35
Relationshipbetween
30 hardnessnumberand
x Tensile tensile strength
E for magnesium- silicide
E 25 alloy extrusions in
z the artificially aged
-c
0) condition
c 20 Yield
)2)
(0
D
.; 15-
(0
C 10
a (1/6063 T5 & T6 6082 T6
I- F •1
i'•
j"1 6063A
Brinell T6
45 055 6065 707580 85 9095100105110
Vickers
Rockwell 'F' 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 82 87 92 98103 109115
54 61 67 71 76 79 82 85 87 89 91 -
Rockwell 'E'
68 72 77 80 83 86 88 90 92 94 96
Rockwell 'B' 47 55 62
- - -I - 12 23 32 39 45 50 55 60 63 66
I I
Rockwell 'K'
— 15253441485358826670737678
Webster
5 7 9 10 11 12 13131414—151515161616—1717
Hardness number
HARDNESS TESTER SETTINGS

Brinell Rockwell 'B'
lOmm.Steel ball penetrator - 500kg.load 1.6mm Steel ball penetrator - lOOkg.load
Vickers Rockwell 'K'
Diamond penetrator - various loadings 3.2mm Steel ball penetrator - l5Okg.load
Rockwell 'F' Webster
1.6mm Steel ball penetrator - 6Okg.load Model 'B'
Rockwell 'E'
3.2mm, Steel ball penetrator - lOOkg.load
Note: Asthistable shows, a hardnessvalue covers a range of stress levels and must
not therefore be used to give precise measurementsof strength.
Fig. 3.4 - Relationship Between Hardness Number

and Tensile, Yield Strengths
42
HARDNESS
The surfaces hardnessof aluminium alloys can be assessed by most of the general
methods of measurement,Brinell, Vickers and Webster etc. The accuracy of the
results canvary, particularlywith those methodsthat usemanual pressureto obtain
the surface indentation.
Thetrendto relatemechanicalpropertiesto hardnessvaluesis nottobe recommended

as there is no accurate constant relationship. The curves shown in Fig. 3.4 are for
general guidanceonly and indicatethat there are given rangesof stress levels foreach
hardnessvalue.
FATIGUE
Aluminium is similar in its fatigue behaviourto other non-ferrous metals in that the
stress/cyclecurves nevertotally flatten out. An arbitrary maximumendurancelevel is
therefore imposed,. usually 50 million cycles. Curves are drawn up for alloy and
temper groups against semi-rangeof stress levels (see Fig. 3.5). Fatigue curves are
usuallybased upon actualtestresultsfrom Wohler typebeam machineswhich subject
the specimensto sinusoidal reversedbending. Theresults are generally plotted for
high cycle applications,above 1 O cycles, and any high strain/low cycle applications
should be discussed with the extruder.
The surface finish and geometric aspects of components, particularly joints, can
influenceperformance. Shot blasting of the surface can improve fatigue resistance,
whilstnotchescan reduceit. Withweldedconnections,itis usualto obtainbetter results
from butt joints than those which are lapped and continuous welds give a superior
performance to that of intermittent welds. Some data based upon nine different
classifications of structural componentsis given in BS CP1 18.
43
300-
270-
240-
210-
E
E
z
180-
a
a
0
a
a, 150-
C
C,,
E
120-
90-
60 -
i0 106 i07 108
Endurance (cycles)
Similar results are obtained for alloy 6082T6
Fig. 3.5- Fatigue Curvesfor Some AluminiumAlloys

(Rotating CantileverTests)
44
SECTION 4- DURABILITY
CONTENTS
Title Page No.
INTRODUCTION 47
ATMOSPHERIC 47
CHEMICAL 49
MATERIALS 49
Bi-MetaIlic 49
Wood 53
InsulatingMaterials 53
Concrete 53
45
Listof Figures
4.1 6082 T6 Alloy (Mill Finish)

ExposureGraph (1) 48
4.2 6082 T6 Alloy (Mill Finish)

ExposureGraph (2) 48
4.3 Principleof Galvanic

Reaction 49
4.4 Typical Bi-metallic

ConnectionsBetween
Aluminium and Steel 52
Listof Tables
4.1 Electro-ChemicalSeries 50
4.2 Guide to Bi-metallic

Corrosion Effects at
Junction of Aluminium
and Other Metals 51
46
INTRODUCTION
Aluminiumand its alloys have, in general,excellentdurabilityand corrosionresistance.

Like most materials, however,their behaviourcan be influenced by the way in which
they are used. In this section the manner in which aluminium respondsto various
environments and design situations is reviewed with advice on use in specific
applications.
ATMOSPHERIC
Aluminium's naturalaffinitywith oxygen resultsin theformation of an oxide layer when

exposedto air. The resultingfilm is generally50Ang thick, extremely hard,chemically
stable, corrosion resistantand adheres stronglyto the parent metal surface, produc-
ing an integrated material. Once formed, it prevents further oxidisation and, if
damaged in any way, will reform, oxygen availability permitting. The only practical
reason for removingthis film is to facilitate anodizingor welding. In the firstinstance,
a thicker, morecontrolled deposition of the oxide layer can be carried out and in the
latter case, the oxide film would be a deterrentto good metal fusion.
The behaviour under atmospheric exposure can therefore be described as self-

stifling. If the surface layer is pitted by any of the air-borne pollutants usuallyfound
in industrialor marine atmospheres,such as sulphuric acid and sodium chloride,the
resultingchemical reaction producesa larger volume of powderedcorrosionproduct
than the volumeof the original pit, thereby sealingoffthe surfaceof the aluminiumand
inhibiting any further corrosive reaction. In general,the ratio of corrosion productto
pit volume is 240:1.
With time, existingpits, which are usuallyof ashallow hemisphericalshape,are sealed

and the rate of formation of new pits is reducedso that eventuallyall reaction can be
assumed to have ceased. This processcan bedescribed as weathering,forthe depth
of pittingis extremelysmall. Thelevel of pollutionofcourse will determinethe general
appearance,which will appear to be a soft blueish-greycolour in ruralareas and dark
grey to black in industrial areas. Regular maintenanceand washing down should
prevent the permanentdiscolourationfrom industrial pollutants. Anodized surfaces,
however,will retain their original appearancefor a much longer period, providing that
regular maintenanceis carried out. See Section 10.
For the purposes of assessment,the various types of environmentalconditionsare

divided into 3 categories:
a) RURAL
b) MARINE
c) INDUSTRIAL
47
E Marine
E
Industrial
1) 0.
D Rural
3-
6
Exposuretime - years
Fig. 4.1 - 6082 T6 Alloy (Mill Finish) ExposureGraph (1)

The exposure trialson which Fig. 4.1 is based also provided samples for testing the
mechanicalpropertiesofthematerials. As canbeseen inFig. 4.2there isvery littledrop
in these properties, even afterprolonged exposure of 12 years. In both figures, the
graph line isvirtually horizontaland thereforedurabilityand mechanicalpropertiescan
be assumed to have reachedstable conditions.
i::
0
stri:l 6 8 10 12
Exposure time - years
Fig. 4.2- 6082 T6 Alloy (MillFinish) ExposureGraph (2)
48
CHEMICAL
The behaviourof aluminium alloys in contact with a wide range of chemicals is well-
documentedarid requestsfor specific information can usually be dealt with by your
material supplier. In general,corrosion of aluminiumonly occurs to anygreat degree
where the ph is be'ow 3 or above 9, i.e. under strongacidic or alkalineconditions. ist
thereforenecessaryto knowthe concentrationofthechemical underconsiderationand
also thetemperatureat which it will operate, as in some casesthetemperaturecan be
the major considerationby alteringthe normal behaviourpattern.
MATERIALS
When aluminiumwill be in contactwith other materialsunder wet or moist conditions,

it is necessaryto check whether some form of protectionis required.
Bi-Metallic
When dissimilar metals are coupled together in the presence of moisture, there is a
likelihood of a galvanic reaction in which one metal will corrode see, (Fig. 4.3). In this
situation an electrolytic couple is formed in which a current flows from the less noble
metal,acting as an anode, tothe morenoble metal,acting as acathode,with corrosion
concentratedon the less noble metal. This behaviouris usually consistent with the
relative placings in the electro chemical series, see Table 4.1.
Corrosion
Electrons
— ri Positive
2
+ Base or less
noble metal
1 ions
Electrolyte Noble metal
Anode Cathode
Corrosion cell
Fig. 4.3 - Principleof Galvanic Reaction
49
Theseverityofthe galvanicactionalso dependsonthe degreeof separation,electrical
resistanceofthe metalpath, conductivityofthe solution and the arearatio betweenthe
two dis-similar metals. In practice, however, reaction between the metals can be
avoided by insulatingthem from each other with an electrically inert non-abosrbent
barrier. An excellent exampleof this kind of connection is between the aluminium
super-structure and steel decking on ships. Reference can be made to B.S.
publication PD 6484 - 1984.
Table 4.1 - Electro-Chemical Series
BASE Magnesium
Zinc
Aluminium
Cadmium
Mild Steel
Cast Iron
Lead
Tin
Nickel
Brasses
Copper
Bronze
Monel
Silver solders (70% Ag. 30% Cu)
Nickel
Stainless Steel (Type 304) PASSIVE
Silver
Titanium
Graphite
Gold
NOBLE Platinum
50
Table 4.2 - Guideto Bi-metallicCorrosion Effects
at Junction of Aluminium and Other Metals
Metals Coupled With
AluminiumOf Bi-metallic Effect
Aluminium Alloy
Gold.platinum, Attackacceleratedin mostenvironments

rhodium,silver.
Copper,copperafloys. Attack acceleratedin mostatmospheres

irwnersion.silver solder to aluminiumand itsand conditionsof total
Soldercoatingson Attack acceleratedattheinterfacein These metals,and

steel orcopper severeor moderateatmospheresand especiallythoseat
underconditionsof total immersion, thetop of thelist are
generallycathodicto
Nickel,nickelalloys Attackacceleratedin marineand industrial aluminiumand its
atmospheresand conditions of total alloys,whichtherefore
—_____________
Steel,castiron
—---
irmtersionbutnot in mildenvironments,
Attackacceleratedin marineand industrial

suffer preferential
attack when corrosion
occurs.
atmospheres and conditionsof total immersion
butnot in mildenvironments.
Lead,tin Attackacceleratedonlyin severeenvironments,
such asmarineand some indiatrial.
I
Tin zinc plating Attackacceleratedonlyin severeatrrspheres
(80/20)onsteel and condtionsof total Immersion.
Pure aluminiumand Whenaluniniumis alloyedwith appreciableamountsof copper

alloysnot containing becomesmoe nobleand when alloyedwith appreciable
si,stantialadditions amountsof zinc itbecomesless noble. Inmarineor industrial
of copperorzinc atmospheres orwhen totallyimmersed,alunnium alloysuffers
acceleratedattackwhen Ingood electricalcontactwith another
aluminiumalloy that containssubstantialcopper,such ax
wroughtalloys2024 and 2014and castalloysLM 4-M and
BS L92. Thealuminium-zincalloys,being less noble,areused
ascladdingfortheprotectionof thestrongeraluminuimalloys,
Cadmium No acceleration ofattack on cadmiumexcept Thesemetalsare
infairlysevereatmospheresin contactwith an generallyanodicto
aluminiumalloy containingcopperand under aluminiumand suffer
conditionsof total immersion, attackwhen corrosion
occurs,thereby
Zinc and zinc alloys Attackon zinc acceleratedin severeenvironments protectingthe
such as marineand industrial and under aluminium,
conditionsof total immersion,
Magnesiumand Attackonmagnesiumacceleratedinsevere Attackonalurntnium

magnesium- environments such asmarineand industrialand may alsobe
base alloys underconditionsof total immersion, accelerated.
Titanium Not manydata available,but attackon alurTinium

is knownto beacceleratedin severemarineand
industrial conditionsand when immersedin
seawater.
These metalsform
Stainlesssteel Noacceleration ofattack on aluminiumin mode- protectivefilms
/
(18 8. 18/8/2and rate atmospheres, butattack maybeaccelerated that tend to reduce
13%, Cr)
Chromiumplate
—-
inseveremarineand industrial atmospheres
and underconditionsof total irrynertion.
Noacceleration ofattack on aluminiumwhen

bi-metalliceffects.
Where attackoccurs
thealuminiumbase
materialsuffers.
plating is not less than 0.0025 mmthick.
except insevereatmospheres; alsoprovldedthe
preliminarynickelcostingus in accordancewith
requirements of BS 1224.
51
Bulb plate Aluminium
stiffener plating
between
Steel bracket and 150mm mm.

Steel foundation bar
Inside Outside Inside Outside
Aluminium plate lapped

to joggled steel flat bar.
Treatment as for A ) Galvanised steel bolts
but with plate lapped with insulating washers
C to inside of foundation and ferrules. Treatment
bar. otherwise as for A.
Steel rivets
B C
Figure 4.4 - Typical Bi-metallicConnectionsBetween Aluminium and Steel
52
Wood
In dry conditions there is usually no reaction on the aluminium but if the wood is
unseasonedor in damp conditions,it should be coated with aluminiumor bituminous
paint. Invery aggressive environments(immersion)anon-absorbentinsulatinggasket
should be fitted as with bi-metallicjoints. Where timber is treated with preservative
advice should be obtained from your aluminiumsupplier.
Insulating Materials
In the unusual event of insulatingmaterials becoming saturated, some protection of
the aluminium would be necessary for, apart from the possibility of attack from
leached-outchemicals, some poultice corrosion could occur, activatedmainly by the
reduced availabilityof oxygen. Protectioncan be afforded by using an inert barrier.
Concrete
Under perfectly dry conditions,aluminium buried in concrete would need no protec-

tion. In practice,however, such conditionsare rarely achievedtherefore it is recom-
mendedthat in all cases the contact areaofthe aluminiumis coated with a bituminous
paint. In no circumstancesshouldthe steel reinforcementused in concretebe allowed
to come in direct contact with the aluminiumas this will result in a bi-metallicreaction
which in turn could cause spalling of the concrete.
53
Page blank
in original
SECTION5- SURFACE FINISHING
CONTENTS
Title Page No.
INTRODUCTION 57
PRE-TREATMENT 57
ANODIZING 57
SpecificationFactors
for ArchitecturalType Anodizing 59
Chromic Acid Anodizing 61
Hard Anodizing 61
PAINTING 61
Electrophoretic 61
Electrostatic 61
Paint Performance 62
55
List of Figures
Fig No.Titie Page No.

5.1 AnodizingProgramme 58
5.2 Depositionof Colouring 59
Listof Tables
5.1 Suitabilityfor Anodizing 60
5.2 Paint Performances 62
56
INTRODUCTION
One ofthe most importantconsiderationsrelatingto surfacefinish is the need to have

a sound and permanent bond between any applied film or coating and the parent
material. In this respectaluminiumand its alloys are particularlysuitable, providingas
theydo integralbondingwith anodizingand excellentpaintkeys when suitablyetched
and de-greased.
PRE-TREATMENT
The surfacetextures on aluminium,like those on other metals, will be visible through

all but the thickest coating so it is as well to considerthis aspect before deciding on
the final surfacetreatment. Where positive relief features are required, like ribbing or
serrations,these can be easily incorporated into the extrusion shape. The usual cycle
for pre-treatmentincorporatesa de-greasingdip, followed by a rinse and then an etch
dip. The make-up and chemical concentrationof this etch can be varied to produce
a range of surfacesthat will affect the final appearanceof an anodizedfinish. These
canbe graded from the natural metal appearance,through a light grey satin finish to
a darker grey frosted appearance.
Specialisedsurface finishes can be applied,such as chemical brightening,mechani-
cal polishing, scratch brushing and shot or vapour blasting. The special finishes
extend from bright reflective polished surfaces, through to heavy peened rough
textures.
Aluminiumprovidesan excellentsurfacefor paint. Afterdegreasing,alight etchis used

followed, when necessary,by a chemicalconversioncoatingto improvethe paint key
even further.
All ofthese services are available directly or indirectlythrough extrusionsuppliers. In

general the level of concentrationof pre-treatmentchemicals makesthem unsuitable
for manual non-dip application.
ANODIZING
Anodizing is a controlled surface oxidisation by immersion in an electrolyte, usually

dilutesulphuricacid. A lowvoltage,high amperagedirect current is passedthroughthe
metal, using the aluminium as the anode and a hard, non-corrodingoxide film builds
up on the surface of the aluminium. A less dense layer is subsequentlyformed in
which there are capillary pores. These pores provide the meansfor further oxidisa-
tion, building up the thickness from the base. This film is an integralpart of the metal
and is not an applied coating.
57
Pro- OPTIONAL TREATMENTS
Treatment
Mechanically Chemically Metallic
Polish Brighten Colour
Organic
Colour
Degrease Scratch Brush
Vapour Blast
Rinse r r
Shot Blast
Light Etch Natural

Etch Rinse Anodize Finish Seal
I I I I
FIg. 5.1 - Anodizing Programme
Afterthe actual anodizingoperation, the surface film is porous and in a conditionto

accept colouring agents, if required. If a natural aluminiumfinish is desired then the
material proceedsdirectly tothe final tankwhich is usuallyboilingwater. Thechemical
reaction of immersion seals the pores against further moisture penetration,giving a
hard, weather resistingsurface.
Wherecolour is required, thechoice lies betweenthose obtainedfrom organicdies, as

used with textiles, and those obtainedfrom metallicsalts. Theformergives a rangeof
primarycolours,whilstthe latterofferscolours varyingfrom greythrough umbertodark
brown and black. As will be seen from Fig. 5.2the organic dies tend to remain at the
top and the metallic salts at the bottom of the surface pores.
58
l7nm
25 micron
(25,000nm)
H Ratio
d
= 1500:1
Natural Organic Metallic

dies salts
Fig. 5.2 Deposition of Colouring
SpecificationFactorsfor ArchitecturalType Anodizing

British Standardslay downspecificationsto govern thequality of anodizing.
BS 1615coversgeneral anodizedcoatings in aluminiumand BS3987 covers
external architecturalapplications. Europeanstandardsare covered by the
Qualanod quality control scheme.
The average thicknesses readily available are usually designated in AA

values, the figures conformingdirectly to the film thickness in microns.
M Applications
5 Furniture and other indoor products. Also used with chemically brightened
material where a thicker coating would tend to reduce reflectivity.
101 Internal applicationslikely to have more robust

155 handlingsuch as hand-railingand internalpartitions.
25 All external applicationssuch as windowframes etc.
59
c) The mostappropriateextrusion alloysfordecorativeand architectural anodizing
are in the 6063 range. Other alloys canbe anodizedbutthe finish cannot be
guaranteed to meet the requirements of British Standards architectural
specifications.
Table 5.1 - Suitability For Anodizing
Alloy Natural Colour Brightened Protective *
6063 V V G-V V
6063A V V G-V V
6082 F F F G
6463 V V E V
2014A F F U G
*This also includes "hard"anodizing
E = excellent V = very good G = good F = fair U = unsuitable
d) In componentanodizing,the heat affectedzone ofwelded orbrazed joints will

show somecolour variationfrom that on the rest ofthesection. This can vary
fromslightly darker tone to averydark grey oreven black if a siliconfiller wire
is used in brazing.
e) There can be slight variation in colour between production batches, so top

and bottom colour limits should be agreed with the anodizer. This is
particularlyso where cast and wrought componentsare concerned,because
an exact colour match is rarely possible due to the markeddifference in the
chemical composition of the two materials.
f) Electrical contact is extremely important between the loading bars and the
aluminium section during anodizing. It is obtained by jigging with non-
metallicclamps. Thecontact areas, however, do not anodizeor colour and
willtherefore leavea light-colouredarea even on naturallyanodized material.
Non-visible surfacesshould be shownondrawings sothat the clamps can be
placed in the best possible position. If all surfacesare visible, then an extra
50 mm should be allowedat eachendofthe bar forclampings,which can be
cutoff after anodizing.
60
ChromicAcid Anodizing
The original commercially developed anodizing process used chromic acid as the
electrolyte.The procedureis similarto that employedwith sulphuricacid but the bath
temperatureis higher.The resultantfilm is softer and thinner (max. 10 microns) but for
equal thicknessesitoffers morecorrosionresistancewhich makesit idealforaggressive
industrialenvironmentswhere the relatively soft surface is no disadvantage.As the
chromicacid is passivewithaluminium,itisalso recommendedlorfinished components
where there are laps or crevices which could retainelectrolyte.
Hard Anodizing
Hard anodizingis a lowtemperatureoperation,usingconsiderablyhighervoltage than

other anodizingprocesses.The relatively rough surfaceproduced is extremelydense
and hard and is available up to 125 micronsthick. The film is normally left unsealed
but can be waxed or treated with mineraloil. In either case, the abrasion resistance
is very high, comparingfavourablywith that of tooled steel and chromiumplate. Hard
anodizedfilms have good electrical insulationpropertiesand their excellent corrosion
resistance and durability make them ideal for use even in aggressiveenvironments.
PAIN11NG
Aluminium rarely needs to be paintedfor protectionbut where colour is necessaryon

aesthetic grounds a number of high-quality paints and methods of application are
available.Thesurfacepresentedby aluminiumis idealforcoatingwhenthecorrect pre-
treatmentiscarriedout. As mostcoatingsare appliedbycommercialcoatingcompanies,
the basic pre-treatmentsare usuallyvariedtosuit their particularpaintformulationsand
methods of application. In general, the oxide film is removed and the material de-
greased,etchedand rinsed.This is adequatepreparationfor electrophoreticpaints but
thereis an additionalchemicalconversioncoatingwhich isthen appliedforelectrostatic
application.
Electrophoretic
Thepre-treatedworkpiecesare madeanodicand dippedinto electricallychargedpaint

tanks. This ensuresthat the paint is attractedto the metal surfaceand deposited in an
even coating.Afterrinsing,thematerial passesthroughstoving ovensatapproximately
160°Cforadurationof 15 minutes.Duringthis operationthepaint isfused and strongly
bonded to the aluminium.
Electrostatic
Afterpre-treatment,the workpieces are passed through an electrostatic field during

which time paint, in theform of wet or powderparticles,is sprayed on to the surfaces.
Theworkpiecesare then transferredto atunnel oven where they are stoved at 200°C
for 10 minutes.
61
Paint Performance
Comparing paint surfaces and their respective performance is always somewhat

subjective,neverthelessTable5.2 attemptsto providegeneralised information.Paint
and coating companies are always pleased to advise on the best system of
application. For all paints and systems, sharp corners provide a challenge in that
either a metal or a shadow line appears,depending upon the thickness of the paint.
This can be avoided by following good extrusion design although for paint the
minimum recommendedcorner radius is 1mm.
Table 5.2 - Paint Performances

PAINT Method Mean Colour Surface Gloss Colour Hardness Inside Post
of Thickness Range Texture Level Fastness Groove Painting
Application (Microns) Coating Fabrication
Acrylic Electro- 25 White Smooth 70% Moderate Hard V. good Good

Poly- phorec
urethane (WetBath)
Poly- Electro- 60-80 Wide Slightly 20%- Good Moderate Shallow Excellent
ester static Range Textured 93% Channels
(Powder Only
Spray)
PVF2 Electro- 30-100 Small V.good

static (a) Range
(Powder
Spray)
Fluoro- Electro- 25(a) Wide Smooth 9%- Excellent Moderate Moderate

Carbon static Range 70%
(Wet
Spray)
Acrylic Electro- 25 Full Smooth 9%- Good Hard V. good

Polyesterstatic Range 90%
(Wet
Spray)
(a) Suitable formulti-coat applications
Further information is available from:

Aluminium Coating Association
Broadway House
Calthorpe Road
Birmingham B15 1TN
62
SECTION6- FABRICATION
CONTENTS
Titles Page No.
BENDING 65
MachineTypes 65
Alloy/Temper 67
Shape Factors 67
Tube Bending 69
Springback 70
Lubrication 70
MACHINING 70
Routing 72
Drilling 73
Sawing 74
JOINING 75
Welding 75
JointDesign 79
Screwing 81
Crimping 82
Riveting 83
Bolting 85
Adhesives 86
63
Listof Figures
6.1 Bending Methods 65/66

6.2 Routing (Profilingand
Facing) 72
6.3 Drills 73
6.4 Types of Saw 74
6.5 TIG Welding 77
6.6 MIG Welding 78
6.7 RecommendedDiameters
of ScrewGrooves 81
6.8 LongitudinalScrew
Grooves 82
6.9 Crimping 82
6.10 Blind Rivets 83
6.11 Self-Piercing Rivets 84
6.12 Clench Rivets 84
Listof Tables
No. Title Page No.
6.1 Bending Characteristics 67

6.2 Minimum Bend Radii (1) 68
6.6 Minimum Root Radii R in
Terms of Tube Diameter 71
6.7 Basic Saw Tool Data 74
6.8 Process Capacity 76
6.9 RecommendedFiller Alloys
for Welding Parent Metal
Combinations 79
6.10 Edge Preparationand Fit Up
forTiGand MIG 80
6.11 Permissible Stress Levels 81
64
BENDING
There are several types of torming machinesuitablefor bending aluminium sections.

Thechoicedepends uponthe class ofsection, whethersolid open or hollow;the range
of support tooling available; the alloy and the temper.
Machine Types
Bending may be carried out by four main methods, as shown in Fig. 6.1. The three
roll bender has a centralmoveablerollerwhich is graduallydepresseduntil the desired
radius is obtained. The point bender has a similarmethodof operation,the load either
being appliedgraduallyorimpacted. Theroll and point methodsof bendingare usually
applied to robust sections.
In the wrap and the mandrel benders, it is possible to provide formers and other
support tools which enable tighter radii to be obtained and minimise the amount of
buckling.
As the name implies,the stretchformer putsthe section into tension and then, moving
laterally,wraps it arounda former: this method reducesthe likelihoodof compression
failure.
As well as the above basic machines, a number of specialist benders are available,
such as the rotating disc, which is suitable for tube bending.
-Former
Wrap Bender
I
Former Moves Around Section
Clamp Guide
Draw Mandrel Bender

Section Moves Around Former
Fig. 6.1 - Bending Methods
65
Section
Bending Roll
Fixed Position
Drive Rolls
Three Roll Bender
Bending Point Fixed Position

Drive Points
Three Point Bender
L Stretch Former
FIg.6.1 - BendingMethods(continued)
66
Alloy/Temper
Heattreated aluminium alloys in the T6 conditionhave relatively short plastic ranges

with proof-stress/ultimate-stressratiosof0/86: 1 and minimumelongationvaluesof7%
- 10%. Althoughthese values do notprovidethe whole pictureof ductileperformance,
theygive a reliableindicationof bendability. Where bending is aprimary requirement,
it is usualto use materialinthe T4 solutiontreated condition. Theplastic stress range
ratios are then improvedto0.6:1 with minimumelongationvaluesof between14%and
16%. Theslowrateof natural ageing in the 6000 series alloys does not appreciably
affect the bending characteristics,except in the most severe bending cases.
Bending at raised temperatures is not usually recommended as the mechanical

propertieswould be affected. It is possibletocarry out post-bendingheattreatmenton
T4 temper materialthat will increase its propertiestowards those of the T6 condition.
Care should be exercisedwith thin sections as some distortioncould occur underthis
treatment.
Table 6.1 - Bending Characteristics
Alloy Temper Bending Index
6063 T4 V
T6 G
6063A 14 V V=verygood
T6 G
6082 T4 G G = good
T6 F
6101A T6 G F=fair
6463 T4 V
T6 G
2014A 14 G
T6 F
Shape Factors
The complexityof shapesavailablein aluminiumalloys makes it verydifficultto provide

information to cover every situation. By considering the behaviour of the various
elements of the shape in relationto the bending axis it is possible to predictthe most
likely modeoffailure when bent throughtoo tight a radius. In most cases,the neutral
axis of the section and the bending axis almostcoincide butthis is nottrueforstretch-
forming where, becauseof longitudinaltension,the bending axis is assumedto move
outside of the section.
67
Thefollowing tables give minimum bend radii for section elements under the various
forms of bending stresses.
Radii values are to the neutral axis and are given in multiplesof y.
y is the maximumdistancefrom outerfibres of the element to the neutral axis ofwhole

section. t is thickness of element.
Flange denotes shaded element parallelto the plane of bending.
Web denotes shaded element vertical to the plane of bending.
Theuse of support tooling in the bucklingmodescan reduce the minimum radiibelow

the levels shown in the tables. Theextent of the reduction depends upon the typeof
tooling used.
Table 6.2 - Minimum Bend Radii (1)

y WEB
t 1 2 4 8 12 TENSILE
Alloy Temper
=1
6063 T4 O.7y 0.7y O.8y 2.Oy 3.5y
L
6082
T6
T4
O.8y
2.5y
0.By
2.5y
l.4y
2.5y
3.Sy
3.Oy
7.Oy
5.Oy
L
T6 2.5y 2.5y 2.5y 3.5y 7.Oy

y WEB
t 2 3 4 6 BUCKLING
Alloy Temper
C1
6063 T4 l.Oy 3.5y 8.Oy 20.Oy
T6 l.Oy 4.Oy 1O.Oy 20.Oy
6082 T4 l.8y 4.Oy 1O.Oy 20.Oy F1

T6 l.8y 5.Oy 1O.Oy 25.Oy
68
FLANGEWIDTH FLANGE
THICKNESS 4 8 TENSILE
Alloy Temper
6063 14 7.Oy 8.Oy
T6 10.Oy lO.Oy
6082 14 8.Oy Boy

T6 10.Oy lO.Oy

FLANGE WIDTH FLANGE
THICKNESS 4 8 BUCKLING
Alloy
6063
Temper
T4 5.Oy 8.OY
J
T6 8.Oy 20.OY
6082 T4 7.Oy l2.Oy
16 8.Oy 2O.Oy
N.B. Where flanges have bulbs greater than 3t thick they can be bent to radii 60%
of those shown in the table.
Tube Bending
The recommendedmethodsof tube bending are wrap and draw mandrel. Although
threepoint bendingcan be used,there is lesscontrolparticularlywiththin-walledtubes
in the stronger alloys and tempers. Aluminiumtubes can be readily bent but, like all
materials,there are limitsand thekey to successfulbendingisto understandthem and
take appropriateaction at both the design and fabrication stages.
Failure modesare, once again,tensiletearing and compressionbuckling butthere are

in-between situations where wrinkling, necking and flattening can occur without
causingfracture ofthetube. To preventthese surfacedefectsor to restrictthem to an
acceptable level, the tubes can be filled with sand, springs or low melting materials
such as Wood's metal.
69
Theseare allestablishedmethodsofprovidinginternalsupportwhich,together withthe
use of external groove formers and followers,provide the maximum level of bending
control.
Table 6.6 shows the minimumrootradiifor a rangeof tube sizes based upondiameter!
wall thickness ratios, alloys and tempers but ignoringflattening.
Sprlngback
Althoughthedegreeofspringbackcanbecalculatedforaspecific sectionthathas been

bent around a given radius,it involvesa lengthy process. The more usual method of
establishing springback is to carry out trials prior to a production run. Generally,
sectionswhich are symmetricaland havethe majorportion oftheir material awayfrom
the neutral axis exhibit less springbackthan a heavy centred cruciform section or an
asymmetricalT-bar.
Lubrication
Frictionbetweenthesurfacesof steelformingtoolsand the natural surfaceoxideof the

aluminiumcreatesthe need to lubricateboth work and tools. This helpsto reducetool
wear and prevent damageto the surfacefinish ofthe formed parts. Dependingupon
toolshape,sectionsize andalloy,thelubricantscommonlyusedincludemineraloil, lard
oil, proprietarywater soluble compounds and waxes.
MACHINING
Aluminium alloys are amongst the most machinable metals and can be cut at high
speeds. Two basic properties influencethe machiningoperation:
a) the high co-efficient of linear expansion of aluminium.
b) the friction generated betweensmall tools and aluminium.
The problems associatedwith the above characteristicscan easily be overcome by

using a combined lubricantand coolant.
Machines normallyfound in a workshopare suitable for use on aluminium. The best

results are obtained with relatively high speeds and it is frequently found that
woodworkingmachinescan be employedfor machining,providingthey have sufficient
power and rigidity. High speed steel tools may be used on all the aluminium alloys.
Plain carbon steels may also be used for short runs buttheydo not have sufficient life
for quantity production. For long productionruns tungsten carbide tips are recom-
mended but even these toolswould require regular resharpeningparticularly when
used with anodized material. A chip breaker should be used on alloy 6082 for high
speed operations to avoid the formation of long spiral swart.
70
Table 6.6 - Minimum Root Radii R In Termsof TubeDiameter
MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICCURVE
DESIGNATION
AND TEMPER WRAP MANDREL
6063 F B B
T4 B B
T6 C C
6082 F B B
T4 C C
T6 D D
6101A T6 C C
4U -
30 30
tr C
o 20 o 20
10
Ill
-
S
S
15 5
——--———- ———-
lEt 2D 3D 4D 50 lD 2D 3D 4D 5D
Minimum Root RodS In Terms Of lobe Diomneter Minimum Rout Rods In Terms Of Tube Diameter
Wrap Bends Mandrel Bend
71
Where extensive removalof metal is to becarried out, there is alwaysthe possibilityof
distortion occurring. Machining practiceswill also affect the amount of distortion that
takes place. Coolingand lubricationshould be generous but even so, over-tightened
chuckscould add tootherstressesoccurringthroughthermalexpansion. Ifthere is any
doubt, the material suppliershould be consulted.
Routing
One ofthebest methodsofmachiningaluminiumis byrouting. This resemblesa milling

operation, giving a good surface finish, as fine as 0.75 micron,and can be used with
spindle speeds up to 24,000 rpm. The high operating speed, in conjunctionwith low
loading,ensures smooth, easy controlwhich is essentialwhen followingthe contours
of a complextemplate. See Fig 6.2.
Helix angle
Radial rake
Primary
clearance
CUlliNG
SPEED FEED HELIX RADIAL CLEARANCE
rn/mm rn/mm ANGLE RAKE
Profiling Up to 6
600-2100 Reduced
speeds
Facing: necessary
Upto with 25° 5-7° 5-10°
6000 increase
in work
thickness
Fig. 6.2 - Routing(Profiling and Facing)
72
Drilling
As with other aluminiummachiningoperations,drilling can be carriedout atveryhigh
speeds. Specialmachinesfor usewith small diameterdrills work at 80,000 rpm, most
drilling operations, however, are carried out at more modest speeds. The cutting
performanceot adrill is influencedby its peripheralspeedand this shouldbetaken into
account when deciding upon the spindle speed for a given drill diameter.
Drills should be inspectedregularly to ensure that they keep their bright finish and
polishedflutes to ensure rapid chip removal and prevent build-up. When necessary,
thedrills should be regroundwithcare beingtaken to ensurethatthechisel edgeretains
itscorrect lengthandtheweb atthedrill point does notthicken. Shouldthickeningoccur
therewill be increased end pressureon the drill with the possibilityof drill breakage.
When drilling deep holes, particularlyof large diameter,excessiveheat is generated

and if not dissipatedby the coolant, hole contractioncould take place.
DRILL ELEMENT TOOL ANGLE
PointAngle,H 118°
Helix AngIe 20 - 25°
ClearanceAngle, 0 12 - 20°
Flutes Polished
Web Thickness Thiner than that used

for other metals
Fig. 6.3 - Drills
73
Sawing
Modernsawsused inthefabricationofaluminiumsectionsgiveclean, virtuallyburr-free

cuts providedthatthe correcttooth size and rotationspeed are used and theteeth kept
sharp. This is particularlyso for tungsten carbidetipped blades which are in general
useforaluminium. Thistypeofblade gives excellentresultsonthe hardsurfaceof pre-
anodizedsections. Feedwill vary with the type of saw, section size, alloy and temper
butshouldneverbebelow 0.05mm per tooth. When cuttingthin sections,itis advisable
to havetwo or moreteeth engaging at the same time.
Table 6.7 sets out basic tooldata. Thelower speed range is recommendedfor high
speed steel blades and the higher range for tungsten carbide tipped blades. It is
always advisable to use a cutting fluid.
High speed steel Segmental teeth
Top clearance
Top clearance
Top rake
Depth of
gullet
Th Depth of
gullet
Fig. 6.4 - Typesof Saw
Table 6.7 - Basic Saw Tool Data
Type of Blade Cutting Teeth Angles

Saw & Size Speed Pitch Gullet Top Clearances
Blade Depth Rake Top Side
Material mm m/min mm mm
Circular 250-460 8.5-13 Handfeed:

High dia 1500 6.4 12-18° 20-30°
Speed x to Hollow to Powerfeed: 1-2°
Steel 2.3-3.7 2400 Ground 12.7 15-24° 25-35°
thick
Circular 560- 1200 coarse Handfeed:
Seg- 1220 to 25-50 5-12° 7-9°
mental dia 4500 Chip- 12.7- Powerfeed: 1.2°
Inserted x breaker 57 10-20° 5-7°
Carbide 64-12.7 teeth
Tips thick
74
JOINING
Aluminium alloys can beconnected in avariety ofways. Theusual methods, all well-
established,are welding, riveting,bolting, screwing,corner crimpingand glueing (but
aluminium alloys have also been explosivelybonded to other materials)..
The combination of material flexibility and the extrusion process enables mating
sectionsto be manufacturedin a range coveringboth permanentand releasabletypes
of sliding, rolling or straight clip connections. Detailsof this type of joining are given
under Section 11, Design.
Welding
Aluminium welding is a widely accepted method of fabrication, with no shortage of

competent personnel in the engineering and manufacturingindustries. There are
several methodsavailable,the basic ones being Tungsten Inert Gas (hG) and Metal
InertGas (MIG). As the titles suggest,both are inert gasshieldedsystems where the
weld area is shrouded from the air to prevent the reformation of an oxide film.
Preparation
Cleanlinessand the removalof theoxide film are most important. The proposedweld
areas has to be de-greased, using white spirit or acetone and the joints wiped dry.
Adequate ventilation must be provided for any solvents used but is particularly
applicableto industrialcleaning solvents, such as carbontetrachlorideetc. After de-
greasing the joint is deaned, using stainless steel wire brushes or a chemical etch
cleanerto removethe oxide film. Welding should be carried out as soon as possible
afterwards. Carborundumwheels are not recommendedas grit particlescanbecome
embedded in the surfacecausing contaminationof the completed weld. Filler wire is
cleaned by wiping with wire wool; pre-packed spool wire is supplied in a clean
condition.
Tungsten Inert Gas
In the tungsten inert gas (TIG) process,the arc is struck betweenthe workpieceand
a non-consumabletungsten electrode. The filler wire is fed independently. Although
mechanisedTIG is available the process is more widely used as a manual system
where close controloftheweldingconditionscan be readily maintained. The resulting
welds are usuallyof good appearanceand penetration,particularlywhere no backing
plate is available. Fig. 6.5 shows a schematiclayout of atypical TIGsystem and Table
6.8 shows the thickness range.
75
Metal Inert Gas
In the metal inert gas (MIG) process, the arc is struck betweenthe workpieceand a
consumable electrode which is constantly fed from a wire spool. The arc is self-
adjusting and takes into account small movements of the torch. Penetration and
appearanceare not so easyto control as in the TIG system, althoughthe addition of
pulsed arc equipment will improve the penetrationand reduce the need for backing
plates. Fig. 6.6shows a schematiclayoutofatypical MIGsystemand Table 6.8shows
the thickness range. Small spool hand guns, sometimes called fine wire, are also
available with MIG systems. These dispense with the need for long wire feed leads
thereby increasingthe areaof work accessible from the base unit.
Table 6.8- ProcessCapacity
PARENT METAL
EQUIPMENT
THICKNESS
PROCESS Mm I Max.
Item
(mm) (mm)
Compositeunit (350A)
Transformer(350 A)
TIG H.F. orSurge Injector unit
1.2 9.5 (1) Suppressor
Welding Torches
Compositeunit (250 A)
MIG withWire Feed unit and
0.5 kg
1.6 8.0 (2) Welding Gun for 1 lb Spool
MIG Compositeunit (350 A)

4.8 None withWire Feed unit and
5kg Welding Gun for 10 lb spool
NOTES: (1) Althoughthe TIG processcanweld thicker material, for

economicreasons it is not normallyused for aluminium over
9.5 mm thick.
(2) In theory there is no upper limit for 'one-pound'MIG, but it is

'
more economicalto use 'ten-pound MIG for material over 8.0
mm thick.
76
NOTES
1 CompositeTIG welding units include

all the necessaryauxiliaries: argon
and watershut-offvalves are usually
controlledby solenoids, although they
may be manuallyoperated.
2 The main power cable, fuseand

torch can be air-or water-cooled.
Fig. 6.5 - TIG Welding
77
Dry Bobbin
Flowmeter
Pressure
Reducing
Valve
Pressure
Gauge
Wire Feed
Unit
Workpiece
NOTES 4 Voltage pick-up lead for 'one-pound'

MIG.
1 The a.c. supply is 11OV for 'one
pound'MIG and 220V tot 'ten-pound' 5 The main power cable and gun of
MPG welding. 'ten-pound MIG can be watercooled.
2 CompositeMIG welding units have 6 Arc Voltage in MIG Welding

the contactorand control box built in. Proceduresis measuredwitha
voltmeterconnected between the
3 The filler wire feed unit is integral contact tube and the workpiece.
withthe gun in 'one-pound' MIG and
independentof it in 'ten-pound MIG
Systems.
Fig. 6.6 - MPG Welding
78
Filler Wire
6063 and 6082 alloys can be readilywelded to awide rangeofotheraluminiumalloys.

Table 6.9shows the preferredweld filler wire in bold print. An alternative,where given
canbe usedwhen the finished componentis to be anodizedand a close colour match
is required betweenthe weld area and the parent metal. Alloy 2014A is not shown in
the table as this alloy is not recommended for welding using the TIG and MIG
processes.
Table 6.9 - Recommended Filler Alloys for Welding

Parent Metal Combinations
PARENT 6063
ALLOY 6082
1050a 4043
5356
3103 4043
5356
5083 5356
5251 5356
5454 5356
6061
6063 4043
6082 5356
Alloy 2014A is Not Recommendedfor FusionWelding
Joint Design
Good joint design encompassesboth the practicalitiesof thewelding processand the

structuralrequirementsofthejoints in service. Theedgepreparationwill depend upon
the typeofjoint, butt or lap, thickness of materialto be joined and the weldingprocess
to be employed. Table 6.10 shows typical edge preparation for both TIG and MIG
processes.
Thestrength of welds is covered by BS CP118 which gives permissiblestress levels

for both 6063 and 6082 alloys in both butt and filled applicationssee Table 6.11. The
reduction in strength from the 0.2% proof stress levels is very marked, allowing for
79
Table 6.10 - Edge Preparation and Fit Up for Tig and Mig
THICKNESSt (1) g n a
NOMINAL MAXIMUM ROOT INCLUDED JOINT
MIG GAP GAP FACE ANGLE DETAIL
TIG (mm) (mm) (mm) (deg.)
- 0.8c Nil Nil - - $
- 1.2c Nil Nil - -

- 1.6c Nil 0.8 - -
- 4.8c Nil 1.6 - -
3.2c - 1.6 2.4 - - g
4.8c - 2.4 3.2 - -
3.2p - 4.8 6.4 - -
8.0
6.4c
4.8P
-
-
-
6.4c
Nil
1.6
3.2
Nil
0.8
2.4
4.8
1.6
1.6
1.6
Nil
1.6
60
60
60
75
4iit
12.7 - Nil 0.8 1.6 90
15.9 - Nil 0.8 1.6 90
jj
- 1.6 Nil Nil - -
- - I
3.2 2.4 Nil 0.8
4.8 6.4 Nil 1.6 - -
6.4p - 1.6 3.2 0.8 60
60
HL
9.5 - Nil 0.8 0.8
- 1.6 Nil Nil - -

3.2 - Nil 0.8 - - g
4.8 8.9 Nil 1.6 - -
12.7
19.0
-
-
Nil
Nil
1.6
1.6
3.2
4.8
60
60
r
25.4 - Nil 1.6 6.4 60
Li
- 0.8 Nil Nil - -
- - -
[JJ
1.2c Nil Nil
- 2.4c Nil 0.8 - -
flu
- 1.6 Nil Nil - -
- - -
3.2c Nil 0.8
g
1) MinimumThicknessof ParentMetal 80
n
p= PermanentBacking Plate
c=TemporaryBacking Plate
contingenciesinthe weldingprocessand the reducedpropertylevels of theweld heat
affectedzones. Themost cost effectiveway ofdesigningwelded structures,therefore,
is to keepthe weldedconnectionsclearof maximumstress points, as far as possible.
Table 6.11- PermissibleStressLevels
BUTT WELDED
FILLET JOINTS
JOINTS &
REDUCEDHAZ. (WELD METAL)
ALLOY
TENSION COMPN TRANSVSL LONGITL
6063 31 19 54 31
6082 51 31 54 31
PermissibleStressesfor Table WeldedJoints in N/mm2

HAZ = Heat affected zone
Screwing
The ease with which aluminiumalloys canbe drilled orpunched and the incorporation
of screws ports or channels in extrusions has encouragedthe useof stainless steel
self-tappingscrews asthe standardmethod of joining, particularlyin the window and
door industries. The stainless steel threads bite into the aluminium to give a very
positiveconnection. A typical patio door will use two self-tappingscrews per kilogram
of aluminium section used.
Screw ports are rarely fully closed as the use of 300 degree ports, (Fig. 6.8), gives a
very marked improvementin extrudabilitywith very little loss in pullout strength. The
dimensional accuracy of the port diameter is very important and all extruders have
standardbore dimensionsfor each screw size. It is advisableto contact extruders at
the die design stage and where possibleprovide samplescrews.
Screw Screw Screw Groove

Size Dia. (mm) Int. Dia. (mm)
—
— \\
__
1.78mm
\ 6 3.45 3.20
(mm) 60° 8 4.17 3.56
/ 10 4.88 4.32
N
.. // I 12 5.59 5.03
.... /
14 6.25 5.74
FIg 6.7 - Recommended Diameters of Screw Grooves

81
Theuse of longitudinalscrew grooves, (Fig. 6.8), is not so widespreadbut thecorrect
combinationof slot width and screw size can ensure high pullout values. Some care
is necessary if self-tapping screws of triangulated cross-section are used as full
engagementof threads may not be possible on both sides ofthe groove. Advice from
the extruder is recommended.
Li
Fig. 6.8 - LongitudinalScrew Grooves
Crimping
In this method of corner connection,the extrusion has a built-in channel recess and
afterthe sections have been mitred,thecrimpingangle isfitted and thejointassembled
and heldin a rigidjig. Two pressureprongsthen upsetthesectionflange intothe corner
angle, producingavery stableframe assembly,see Fig 6.9. Most crimped corners rely
onmechanicalconnections,but, if required,aslowsettingadhesivecan beusedtoseal
the corners and providesome extra strength.
Crimpingis most likely to befound in the door and window industrybut is applicableto
anycomponent orform of constructionwhere mitredcorners are used.
Crimping
flange
Fig. 6.9 - Crimping
82
Riveting
Aluminiumcanberivetedwith aluminiumrivets, which are usuallydrivencold. As there

is atendency for these to work hardenduringthe processtheyshould be closed with
the minimumnumberofblows. It is advantageousto use a long stroke hammer,asize
larger than would be used with equivalentdiameterhot steel rivets. Therivets should
be drivensquare, not rolled round theedges. Largerdiameterrivets(over 12 mm.)can
have pre-formedend recess points to assist initialforming. Poweroperated squeeze
riveters are ideal for aluminiumas the heads are formed in a single stroke.
Where aluminium is to be riveted to steel structures, the faying (contact) surfaces

should betreated with azinc-chromateprimerand broughttogether whilestill wet. Hot
driven steelrivets should be used but these must be given at least one coat of primer
in way of the aluminium, after driving and cooling.
Blind Riveting
This form of joining is well established and uses rivets of tubular constructionwhich
enablethe workto becarriedoutfrom one side only. This isparticularlyattractivewhere
accesstothe reverseside is difficult. Only one operator is required and there is choice
of setting tools - pneumatic,hydraulicor hand held. Thereare a numberof proprietary
systems available,in diametersupto6.5 mm. Rivetlengthsare availableforcombined
joint thickness of up to 13 mm. Furtherdetails are availablefrom rivet manufacturers.
ELE
Mandrel breaks
and falls free
Setting tool
Clinching
mandrel
Fig. 6.10 - Blind Rivets
83
Self-Piercing Riveting
This is a relatively new developmentwhich canbe usedon combined thicknesses of

up to 6.5 mm.
T
Max.
L = 9.5mm
1=6.5mm
S = 5.0mm
Countersunk
Fig. 6.11 - Self-PiercingRivets
Clench Riveting
A numberofproprietaryfasteningsystemsusethegripof threadedboltswiththeclosing
mechanismof clench riveting. Fig. 6.12 showsatypicalpin and collet assembly. The
bolts are closedfromone side in asimilar mannerto blind riveting, althoughaccess to
the non-closing side is necessary to install the rivet. The collet deforms around the
threaded pinbefore the pin breaksoff atthe waistedneckunder a pre-determinedload.
As well as the advantage of ease of installation, these fastenings have excellent
vibration resistance.
Fig. 6.12 - Clench Rivets
84
Bolting
Inthismethodoconstructionstainlesssteel,aluminiumor mildsteelboltscan be used.
If stainlesssteel to 18/8 specificationis used, no extraprotectionis used andthe bolts
can be used in the conventionalmanner. The best aluminiummaterials are 6082 and
2014A but the latter will need painted protection in heavy industrial and marine
environments. Alloy 2011 is a widely used and available bolt material but would
certainly need protection in any external application. In the case of mild steel bolts,
galvanizedsteel washers MUST be fitted.
All boltsare best used in close-fitting holes and the appropriate tolerance levels will
be found in BS CP118.
Where possib'e, controltorque levels shoudbe specifiedfor aluminium bolts and the
indiscriminate use of "tommy bars' is an unacceptable practice. In line with good
bolting practice, no part of the threaded portion should be within the thickness of the
joint flanges.
The extrusion processallowscaptive bolt head slots to be built intothe extrusion. The
bolt can be positioned anywhere along the slot, thus requiring hole accuracy in one
dimension only. The internal width of the slot should be dimensioned to suit the
maximum width of the boithead across flats thereby locking the bolthead against
turning when tightening up the nut. See Fig. 11.3
85
Adhesives
This methodofjoining hasfound favour inthe high-techindustries,i.e. electronicsand

aero-spacewhere product cleanlinessand close fabricationcontrol were alreadywell-
established practices. In more recent years, adhesives tolerant of imperfect joint
conditions have been developed and have been taken up, particularly by transport,
engineering and even structural industries.
In general, bonding systems still require clean etched surfaces; some respond to
unsealed,anodizedor conversioncoatedsurfaces. The range of adhesivesavailable
covers cold, impact or heat curing together with single or two-part mixes. Each has
its own characteristicand therefore advice on suitabilityfor any specific application
should be sought from adhesive manufacturers.
86
SECTION7- CONDUCTIVITY
CONTENTS
Title Page No.
THERMAL 89
Thermal Barriers 89
ELECTRICAL 90
87
Listof Figures
7.1 MechanicallyClosed
InsulatingWeb 90
7.2 Poured Resin

InsulatingWeb 90
List of Tables
No. Title Page No.
7.1 Thermal Conductivity 90

0-100°C
7.2 Electrical Conductivity 91
88
THERMAL
Aluminium has a high co-efficientof conductivity. It varies withthe different alloys but
the value forpure aluminium is 244 W/m0C. SeeTable 7.1. This propertyis extremely
useful whendesigningheat transferproducts,such as radiatorsand electrical heat sink
units. It is obviously less attractive in those applicationswhere low heat transfer is
required and it is then often necessary to in-corporatecomponents to improve the
thermal resistance, e.g. thermally broken window sections.
Thermal Barriers
This solution to the therma transfer problem has been used in the building and
constructionindustriesfor nearlythirty years. During this time, design and manufac-
turehasbeen refined so that now two majortypes of systems are in general use.
In the first, Fig. 7.1, the thermal insulatingweb, or webs, is madefrom strip material -
nylon, polyamide etc. - fixed into position by mechanical closing of dovetail type
channelsinthe aluminiumsections. Twoseparatesections are used enablingdifferent
surface finishes or colours to be used. The closing methods vary between rolling,
pressingand broaching,dependinguponindividualmanufacturers.Internalbroaching,
can only be used in the case of double web sections.
Thesecond systemis frequentlyreferredto as the "pour and cut" method, Fig. 7.2. A
specially formulated liquid resin is poured into a semi-closedchannel in the single
aluminium section. After the resin has solidified,the connecting aluminiumstrip "a" is
cutaway leavingthe thermalbarrier orbarriers. Aswith thefirstsystem, a doubleweb
sectioncanbeproduced,inthis case byusingeitheraproprietaryinstantaneousdouble
pourmachineor by a two pass procedureon conventionalmachines.
Thestructural properties of thermal barrier materials will generally be below those of
aluminiumand will varynotonly betweendifferentmaterialsbut alsoover atemperature
range of -20°C to +80°C. It is good design procedure,therefore,to keep the thermal
barrier materialas close as possible to the neutral axis of thefinal composite section.
In practice,this is not always possible and examplescanbe seen in existingwindow
systems wherethethermal barrieris offset. Inthese cases it is essentialthat extensive
laboratory proving tests are carried out to confirm that the composite section has
sufficient strengthand stiffness as wellas thermal performance.
89
Lips Mechanically
Closed On Insert
Aluminium Resin
Solid Insulating Holding Web Webs
Inserts Cut Out "a"
Mechanically Closed Poured Resin
Fig. 7.1 - Mechanically Closed Fig. 7.2 - Poured Resin Insulating

Insulating Web Web
Table 7.1 - Thermal Conductivity

0- 1000C
ALLOY TEMPER W/m°C % IACS
6063 T4 197 50
T6 201 51.1
6063A T4 197 50
T6 201 51
6082 14 172 43.7
T6 184 46.7
2014A T4 142 36.1
T6 159 39.8
* InternationalAnnealed
CopperStandard
ELECTRICAL
Materials that are good thermal conductors are in general also good electrical
conductorsand this is certainlytrueof aluminium. Thecopper/aluminiumratio values
for thermal conductivity run virtually parallel to those for electrical conductivity. A
special alloy hasbeen developedforelectrical use-6101 A. Thismedium strengthalloy
hasexcellent electricalconductivityandgood fabricatingcharacteristics. It isavailable
in the T6 temper only.
Comparedwith copper, an aluminiumconductorofequal current-carryingcapacitywill

have cross-sectionalarea 84% larger but will be only 54% ofthe weight of the copper
bar.
90
Table 7.2 - Electrical Conductivity
Electrical Temperature
Resistivity Conductivy Coefficientof
(20°C) (200C) Resistance
ALLOY Microhm %IACS per°C
6101AT6 3.133 max. 55.1 mm. 0.00364
91
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in original
SECTION8- TEMPERATURE
CONTENTS
Title Page No.
EXPANSION 95
MECHANICALPROPERTIES 95
Creep 96
Melting Point 96
93
List of Tables
No. Title Page No.
8.1 Coefficientof Linear

Expansion (200 C - 1000 C) 95
8.2 Influence of Temperature

on Propertiesas %
of 25° C Values 96
94
EXPANSION
Although aluminium has a relatively highco-efficientof linear expansion,24x 10-6 per

degree Cin its pureform,the low modulusofelasticityenablesthetemperatureinduced
stresses to be held at a low level. These are usually two thirds of those induced in a
similarsteelstructure. It is still recommended,however,that all long restrained struc-
tures likely to be subjectedto temperature variation and particularly those in dark
colours are checked out in the design stage. Any excessivestresses can be reduced
by fitting simple expansion joints. The general effect of alloying is to reduce the co-
efficient of expansion and relevantvalues forthe more common aluminiumalloys are
shown in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 - Coefficientof LInear Expansion

(20°C - 100°C)
ALLOY TEMPER 106/0C
6063 T4 24
T6 23.5
6063A T4 24
16 23.5
6082 T4 23
T6 23
6101A T6 23.5
6463 T4 24
16 23.5
2014A T4 22
T6 22
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Variation in temperaturealso directly affects the mechanicalproperties of aluminium

alloys. At low temperaturesthe structural strength and elastic modulus values are
actually increased, whilst at higher temperatures they are reduced. A further
important characteristicis that at low temperaturesaluminiumand its alloys show no
brittleness which makes them extremely useful in cryogenic applications such as
containers for low temperatures liquid gases. The more important properties are
given for each of the alloys in Table 8.2. The dotted line inTable 8.2 signifies the
maximumtemperatureat which itis recomendedeach alloycancontinuouslybe used.
Some official codes will accept highertemperaturesin specific applications- BS5222
"Aluminium PressurePiping" sanctionstemperaturesup to 2000C.
Note: special alloys have been developed for high temperatures applications,
contact extruders for performancedata and availability.
95
Table 8.2 - Influence of Temperature on Properties
as % of 25°C Values
Alloy Temoerature
Temper Stress -200 -100 25 100 150 200 300
606316 Ult 130 110 100 95 65 20 10

0.2% PS 115 105 100 95 65 I 20 10
608216 Ult 130 110 100 95 70 I 40 10
0.2% PS 115 105 100 95 L40 5
2014AT6 Ult 124 108 100 85 44 191 11
0.2% PS 125 109 100 87 41 17 10
Modulus I
of Elasticity 110 105 100 100 95 90 70
Creep
At elevated temperatures under the prolonged application of a stress of sufficient

magnitude,metalwill"creep"and may eventuallyrupture.This behaviour,the progres-
sivedeformationwithout increasein load, does notenterinto the designconsiderations
for structures operating below 100°C but may require study in high temperature
applications. When creep is consideredto be adesign factor, moreinformationshould
be obtained from the material supplier.
Melting Point
As aluminiumapproachesits melting point it does not change colour, so othermeans
such as temperature sensitive crayons, must be employed if a visual check on the
temperature is required. While pure aluminium has a well-defined melting point of
660°C, aluminium alloys have a meltingrange which, forthe alloys listed in the Table
8.2, varies from 570°Cto 660°C.
96
SECTION9- FIRE
CONTENTS
Title Page No.
ALUMINIUMANDFIRE 99
97
List of Tables
No. Title Page No.
9.1 BS 476 Fire Test Series 99
98
ALUMINIUM AND FIRE
ALUMINIUMDOES NOT BURN. It will not ignite. Itwill not add tothe fire load. It will
not spread surface flame.
Although aluminiummelts at around 620°C, it has athermal conductivityof fourtimes

that of steel and a specific heat twicethatof steel. Heat isconducted away faster and
therefore agreater heat inputis necessarytobring aluminiumupto agiventemperature
than required for steel.
In any applicationrequiringa structuralfire resistancemeasured against time, a test

certificate is usually necessary. Although aluminiumcomponents have obtained ap-
provals above 30 minutes in tests it is not possibleto make accurate predictions. It
is necessary,therefore,to obtain atestapprovalfor eachtypeof application. Where
highertime ratings are required, aluminium must be used in conjunction with other
conventional fire-resisting materials.
The more usual fire performance requirements for aluminium extrusions can be
obtained from the results of the British Standardstestsshown in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 - BS 476 Fire Test Series
Part No. Title Aluminium Results
*4
Non-CombustibilityTest Non-Combustible
*5
ignitibility Test P, not easily ignited
*6 Fire PropagationTest P. actual index will
vary with thickness
*7 Surface Spread of FlameTest Class 1. Painted
surfaces will reduce
performancerating
21 1 Time/Structural
** individual
22 Resistance& Insulation
23 Test component testing
required
99
The BritishStandardfire testsare laid down in BS 476 and define results irrespective
of materials. Aluminiumand its alloys achieve the highestpossibleratingsfor parts 4,
5, 6 and 7 and are therefore widely used throughout the construction and other
industries where the highest standards of performance are required. Painted
surfaces could, however, reduce the levels of performance.
Tests 21, 22 and 23 are used to obtain the performanceof a component or unitfor
strength, integrity and insulation, all compared to time against closely calibrated
temperature levels.
** It is usualfor aluminium extrusions,in these instances,to be used in conjunction
with other materials to obtain resistancetimes in excess of 30 minutes.
* Indicated highestpossible rating.
100
SECTION 10- CARE ANDCONTROL
CONTENTS
Title Pag No.

INTRODUCTION 102
HANDLING 102
STORAGE 102
MAINTENANCE 103
101
INTRODUC11ON
In post-extrusionhandling,every care is taken by extrudersto minimisedamage. It is

essential that this "good house-keeping"is continued in customers'works and ware-
houses. As with other high quality materials,carelessnesscan cause unnecessary
rejection, resultingin higher productioncosts.
HANDLING
The following recommendedpractices should be followed:-
(1) Single lengths should never be pulled longitudinallyfrom the middle of a bundle
of aluminium sections as the entrappedend will score adjacent sections.
(2) Cleanlinessis very important,particularly with sections to be anodised. Gloves

should be worn whenever dealing with this typeof section as the natural oil from
the hands can cause finger print corrosion which will become apparent at the
etching stage of the process.
(3) When lifting by crane, double slings should be used as single slings can cause
bending damage particularly with bundles of long, light sections.
(4) The sectionsshould always have adequatesupportwhen liftedby a fork-lifttruck.

STORAGE
Although aluminiumalloys are very resistantto atmosphericcorrosion,certain simple

precautionsshould be taken duringtheir storage. All materialsshould be storedaway
fromexcessivedustor fumes; particularlywhen portable gas or oil heaters are used,
for as wellas pollutantsthese heaters also produce moisture. Storagespacesshould
be dry and well ventilated and kept at a constant temperature above 16°C. Any
superficial corrosion that occurs on extrusions is usually easily removed by hand
cleaning with white spirit. Even the most severe superficial corrosion responds to
cleaning with finewire wool and white spirit.
The moretroublesomeform of staining is water marking,caused by moisture ingress

betweensections that are closely nested, e.g. angle bars. Thiscan occur directly or
by condensation. In the latter case, it is possiblefor the moistureto work upwardsby
capillary action. Stacking in a self-draining position is therefore no solution. It is,
however, easily avoided by spacing the sections and ensuring that moisture can not
bridgethe gap. Thestain canbe removedby wire-brushingand chemical treatment.
Storage staining and corrosion will not usually have any detrimental effect on the
mechanicalproperties of the material.
102
Vertical racks are preferred for storage. If horizontal storage is unavoidable, care
should be taken not to overloadracksand to supportlight sections adequatelyto avoid
local damage atthe points ot support. Timberrubbing bars should be fitted to steel
racksto minimiseabrasion and to avoidspots which could cause condensationunder
adverse storage conditions.
Racking should be arrangedto facilitate easyinspectionwhich should be carried out

at regularintervals. As mostaluminiumalloys look alike, materialsshould be stamped
or colour-coded so that different alloys and tempers can easily be identified. This
would not be necessary where an alloy or temper is consistentwith a special shape.
It is also usefulto mark batches on arrival in store to ensure that they are used in the
original delivery sequence.
MAINTENANCE
Aluminium alloys require little or no maintenanceto retain their original mechanical

properties. Without regularcleaning,however,surfacescanbecome stained particu-
larly under prolonged exposure on industrial sites. Mill-finishedaluminium can be
cleaned by rubbing down with finewire wool and white spirit. Anodised surfaces are
more resistantto staining but, nevertheless,benefit from regular washing down with
soapy water. Proprietarycleaners are available for both mill finished and anodised
surfaces but should they be used, it is absolutely essential that the manufacturer's
instructionsare strictly adhered to.
103
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in original
SECTION 11 - DESIGN
CONTENTS
Title Page No.
DESIGN PROCEDURE 107
VALUEANALYSIS 107
PRACTICALDESIGN FEATURES 109
WORKEDEXAMPLES 111
UnloadingRamps 111
PedestrianBalustrade 113
Columns 123
105
Listof Figures
11.1 Steel and Aluminium Beams 108
11.2 Examplesof Solid

Section Aluminium 108
11.3 Built-in MechanicalFastener 110
11.4 Advantagesof Aluminium

Versus Steel 110
11.5 Various Snap Fit Connections 110
106
DESIGN PROCEDURE
Indesigningasection,itisusualto haveaperformancespecificationsettingoutthetotal
requirements of both section and material. This could be part of a much wider
specificationfor a completefinished product ofwhich the aluminiumextrusion is only
one of the components. The extentand detail requiredfor such a specificationwillvary
with the applicationand also within different industries. It is good design practice to
have such a "check list" providing, as it does, a target of what needs to be achieved
and alogical procedurefor assessingdifferentideas. Acomprehensivelistofdesign
considerations is set out in Appendix 1.
Rarely will all these factors need to assessed and a moregeneral approach is given
in the following flow chart.
Idea
Performance Specification
I I I I•• I. I. .1..
Material Fabrication Appearance Mechanical Durability Special Unit Availability
Selection Properties Requirements Cost
4 Machining Shape Strength Atmospheric Electrical

Conductivity
I
Forming Surface Stiffness Chemical Unit Weight

Finish
Jointing Hardness Fatigue
VALUE ANALYSIS
Although basic materialcost isimportant,itshould be balancedagainstthe overallcost

of fabrication and subsequentservice performance. This is particularly relevant to
aluminium extrusionswhere shapes can be produced that require little or no further
fabrication and the aluminiumalloys availablehave characteristicssuitable for awide
range of applications.
Aluminium extrusions are usually sold by weight which tends to encouragecompari-

son with other materials on a straight weight/cost basis. This in unrealistic as
compared with steel, allowingfor the lower elastic modulus, aluminium/steelweight
ratios of 1 : 2 are easily attained to equal performancespecifications.
107
100 .. 145
0L
150
Steel Aluminium
21.7 kg/M 10.6 kg/M
Ag. 11.1 - Steeland Aluminium Beams
Thetwo beams in Fig. 11.1 have been designed for equal stiffnessin both xx and yy
axes. The strength of the aluminiumbeam is well over twice that of mild steel if alloys
2014A 16 or 6082 T6 are used.
It is importantalways to check the actualdeflectionrequirementas in many cases the

steel design has been stress based and the corresponding level of deflection is
automaticallyaccepted without considerationof the real level required.
The economic use of aluminium alloys is not just confined to comparisonswith steel
and other materials. The proficient use of extrusions can frequently result in
comparisons with other aluminium profiles to obtain the optimum shape. Fig. 11.2
illustratesthe design of solid sectionsto give good strengthand stiffness in both major
axes instead of a more expensivehollow section.
[1 ii
ft_ 11
Fig. 11.2- Examples of Solid SectionAluminIum
108
Inothercases,the useofstandardstructuralsections is moreappropriate. Two ranges
of I beams,channels,Tbars and anglesare available,namelythe speciallydesigned
lipped sections conforming to BS 1161 and the range covering structural sections
similar to the universalsections used in the steel industry.
in manufacture,the availabilityof sectionsthat require little or no fabrication can be

a majorfactor in reducingfinal componentcosts. Thisequallyappliesto site erection
where, apartfrom light weight, the ability to use hiddenfixings can simplify procedure.
PRACTICAL DESIGN FEATURES
Replace several parts
One extrusioncan oftendo thework ofseveral structural

shapesjoined togetherand produce a neater, sounder
design,at less cost.
Place metal where It is most effective
Thus, bulbs,fillets and variationsin thicknesscaneasily

be incorporated for structural advantage and local
increasesof thicknesscan beintroduced tocounter wear
and abrasion orpermittappingofscrews.
The two bulbs, and root buteress improve inertia and

section modulus values as well as increasing torsional
resistance.
Hinge Fits
Continuous hinges with built in stop bars plus screw

groove forend stops.
Aslidefitwhichallowsone shapetomoveinacirculararc
with respecttotheother.
109
Slots, holes and threads for mechanical Adjustable locking
fasteners can be extrudedas integralfeatures. connection.
FIg. 11.3 - Built-in Mechanical Fastener
Typical early steelframe section. Typical aluminium frame section.
FIg. 11.4- Advantagesof AluminiumVersus Steel
Retractable Cover Locking Cover Adjustable Locking
Fig. 11.5 - Various Snap Fit Conections

110
WORKED EXAMPLES
UnloadingRamps
Singlelengthsofchannelbar are frequentlyused intandemto unload wheeledvehicles.

In the interests of good working practice, they should always be longitudinally and
transversely restrained.
There are severalwaysof calculatingthe size required. The followingmethodis based

upon simple point load bending without any axial component. it is assumed that
unloading is always controlled and no unusualdynamic loads will occur.
Slope Q in degrees
Specification. The rampsshould be a maximumweight of 50 kg each. Span 2.5

metres. Operatingangle up to 30 degrees. Maximumvehicle load2.0 tonnes equally
shared on fourwheels. Maximumtyre width 200 mm with 25 mm clearance.
Theinitialchoice of sectionsize isgovernedby the final specificationrequirement,that

of typewidth and clearance.
Channel Section : 254 x 88 x 11 web x 14 flanges (all in mm)
Section properties:
Area 5030 mm2
Modulus Zxx 54620 mm3
Inertia lxx 3459100 mm4- Note: as section is used in

this plane check with
Radius of propertytables to confirm
Gyration 26.2 mm the wayx & y axes are given
Weight/metre 13.39kg/m
Alloy 6082 T6
111
Loading. Asthevehicle isunloadedit movesoutofthe horizontalwith aconsiderable
shift in its neutralaxis and the loadingon thefirstsetofwheels increasing. This will be
a feature of the individualvehicle. Forthe purposesofthis calculation it is assumedto
be 10%, hence -
Maximum individual wheel load = 1 9640N (2 tonnes) x 1 10 = 5400N

4 100
Bending Stresses. The ramp acts as a simply supported beam and with normal
wheelbasedvehicles will have a central load as the worst condition. (Load Case 2.)
M= WL = 5400N x 2500mm
4 4
Maximum bending moment = 3375000 Nmm
Maximum Stress = 3375000= fbc= 61.8N/mm2

54620
Allowable Stress Levels. See Table 3.2 (From British Standards CP1 18)
6082 T6 alloy
Bending p, 154N/mm2
Deflection
8 = For 6082 E = 68,900N/mm2

48El
8 = 5400x 2500
48 x 68900 x 3459100
8 = 7.45mm
The deflection/spanfactor =
336
which is well insidethe recommendedvalue of
200
Lateral Instability. It is usuallyadvisableto checkthe ramp for lateral instability. The

methodforcalculatingthis canbefound in BS CP1 18. Thecross-tyingofthetwo ramps
together with lateral ties will dramatically increasethe resistanceto lateral instability,
but in thiscase, with thestronger axis ofthe section acting transversally,instabilitywill
not occur.
112
Pedestrian Balustrade
Specification. To enclosean external pavedareawithintheconfinesofan officeblock.

Therailingsmustmeetthe requirementsofthe appropriateBritishStandardsandwhilst
being functional should have an attractive appearance. Low maintenance is also
essential.
BS 3049 Pedestrianguardrail
BS 6180 Protective barriers in and around buildings.
In this instance BS 6180 applies.
As it isa possible areaof assembly,althoughin anofficedevelopment,two categories

of use are applicable.
From BS 6180 Table 1
Type 4 Office building

Type 7b Placeof assembly
LOAD FACTORS Tables 2 and 3 from BS 6180
TYPE HORIZONTAL INFILL INFILL MINIMUM

U.D.L. IJ.D.L. POINT LOAD BARRIER HEIGHT
kN/M kN/M2 kN mm
4 0.74 1.0 0.50 1100

7b 1.5 1.5 1.50 800
Access will be controlled and private so that type 4 will apply.
Material. Aluminium alloy 6063 T6 will meet all the requirementsof -
surfacefinish
durability
low maintenance
It is also an approved material in BS 6180 and its structuralcharacteristicsare set out

in BSCP 118.
113
50x54
.r 76x50 Top rail 70x70x2.5 Posts
—30x30x2 Balusters
—100mm Max Gap

E
E
0
0
1lOOmm
1500mm 1500mm
FabricationDetails
Main stanchions: Theseare tobesetdirectly into concretefoundations.Thestanchion

base overthe areato be bedded intothe ground is to be giventwo coats of bituminous
paint.
Topandbottom rails: Theseare to be connectedtothe stanchionsusingbolted lugs.

Bolts to be stainless steel to 18/8 specification.
Balusters: These are to be slotted intothetop rail and intopunchedslots inthe bottom
rail, then welded intoposition on both top and bottom rails.
Surface finish: A natural anodized finish is required to AA 25 suitable for external

application. This will necessitate the infill panels being anodized as single units.
Check availabilityof suitable facilities.
114
SectionDesign
Thefollowing sectionshave been drawn upto meet the requirementsof the perform-
ance specification.
76
70
:: Rad.:
70 —I
Overallthickness 2.5mm
Stanchion lop rail
54
2mm
50
Baluster
Bottom rail
STANCHION TOP RAIL
Area 661 mm2 Area 585 mm2

CCD 99mm CCD 89mm
Shapefactor 298 Shape factor 334
BALUSTER BOTTOMRAIL
Area 215 mm2 Area 300 mm2

CCD 43mm CCD 74mm
Shapefactor 370 Shapefactor 370
115
The CCDs are wellwithin the capacityof most medium sized presses with container
diameters of 150 mm.
The shape factors are slightly above average,but still acceptable.
Thethicknesses have been checked out against Table 1.2 and are within the level
required for 6063 material.
A further check is necessaryon the top rail forboth the extrudabilityratios of the semi-
enclosedareaand the depth/width ratio of the side channels.
Large recess = 59 mm x 45 mm = 2655 mm2

Gap = 31 mm Gap2 = 961 mm2
Area/gap2 ratio = 2.76: 1
The section can be classed as a solid and the extrudability is acceptable.
Side channels Depth 17.5 mm

Gap = 3.5 mm
Depth/gapratio = 5:1
This is not acceptable so it is necessary to reduce the outer flange from 20 mm to

13 mm.
The internal depth of the channel is now 10.5 mm

Thedepth/gap ratio is now 3 : 1
This is now acceptable and the new top rail section details are as follows:
Area = 550 mm2

CCD = 89mm
Shape factor = 314
Section Properties
STANCHION - Area 661 mm2

Modulus Z 14190 mm3
Inertia I 496680 mm4
TOP RAIL - Area 550 mm2

(modified) Modulus Zy 11150 mm3
Inertia ly 423740 mm4
BOTTOMRAIL - Area 300 mm2

Modulus Zy* 5650 mm3
Inertia ly * 152500 mm4
*effective area values (less slot area)
116
BALUSTERS - Area 215 mm2
Modulus Z 1838 mm3
Inertia I 27600 mm4
Loading
STANCHIONS The load is appliedto the stanchionthrough the top rail.
Hence load 740N1M x 1.5M = 111ON
RAILS The loadfor the top and bottom rails is the same as thatfor the
stanchions.
Hence load = 111ON
BALUSTERS Central point load 500N
STANCHIONS Load Case Cantilever
f = ..WL
Z
= lllQNxllQOmm
14190 mm3
= 86.OON/mm2
TOP RAIL Load Case Two span, simply supported UDL
f = - YL. = lllONxl500mm =1886N/mm2

8Z 8 x11150mm3
BOTTOM RAIL Load Case Simply supportedUDL
f = WI. = lllONxl500mm = 36.BON/mm2

8Z 8x5650mm3
BALUSTERS Load Case Simply supported central point load
f = Y.L. = 500N x 100mm = 68.OON/mm2

4Z 4x1838mm3
117
From CP 118 "StructuralUseofAluminium",the allowablestress levelsfor6063 T6 are
as follows (see Tables 3.2 and 6.11)
Bending 96N/mm2
Shear 52N/mm2
Welded areas
Heat affected zones Bending 31N/mm2
Shear 19N/mm2
Welds (throatarea) 31N/mm2
Assessment of bending stresses.
STANCHIONS No welding. Allowablebendingstress 96N/mm2 Section acceptable
TOP RAIL Heat affected zone is in maximumbending position. Allowablestress

level 31N/mm2. Section acceptable.
BOTTOMRAIL Heat affected zone in maximumbending position. Allowablestress

level 31N/mm2. Section not acceptable - re-design
BALUSTER Heat affected zone clearof maximum bending position. Allowable

stress level 96N/mm2. Section acceptable.
54
Redesignof Bottom Rail.
Large bulbs placed at toesof flanges and merged into 2 mm thickness by 45 degrees
fillet to ease transition.
Newextrudabilityfactors
Area = 350 mm2

CCD = 74mm
Shape factor = 335
118
New geometric properties (effectiveless slot area)
ModulusZy = 6830mm3
Inertialy = 184410 mm4
Re-checkbending stress
= = lllONxl500mm =30.5Nfmm2
8Z 8 x6830
Allowablestress for heat affected zone material from Table 6.11
= 31N/mm2
New section acceptable.

Weld
Weld Strenath
Thebalustersare slottedintothetopchannelandwelded Baluster

in position. They stand on the top ofthe bottomchannel
web and arewelded intoposition.Thetopweldshold the
balusterin the line ofthe top rail and do notdirectlytake Weld 25mm each side
the full load. This is also the case at the bottom ofthe (no transversewelds)
balusterand itis reasonable, therefore, to consideronly
the bottom rail.
Consideraweld leg lengthof3mm. Thecriticaldimension

weld design isthe throat width. It isusual to define this Throat
dimensionas afractionof the leg length.
LegI
For 90degreesangle throat factor=0.7.
Weld
Throat width = 0.7 leg length = 2.1
Effectiveweld area = length of weld x throat width

5Ommx2.1 mm=105mm2
Shear load on weld = QQII = 250N/mm

2
Stress in weld = QJ = 2.3NImm2

105 mm2
Allowablestress in weld material = 19N/mm2
With such ahigh safety factor,the balustercan be weldedtothe bottom rail in a similar
manner to that at the top, on the longitudinalsides only.
Weld strengthacceptable,topand bottomwelds resistingdownwardloadwithtopweld

also resistingsideways load.
119
TIG WELDING
Electrode Filler Nozzle Argon Alt. Weld Weld

dia. rod dia. Bore flow current speed passes
mm mm mm Llmin A mm/mm
2.4 2.4 9.5 5.7 110 190 1
No edge preparation and no gap between sections.
Filler rod material - 4043

or 5356 This material would give better colour match after
anodising
Deflections.
STANCHIONS Load Case Cantilever
6 = WL3 = 1110x11003 = 15.14mm

3E1 3 x 65500 x 496680
TOP RAIL Load Case Two span, simply supported UDL
8 = WL3 = lllOx 1500 = 0.73mm

1 85E1 185 x 65500 x 423740
BOTTOM RAIL Load Case Simply supported UDL
8 = = 5x1110x15003 = 3.93mm
384EI 384x65500x 184410
BALUSTERS LoadCase load

central
Simplysupported
8 = 1.3 = 500x l000 = 5.70 mm

48E1 48 x 65500x 27600
Allowable Deflection.
BS6180sets out a maximumdeflectionstandardof 12 mm but calculatedon the basis

of:
Aoolied load + wind load
2
120
This requires a wind load assessmentto be made using BS CP3 chapter V "Wind
Loading". It is necessaryto know where the installationis to be, as thewind code lays
down a map of basic wind speeds related to area and on which the dynamic wind
pressure is based.
Birminghamand the West Midlandsare in the 44m/sec area.
This value is, however,factored for there are other considerations:
Si Topography (site exposure)

i
For urban areas the value is .00.
S2 Ground roughnessand height

For urban areas the value is 0.56 in this case.
S3 ProbabilitylevelsTheprobabilityofthe
maximumdesign wind speed being
exceeded. Theusualfactor is once in
50 years and the value is 1.00.
Wind speed is therefore:
44 x 1.00 x 0.56 x 1.00 = 25 m/s.
Dynamic Pressure = 383N/m2
Total area per panel span of balustrading
= 0.59m2
Wind load = 383 x 0.59 = 226N

The worst case is the stanchionwith an actual deflectionof 15.14 mm.
Therefore considerthe stanchion.
Code BS61 80 requiresthe deflectionto be consideredusing an equivalenttotal load

which equals:
Basic load + Wind load

2
121
And where the resultingdeflection should not exceed:
Span between stanchions

125
Equivalentdesign load = 111ON + 226N = 668N
2
Stanchion deflection with load 668N = 9.20 mm
Permissibledeflection = j.QQ = 12mm

125
Stanchion is acceptable.
It is obvious that allthe other sectionswill meet the deflectionstandard.
Temperature.
In hot sheltered sites thermal expansion should be considered and in general it is

preferable to fit expansionjoints in long runs of balustrading.
Assumed erection temperature 16°C
*Max surfacetemp. on aluminium 36°C
Temperature rise 20°C
*Thiswillvaryonthe degree of sun and wind as well as onthe colourofthe aluminium.
Thermal expansion of 6063 = 23.5 x 1 061°C
Fit expansion joints at 15 metre intervals
Expansion = 23.5 x 10-6 x 20°C x 15000 mm

= 7.1 mm
Stress induced in the rails if this expansion is not relieved can be obtained from:
Stress = E
Strain
= 69000M/mm2 x 7.1 mm = 32.4N/mm2

15000mm
If expansionjoints are not fitted, the 32.4N/mm2stress will be absorbedaxially down

the rail. To check the ability of the rail to withstand this stress it will be necessary to
calculatethecombined bendingand axial compressionin asimilarmannerto that given
122
inthe columnexamplepage 11.20. The bottom rail, however,is performingvery close
to its allowable stress level e.g. 30.5N/mm2 to 31.ON/mm2. Therefore it will not
withstandthe extratemperatureinducedstress. Expansionjoints at 15 metre intervals
are therefore necessary.
The above proposed design meets all the requirementsof BS 6108 and is therefore
acceptable.
Columns
a) An aluminium alloy column, 1 metre long, is fixed and restrained at both ends.
The cross section is a 50 mm x 50 mm x 2 mm hollow box and subjectedto a
62 kN concentric load. It is necessaryto confirmthe most appropriate alloy and
temper.
Section Properties
Section Area 384 mm2

Section Modulus 5910 mm3
Radius of gyration 19.6 mm
Actual axial stress f = Load

Cross sectional area
= 62000 = 161.5N/mm2
384
As the column is rigidly held at both endsthe effective length from Table 3.3
= o.7L = 700 mm
X = Effective Lenath = 700 mm = 35.7

Radiusof gyration 19.6 mm
Using this value in the strut curve Fig 3.3 the 35.7 vertical ordinate gives the
permissible axial stress for a numberof alloys and tempers.
Pc = 163N/mm2 for 2014A T6
A 50 x 50 x 2 mm box hollow in 2014A T6 is acceptable.
b) If the load in the above column is offset by 10 mm, will the column still be strong
enough?
Theloadeccentricitywill inducebending stressesas well as axial stressesintothe

column.
123
The simplestwayto checkistoconsiderthe axial and bendingstressesindividually
and then check against the requirementsof the combined stresses.
Theaxial stressat 161 .5N/mm2 is 99% or the permissiblestress of 163N/mm2so

there is obviously no allowance left for bending in the original section.
Increasesection size to 70 x 70 x 2.5 mm boxalloy 2014A T6.
Section properties
Section Area 675 mm2

Section Modulus 14670 mm3
Radius of gyration 27.6 mm
= 700mm = 25.4
27.6 mm
FromFig. 3.3 25.4 ordinatefor 2014AT6 Givesthepermissiblestress = 177N/mm2
Actual axial stress from concentric load
fc Load
Cross sectional area
= 62.000mm
675mm2
fc = 92N/mm2
Induced bendingstress = bcf

Moment = 62,000N x 10mm
= 620,000 N mm
f bc Moment
Section modulus
= 620.000N mm
14,670 mm3
f bc = 42.3N/mm2
Permissiblecompressive bending, stress for 2014A 16 from Table 3.2
= 202N/mm2
Individuallythe bending and axial stress levels are within thepermissiblestresses

laid down in BS CP 118, but the should be checked against combined stress
allowances.
124
For combined bending and axial compression
+ I bc must not exceed 1

Pc Pbc(1-J
Pe
Where fPcc axial compressivestress

permissibleaxial compressivestress
5 bc compressivestressesdue to bending
Pbc permissiblebending compressivestress
Pe Euler critical stress for buckling
where Pe =
Pe it2 x 72.400 = 1108N!mm2

25.42
fc = 92N/mm2
Pc = 177N/mm2
5 bc = 42.3N/mm2
Pbc = 202N/mm2
Combined stresses = .52 + .23 < 1

= .75 < 1
New 70 x 70 x 2.5 mm box section in 2014A T6 is within combined stress
requirementsin BS CP 118.
Further modificationscould be carried out by reducingthe size of the section in

order to obtain a moreefficientsolution and thereby approximatingthe combined
stress ratios towards unity.
125
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Term Definition
Ageing Precipitationfrom solid solution resulting in a change in properties

of an alloy, usually occurring slowly at room temperature (natural
ageing)and morerapidlyat elevatedtemperatures(artificialageing).
Angularity Conformity to, or deviation from, specified angular dimensions in

the cross sectionof a shape or bar.
Annealing Thermal treatment intended to soften a metal or alloy hardened by

cold work or artificialageing.
Anodizing An electrochemicalmethod of producing an integral oxide film on

aluminium surfaces. See Section 5.
Anodizing Describes material with characteristics that make it suitable for

Quality decorative anodizingaftersuitable preliminary treatment.
Billet A cast aluminiumproductsuitableforsubsequentextruding.Usually

of circular cross-sectionbut also may be rectangular.
Bow The deviation, in the form of an arc, of the longitudinal axis of a

product.
Bright A process used to obtain highly reflective and bright anodized

anodizing surfaces using alloy 6463.
Buffing A mechanical finishing operations in which fine abrasives are

appliedto a metal surfaceby rotatingfabric wheels for the purpose
of developing a lustrousfinish.
Burr Athin ridgeorroughnessleftby a cutting operationsuch as routing,

punching, drilling and sawing.
Chemical Treatment to improve the reflectivity of a surface.

brightening
Circumscribing (CCD)A circlethatwilljust containthe crosssection of an extrusion,

circle diameter usually designatedby its diameter.
127
Cold work Plastic deformation of metal at such temperature and rate that
strain hardeningoccurs.
Concavity A concave departure from flat.
Concentricity Conformityto acommoncentre as, for example, the inner and outer
walls of round tube.
Container A hollow cylinder in an extrusion press from which the billet is

extruded.
Conversion Treatment of materialwith chemicalsolutionsby dippingorspraying

coating to increasethe surface adhesion of paint. See Section 5.
Corrosion Thedeteriorationof a metal bychemicalor electrochemicalreaction

with its environment. See Section 4.
Direct extrusion A process in which a billet in the containeris forced under pressure
through an aperture in a stationary die.
Drift test A routine samplingtestcarried outon hollow sectionsproducedby

bridge or porthole methods, in which a tapered mandrel is driven
into the end of the section until it tears or splits.
Drawing The process of pulling material through a die to reduce the size,
change the cross section or shape, or work harden the material.
Etching Theproductionof a uniform mafl finish by controlled chemical (acid

or alkali), treatment.
Etching test Thetreatment of a sample using a chemical reagentto reveal the

macro-structureof the material.
Extrusion ratio The ratio of the cross-sectionalareaof the extrusion container to

that of the extrudedsection (or sections in the case of multi-cavity
dies).
Fillet A concave junction betweentwo surfaces.

Flutes Longitudinalconcavecorrugationswith sharpcusps betweenthem
used to break up the surface decoratively.
Free machining An alloy designedto give small broken chips, superiorfinish and/or
alloy longer tool life.
Full heat Solution treatment followed by artificial ageing.

treatment
128
Grain growth The coarsening of the grain structure occurring under certain
conditionsof heating.
Grain size The mean size of the grain structure usuallyexpressed in terms of
the numberof grains per unit area or as the mean grain diameter.
Hardness The resistanceof a metaltoplasticdeformationusuallybycontrolled

indentation.
Heat treatable An alloy capable of being strengthenedby suitable heat treatment.

alloy
Homogenization A high temperature soaking treatment to eliminate or reduce

segregationby diffusion.
Indirect extrusion A process wherebya moving die locatedat the end of a hollow ram
is forced against a stationary billet.
Mean diameter The sum of any two diameters at right angles divided by two.
Mean wall The sum of the wallthickness of tube measureat the ends of any
thickness two diametersat right angles, divided by four.
Mechanical Those propertiesof a material that are associatedwith elastic and

properties inelasticreactionwhenforce isapplied,orthatinvolvethe relationship
between stress and strain. These properties are often incorrectly
referred to as physical" properties.
Modulus of The ratio of stress to corresponding strain throughout the range

Elasticity wherethey are proportional.Also referredto as "Young'sModulus".
Modulus of The ratiooftheunit shearstress,inatorsion test,tothe displacement

Rigidity caused by it per unit length in the elastic range.
Non-heat An alloy incapable of being strengthenedby thermal treatment.

treatable
Ovality The departureof the cross section of a round tube, bar or wire from
a true circle.
Percentage The increase in distance between two gauge marks that results
elongation from stressing the specimen in tension to fracture.
Physical The properties,other than mechanical,that pertain to the physics

properties of a material;for example, density, electrical conductivity,thermal
expansion.
129
Pitting Localised corrosion resulting in small pits or craters in the metal
corrosion surface. See Section 4.
Porthole die An extrusion die that incorporatesa mandrelas an integral part of

itsassembly. Bridgeand spider are specialforms of this typeofdie,
which are used to produce extruded hollow products from solid
extrusion billets.
Proof stress The level of stress used to signify the limit of proportionality
designated at the point of 0.2% strain for aluminium and it alloys.
See Section 3.
Quenching Controlled rapidcooling of a metalfrom an elevatedtemperatureby

contact with a liquid, gasor solid.
Residual stress That internalstresswhich is left in afinished productafterfabrication.
Sealing A treatment applied after anodizing to reduce the porosity of the

surface.
Segregation Non-uniform distribution or concentrationof impurities or alloying

constituentsthat arises during the solidificationof a billet.
Solution heat A thermal treatment in which an alloy is heated to a suitable

treatment temperature and held for sufficienttimeto allowsolubleconstituents
to enterintosolid solutionwheretheyare retainedinasupersaturated
state after quenching. See Section 2.
Stabilizing A thermal treatmentto reduce internalstresses in order to promote

dimensional and mechanical property stability.
Stepped An extrudedshapewhosecross sectionchangesabruptly in areaat

extrusion intervals along its length.
Stretching The straightening of extruded and drawn materials by imparting

sufficient permanentextensiontoremove distortion. Specificlevels
of stretching (permanent set) can be imparted to relieve internal
stresses.
Tempers Stable levels of mechanicalpropertiesproduced in a metal or alloy

by mechanical or thermal treatments.
Twist A winding departure from flatness.
Ultimate tensile The maximum stress which a material is capable of sustaining in
strength tension under a gradual and uniformly applied load.
130
Waterstains Superficial surface oxidization due to the reaction of water films
held betweenclosely adjacentmetal surfacessuch as nested angle
sections. The appearancevaries from iridescentin mild cases, to
white, grey or black in more severe instances.
ABBREVIATIONS
*N = = kiloaramme
E = Young's modulus of elasticity Newton
G = Torsion modulus gravity
r = Radius of gyration * P = Pascal
k = End fixity co-efficient = N/m2
= Slendernessratio = Micron
8 = Deflection t
P = Stress suffix - - tension
c - compression
* iN/mm2 = 1MPa
both terms are used to define stress
levels
131
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— a technical
design guide
LISTOF APPENDICES
No. Title
PageNo.
APPENDIX 1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 135
APPENDIX 2 BEAM STRESSAND

DEFLECTIONTABLES 139
APPENDIX 3 PREVIOUS
B.S. DESIGNATIONS 153
APPENDIX 4 COMPARISONOF NATIONAL

SPECIFICATIONS-WROUGHTALLOYS 155
APPENDIX 5 CHEMICALCOMPOSITION
LIMITS AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES 159
133
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in original
APPENDIX 1 - DESIGN CONSIDERATiONS
135
Thefollowing list containsmost potentialconsiderationslikelyto arise in the design of
aluminium extruded products.
ALLOY
TEMPER
MECHANICALPROPERTIES - 0.2% proof stress

Ultimate stress
% elongation
Compressive strength
Axial loading - column length
end fixing
load eccentricity
Shear stress
Bearing stress (jointing)
Surface hardness
Torsion
Fatigue
Stiffness
SECTION DESIGN - Size, shape and thickness

Production availabilityand section extrudability
Geometric properties
Weight
Tolerance
Value engineering
SURFACEFINISH - Mill
Etched
Shot blasted
Anodised - Natural
Colour (organic)
Colour (metallic)
AAthickness
Protective anodizing
Paint - Colour
Electrostatic(Powder Spray
or Wet Spray)
Electrophoretic(Wet Dip)
136
JOINING - Welding - TIG Filler wire
MIGJ
Gas Welding
Brazing
Rivetingi Bearing strength
Bolting I -
Choice of fastening material
Screw material and size
Screwing
Pull out strengths
Corner crimping
Adhesives - Type
Strength
Applicationdetails
FABRICATION - Bending - Alloy and temper

Tooling
Twisting
Necking
Springback
Machir;ing - Routing
Drilling
Sawing
TEMPERATURE - Expansion/Contraction
Effect on mechanicalproperties
CONDUCTIVITY - Heat transfer

Electrical
DURABILITY - Atmospheric - Environment - Rural

Marine
Industrial
Chemical - Substance
Concentration
Temperature
Compatibility - Design of Bi-metallic
connections
FIRE -
Melting point
Non-combusibility
Non-ignitability
Fire propogation
Surface spread of flame
Structuralresistance
137
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in original
APPENDIX 2- BEAM STRESSAND

DEFLECTIONTABLES
139
Stresses
Typeof Beam GeneralFormulafor StressesatCritical
Stress atany Point Points
Case 1.- Supportedat Both Ends,

UniformLoad
TOTAL LOAD W
Stress at centre,
If
-
cross-section is
s=- constant, this is the
fjfjjfijf4 maximumstress.
-
2 2
Case 2.- SupportedatBoth Ends, Betweeneachsupport Stress at centre,

Loadat Center andload,
If cross-section is
S= - constant, this is the
2Z maximumstress.
2 2
Case 3.- SupportedatBoth Ends, For segmentof length
Loadatany Point
Stressat load - wa
a,
5=-x
ZI If cross-section is
For segmentof length constant, this is the
b, maximumstress.
I I Way
ab1 S
—-
Case 4.- SupportedatBoth Ends, Between each support

andadjacentload,
--
TwoSymmetricalLoads
Stress at each load,
TId
w s= z andatallpointsbetween,
w
Wa
Between loads,
w w z
140
Deflections
GeneralFormulafor Deflection atany Point Deflections at CriticalPoints
Maximumdeflection,at centre,
W(I-) —— V3
24E11 '12÷x(I-x)J 384 El
Betweeneach supportandload,
Maximumdeflection,atload, WI3
4BEl (312-4x2) 4E7
For segmentoflength a, Deflectionatload, Wa2b2

3E II
Let a be the length of the shorter segment
—
6E11 (I2--b) and b of the longer one. The maximum
deflectionisin the longersegment,at
For segmentoflength b,
y=
Way
(12-v2-a2)
v= bv'jj = v1, and is
Betweeneach supportandadjacentload, Maximumdeflectionat centre,
- - Wa
=
6E I f3a (I a) x2)
'312-4a2)
Betweenloads, Deflectionatloads (3/-4a)

Wa
" 6E1 (3v(I-v)-a21
141
Stresses
Typeof Beam GeneralFormulafor Stressesat Critical
Stressatany Point Points
Case 5.- Both EndsOverhanging Foroverhangingendof Stress at support next

SupportsUnsymmetrically, length c, endoflength c,
UniformLoad Wc2
s— w X(c-u)2 2ZL
Criticalstressbetween
Betweensupports, supports isat
/2÷ c2- d2
X 2/ =1
L2ZL
C2Lx
TOTAL LOADW andis 2)
2ZL (C2- X7
Stress at supportnext
÷d2X(!X)} endoflengthd,
Foroverhangingendof Ld2
w 2ZL
2(/-d-c) 2! ÷d-c) lengthd, If cross-section is
constant, the greatest of
S=
2ZL
W
these three is the
maximumstress.
If x,>' the stress is
zero at points .f 2 - c2
on both sides of x =Xr
Case 6..- Both EndsOverhanging Between supports: Stress atload,

Supports, Loadatany Point For segmentoflength
7i
ba
a, Wa!)
Between
s=_x
ZI
If cross-section is
For segmentoflength constant, this is the
maximumstress.
b,
I
S7f Way
(a+b=I)
Beyondsupportss=o.
142
Defiections
GeneralFormulafor Deflectionatany Point Deflections at CriticalPoints
For overhangingend of length c,
Wv
24E1L (21(d2÷2c2) Deflectionatend c,
i-6c2u-u2(4c-u)-13J
24E1L (21(d2÷ 2c2)÷3c3-13J
Betweensupports, Deflectionatend d,
Wx (I -x) I'
24E1L x(I-9+I2--2(d2÷c2)
24E1L (21(c2÷ 2d2)÷3d3-131
- fd÷ c2(Ix)J}
Thiscase is socomplicatedthatconvenient
For overhangingendoflength d, generalexpressionsforthe critical deflections
betweensupportscannotbeobtained.
)24EILt2+2c)
÷6d2w-w2(4d-w)-13J
Between supports, same as Case 3. For

overhangingend oflength c, Between supports,same asCase 3.
Wabu Deflectionatend c,
y= Wabc
For overhangingend oflength d, Deflectionatendd,

+
6EII (I a)
y = - WaLw (1÷ a)
143
Stresses
Type of Beam General Formulafor Stressesat Critical
Stress at any Point Points
Case 7.- Both Ends Overhanging Between load and Stress at support
Supports, Single Overhanging adjacent support, adjacentto load,
Load WC
W(c - U) z
If cross-section is
-
Between supports,
Wc - constant, this is the
S= (I x) maximum stress.
Stress is zero at other
Between unloadedend support.
andadjacentsupport, s
= 0.
Case 8.- Both Ends Overhanging Between each load

Supports, Symmetrical Overhanging and adjacentsupport, Stress atsupports and
Loads at all points between,
s= W
w --(c-u) Wc
w 1
Between supports
W W
S=
-
Wc If cross-section is
constant, this is the
maximum stress.
Case 9.- Fixed at One End, Stress at support,

Uniform Load
W
TOTAL LOAD W
thi-2 --WI
If cross-section is
maximumstress.
144
Deflections
General Formulafor Deflection at any Point Deflectionsat Critical Points
Between load and adjacent support,
Wu
Deflectionat load, !.1
3EI (a + I)
all (3cu-u2÷2c!)
Between supports, Maximum upward deflection is at

Wc12
Wcx x=042265I, and 5
Y= —y (I-x)(2I-x) 15.55E1
Betweenunloadedendandadjacentsupport, Deflectionat unloaded end, WcId

Wc/w
y=
Betweeneach load and adjacent support,

Deflections at loads, -W- (2c + 3/)
6EI
= (3c(I + U) - u2]
Between supports,y
2E1 (I-x)
Deflection at center, —
7
Wa!2
The above expressions involve the usual approximationsof the theory of flexure, and hold
only for smalldeflections. Exact expressionsfor deflectionsofany magnitudeare as follows:
a
Between supports the curve is circle ofradius r=E
Wc
y = V'r2 1/412 /2 (l/2 I- x)2
Deflectionat centre, /r - /
__________
2 2-
y= 24E1!
-'--—f2! + (2!- x)2] Maximumdeflection,at end, WI3
8E1
145
Stresses
Type of Beam General Formulafor Stresses at Critical
Case 10. - Fixed at One End, Load

at Other Stress at support,
W
s=
wI( w -y (i-x) If cross-section is
maximum stress.
Case 11. - Fixed at One End, Between support and

IntermediateLoad load, Stress at support,
S = W
Z If cross-section is
wI constant, this is the
Beyondload, s = o. maximum stress.
Case 12. - Fixed at OneEnd, Maximumstress at

Supportedat the Other, Uniform Load wi
point of fixture,y
r
Stress is zero at
TOTAL LOAD W
S1)r/4Ix)
2Z1 =V4L
Greatest negative
stress isatx=6/.Iand
5
9 WI
146
Deflections
General Formulafor Deflectionat any Point Deflectionsat Critical Points
(3!-x) Maximumdeflection,at end,

y
Y= -
Betweensupport and load,
(31-x)
Between unloadedendandadjacentsupport,
Deflections at load,
Maximumdeflection,at end,
WI3
WI2
(2! ÷ 3b)
y= (3v -I)
Maximumdeflection is at x = 05785I,
and is Y?I_
185E I
W2 (I -x) Deflection at center,
=
48E (31- 2x) 192E I
Deflection at point of greatest negative
— us WI3
stress, atX= 8 187E1
147
Stresses
Type of Beam General Formulafor Stressesat Critical
Case 13. - Fixed at One End, Between point of Maximum stress at

Supportedat the Other, Load at Center fixture and load, point offixture, 3 14'!
16 Z
s= w lix)
-(3I- Stress is zero at
I
w
Between support and
load,
x= 3 I -
Greatest negative
16 5 Wv stress at center, 5 Wi
s=_T Z 32Z
Case 14. - Fixed at One End, Between point of Greatest positive
Supported at the Other, Load at fixture and load, stress, at point offixture,
any Point
m_—(I÷a)(I+b)+a/ s= Wb
2(n-mx)
/2
V.P(J÷)
n=aI(I÷b) Greatest negative
stress, at load,
Between support and Wa2b
load, 2Z13
(3!- a)
Wab(/÷b)
2/2 -Wa 2v If a <0.5858 I, the first
s= 2(3Ia) isthe maximumstress. If
a = 0.5858!, the two are
a2 wa2(31-a) equal and are
5.83Z
w[i--(sI-a)] 2I Ifa 0.5858 I, the
second is the maximum
stress.
Stress is zero atX = n
Case 15. - Fixedat Both Ends, Maximum stress at

Uniform Load ends, WI
TOTAL LOAD W
s= Will x x 21 Stress is zero at
x=0-78871 and at
x=O.2li31
Greatest flegativewi
2 2 stress, atcentre, -
148
Deflections
General Formulafor Deflectionat any Point Deflections at Critical Points
Between support and load,

Maximumdeflectionisatv=0.4472
W2 I, and is WI3
=
96E (9!- lix) 107.33E I
Between supportand load,
Deflectionat load, i_
768
!tV
El
Wv
96E1 (312-5v2)
Between point of fixture and load,
Wx2b Deflectionat load, Wa3b2

(3! + b)
12E113
12E1/3 (3n-mx) If a < 0.5858 1, maximum deflection is
Betweensupport and load, between load and support, at
Wa2v
12E1/3 1312b-v2(3!-a)J
v=!/andis 21÷b
6E1
Ifa=0.58581, maximumdeflectionisatload
and is WI3
1Oi.9E I
Ifa>0.5858!,maximumdeflectionisbetween
load and point of fixture, at
2n Wbn3
and
'53EIm2I3
Maximumdeflection,at centre,
Wx2
24E1! (/-x)2
—
384E1
149
Stresses
Typeof Beam GeneralFormulafor Stressesat Critical
Stress atany Point Points
Case 16.- Fixedat Both Ends, Stress at end next

Loadatany Point segmentoflength a,
Wab2
r2
For segmentoflength Stress at end next
a, segmentoflength b,
Wab2 Wab Wa2b
/2 s= Z12
3(aI-x(I÷2a)] Maximum stress is at
Forsegmentoflength end next shorter
b, segment.
Tb2(/2)
fT Wa2(/2;f -
Stress is zero for
S
32(bI V(I+ 2b)j a! =
I÷2b
Greatest negative
stress, atload
2Wa2b2
---p-
Case 17. - ContinuousBeam,with
TwoEqualSpans, EqualLoads
atCenterof Each
TOTAL LOAD ON EACH SPAN,W
J'I-j)
- (I/i)
2Z!
pointA, WI
-
Maximum stress at
Stress is zero at
x=4I
--
Greatest negative
stressisatx=5/5! and
Case 18. - ContinuousBeam,with

-_____
Between point A and
is,_ 9 WI
Maximumstress at
TwoEqualSpans, EqualLoads pointA, 3 WI
load,
atCenterofEach 16 Z
s= w Stress is zero at
w j-(3I-llx) 3
Between point B and X
load, Greatestnegative
5iT 5 Wv stressatcenterof span
----r
5 WI
150
Deflections
GeneralFormulafor Deflectionatany Point Deflections atCritical Points
Deflectionatload, Wa
For segmentoflength a,
Letb bethe length ofthelongersegmentand
2b2
(2a(I-x)÷I(a-x)] aoftheshorterone.
The maximum deflection is in the longer
For segmentof length b, segment,at
= Wv2a2 (2b (I- v) + I(b - v)J

6EJ/3
V12N
and is
3E I(I÷ 2b)2
2Wa2b3
Maximum deflectionisatx=0.5785!, and is

WI3
185E1
Deflectionatcenterofspan, WI3
- Wv2(I-)
—
48EII '3/ - 2Xi 192EI
Deflectionatpointofgreatestnegative
stress, atx £
8
I is WI3
187E1
BetweenpointA andload,
Maximumdeflectionis at v=0.4472!, andis
W
y= -j.(9I-11x)
WI3
107.33E1
Betweenpoint Bandload,
= wv Deflectionatload, L !!
El
768
9J(3I 2-5v2)
151
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APPENDIX3- PREVIOUSBS DESIGNATIONS
153
PREVIOUS B.S. DESIGNATIONS
(PROPERTIESIN IMPERIAL UNITS)
OLD NEW 0.2 % ULT. % ELONG

B.S. B.S. TEMPER PROOF STRESS STRESS ON
NUMBER NUMBER OLD NEW TONS/IN2 TONS/IN2 50 MM
HE9 M F 6.5 12
HE9 6063 TB T4 4.5 8.5 14

-
HE9 TE T5 7.1 9.7 7
HE9 IF T6 10.4 12.0 7
HE3O M F 7.5 12
1
HE3O 6082 TB 14 7.8 12.4 14
HE3O TF 16 16.5 19.1 7
E91E 6101A TF T6 11.3 13.3 8
BTRE6 6463 TF T6 10.4 12.0 9
HE15 2014A TB 14 15.3 24.7 10
HE15 TF T6 24.7 29 6
6063A TB T4 6.0 10.0 12
6063A TE 15 10.4 13.3 7
6063A IF 16 12.6 15.3 7
Thesedesignations andproperties areforguidanceonly. All orders are manufactured

to the existing British Standards alloy numbers and tested in metric units.
154
APPENDIX 4- COMPARISON OF
NATIONALSPECIFICA11ONS
155
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in original
BS and FormarBS Franca WantGermany
Alloy Type as Depicted
International by Old ISO Number Designation FormerNF WerkstottNumber DIN Designation Italy Sweden Switcerland USSR InternationalNumber
1OSOA A199-S lB A5 3.0255 A199 5 144007 A199,5 10505
1080A A199-5 IA AS 144004 1080A
1199 1 A99 1199
1200 A199 1C A4 3.0205 Al99 UN13567 144010 A199.0 1200

1350 1E A5/L 3.0257 E-Al E-Al99,S 1350
2011 Al Cu 6 Di Fb EC1 A-U 5 Pb Bi 3.1655 Al Cu Si Pb UN16362 144355 Al Cu 6 Bi Pb 2011
2014A Al Cu 4Si Mg H15 A-U4SG 3,1255 Al Cu Si Mn UN13SO1 144338 Al Cu 451 Mn AK8 20145
.
20175 AICu 4Mg Si A-U4G 3.1325 AlCuMgi 2017A
2024 Al Cu 4Mg 1 2L 97, 2L 98, L 109, Li 10 A-U4GI 3,1355 Al Cu Mg2 LJN13583 Al Cu 4Mg 1.5 1316 2024
DTO 5100A
—
2031 H12 A-U2N 2031
2117 Al Cu 2 Mg 3L86 A-U 20 3.1305 Al Cu Mg 0.5 UN13577 1318 2117

2218 7L25 2218
26185 H16 A-U2GN AK4-1 26185
3103 Al Mn 1 N3 3,0515 Al Mn UN13568 144054 Al Mn 3103

3105 N31 3.0505 Al Mn 0.5 Mg 0,5 3105
01 4043 N21 A-S 5 4043
4047 142 A-S 12 4547
5005 Al Mg 1 1441. A-C 0.6 UN15764 144106 Al Mgi 5005

50565 51Mg 5 N6 3.3555 Al Mg 5 U14l13576 50585
5083 Al Mg 4.5 Mn N8 A-C 4.5 MC 33547 Al Mg 4.5 Mn UN17790 144140 Al Mg 5 5083
5154A 145 UN13575 AMG3 5154A

5251 Al Mg 2 N4 A-G 2 M 3.3525 Al 0201
Mg 2 Mn 0.3 Al Mg 2
5454 Al Mg 3.6 1451 A-G 2,5 MC 3.3537 Al Mg 21 Mn UN17789 Al Mg 2.7 Mn 5454
—
5554 1452 5554
55565 N61 55565
6061 AIM5IS1Cu H20 A-CSUC UN16170 AD3 6061
6063 Al Mg 0.5 Si H9 UN13569 144104 AD3I 6063

6082 AISi I Mg Mn H30 A-SG M0.7 3.2315 Al Mg Si 1 UN13571 144212 Al Mg Sil Mn 6082
6101A 916 Al Mg Si 0.5 6101A
6463 E6 6463
7010 DTD0I3O:5120A 7010
—
7014 DTD 5025: 5104A: 50945 7014
—
7020 Al Zn 4.5 Mg Hi7 A-Z 5 G 3.4335 Al Zn Mgi UN17791 Al Zn 45Mg 1 7020
7075 Al Zn 6Mg Cu 2L95;L160;L161; L162 A-Z 5G U 3.4365 Al Zn Mg Cu 1.5 UN13735 Granges Al Zn 6Mg Cu 1 5 V95 7075
SM 6958
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in original
APPENDIX 5- CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

LIMITS AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
159
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in original
'1 and mechanical properties °1 of heat-treatable Aluminium alloy bars, extruded round tube and sections
Chemical composition limits
(Figures in parentheses refer to the notes at the end of this table) ________
— (bar) or proof strength
Each Total thickness stress
(tube! (mm.) Mm. Max, On On
section) 5.65 'JSo 50 mm
Other — — (rrrin.( (mn.)
Material
Smlioon iron Chromium Nickel Zinc restrictions Titanium Aluminium
designation Coppe Manganese Magnesium
% ¾ ¾ % ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ mm mm N/mm' N/mm' N/mm' % ¾

% % ¾ ¾
- Rent. T4 - 150 60 120 - 16 -
6060 0.30- 0.10- 0.10 0.10 0.35- 0.05 0_is 0_to 005 0.15
T5 150 100 145 - 8 -
060 030 0.60 - -
T6 - 150 150 190 8
- - 0.05 0.15 Rem. T4 - 150 itS 190 - 16 14

0.70 0.15- 0.15 0.80- 0.04- 0.25 0.15
6061 0,40-
0.40 120 035 T6
080 - iSO 240 280 - 8 7
T65i0
- 200 . - 140 15 13
0.20- 0.35 0_to 0.10 0.45- 0.10 - 0_ia 0.10 0.05 0.15 Rent. 0
6063 -
F - 200 -
0.90 (100) (13) (12)
0.60 - 16 14
T4 5 - 150 70 130
- 13 -
150 200 70 120
- - 8 7
T5 25 110 150
T6 - 150 160 195 - 8 7
I
150 - 6 -
l, iSO 205 130
- ' 0.10 0,05 0.15 Rent T4 - 25 90 150 - 14 12

6063A 0.30- 0.15- atO 075 0,50- 005 015
a) 090 T5 - 25 160 200 - 8 7
060 035 - - 8 7
T6 25 190 230
- - 0.15 Rem. 0 - 205 ' - 170 16 14

6082 0.70- 0.50 0.10 0.40- 0.60- 025 0.20 0.15 0.05
F - 200 - (100) - (13) (12)
130 1.00 1.20 -
T4 - 150 120 190 16 14
150 200 100 170 - 13 -
- 6 230 270 - 8
T5
T6 - 20 255 295 - 8 7
T65t0 20 ISO 270 310 - 8 -
150 200 240 280 - S -
- - - . - 0.10 Rem. T6 - . 170 200 - 10 8

6101A 030- 0.40 0.05 - 0,40- 0.03
070 090
- - - - 0.05 0,15 Rent. T4 - 50 78 125 - 16 14
6463 0,20- 0.15 0.20 005 0.45- 005
T6 - 50 150 185 - tO 9
060 0.90
0.20 0.15 0.05 0,15 Rem. - 20 230 370 - ii 10

20i4A 0.50- 0,50 3.90- 0.40- 0.20- 0.10 0.10 0,25
20 75 250 390 - -
0.90 5 00 1.20 0.60 Zr eTi T4 ii
75 150 250 390 - 8 -
150 200 230 370 - 8 -
- 20 370 435 - 7 6
- 7 -
T6 20 75 435 480
T65i0 7S 150 420 465 - 7 -
- 7 -
150 200 390 435
- - 0.15 Rent T4 - 25 190 300 -— 12 10

0.35 0.40 0.20 0.05- 1.00- 0,10- 4.00- 008-0.25 0.05
7020 - -
0.50 1.40 0.35 5.00 Zr Ti T6 25 280 340 10 8
( INDIVIDUAL PERCENTAGE VALUESOF CONSTITUANTSARE MAXIMUM

(2) ALL MECHANICALPROPERTIESARE TYPICAL. BARS
(3) TEMPER T6510 APPLIES ONLY TO CONTROLLEDSTRETCHINGOF SOLID
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in original
Aluminiumextrusions are used in a wide variety of engineering
and architectural applications. As a strong, light, non-corrosive
material which can be extruded into complex shapes, aluminium
provides the solution to a whole range of design problems.

This concise technical guide provides the reader with the
information necessary to design effectively with aluminium
extrusions. It presents brief details on the extrusion process,
outlines aluminium's material specifications and mechanical
properties and covers such design considerationsas conductivity,
temperature, fabrication and finishing. The book also contains
specific guidance on design procedure, including worked
examples, and concludeswith an extensiveglossary.
"It's a true working manual...a must for every

drawing office which uses or might use
aluminium extrusions"
Chris Rand, Industrial Technology magazine
"A valuable document...four star rating out of

fve"
Andy Pye, Design Engineering magazine
"A much needed source of reference"

Roy Woodwarci,Aluminium Industry magazine
Published by The Shapemakers — the information arm of the UK
Aluminium ExfrudersAssociation
Aluminium

Aluminium-Extrusions-Technical-Design-Guide Pag20 92 124

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TheShapemakers Information Service

Tel: 021 4562276

PUBLISHED BY THE SHAPEMAKERS

First published October1989 Reprinted July 1991 Reprinted August 1994

Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press Ltd

— Part 1: Code of Practice for Design

The New Code

= overall resistance factor

Therecommendation fordeflection levels hasnot changed, but a word of caution is

Full supporting data including mathematical formulae relevanttothe design calcula-

Codes referred to: BS 8118 Part 1: 1991Codeof Practice for Design

These are available from:

Aluminium is a highly versatile, light and strongmaterial whichcanbe produced in a

Comprising 8% of the earth's crust, aluminium is a plentiful resource. It is a

The Shapemakers was established by the Aluminium Extruders Association

This technical design guide contains a wealth of information on aluminium itself,

Forreasonsofclarity, onlysix alloys have been incorporated intothemainbody of

Chairman of The Shapemakers

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 127

SECTION 1 - PRINCIPLESOF EXTRUSION

Title Page No.

Fig No. Title Page No.

1.1 TheDirect ExtrusionProcess 4

1.2 TheDiffering Operating

1.3 Extrusion of a Hollow Section 6

1 .4 Thick to Thin Transitionsin

1.6 SlotAspect Ratios 10

1.7 Standard Section Types 11

1.1 Shape Factor Value 8

1.2 A Guide to MinimumThickness 9

1.3 Toleranceson Diameter of Round

1.4 Toleranceson Widths Across

1.5 Toleranceson Diameter of

1.6 Toleranceson Diameter or Width

1.8 PermittedCorner Radii 15

1 .9 Toleranceson Wall Thicknesses

1.10 Toleranceson Thicknessof

1.11 Toleranceson Open End of

1.12 Tolerances on the Outside

1.13 Toleranceson Thicknessof

1 .14 Toleranceson Straightnessfor

1.15 Toleranceson Length for All

1 .16 Tolerances on Concavity

1 .17 Toleranceon Twist for Extruded

Ram cross head

Fig. 1.1 - The Direct Extrusion Process

Afterextrusionthe section is guided downthe table by a puller on to a slatted moving

A bridgeor 'port-holedie' is usuallyusedto makehollowsections.Asolid billet isforced,

Some caution must be exercised, howeverwherethin hollowsections are required in

Bridge Mandrel nose

Fig. 1.3 - Extrusionof a Hollow Section

Aluminium alloys offer a wide range of performance characteristics and important

Extrusion ratio isthe valueobtained bydividingthe cross-sectionarea ofthe extrusion

With lowvaluesof 7or under,there isvery littleworkingofthe materialduringextrusion.

In some casesthe extrusionratiocanbe improvedby usinga multi-holedie. Inthecase

The resistanceof a sectionto extrusioncan be influencedby the shapefactor. This is

SectionType CCD Thickness Shape Factor

L 142 2.5 300

210 2.0 285

Iii 11J 140 2.0/6.0 183

The sizeofanextrudedshape is determinedbythediameterof thecircumscribingcircle

The section, should, as far as possible, be distributedaroundthe centre of the CCD.