Chapter Two

Types and levels of communication

There are different types of communication when we categorized based on media and
organization.

2.1. Types of Communication Based on Media

When classified based on media we have verbal communication and non-verbal communication.

Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is communication through words. The words could be either spoken or
written. A message can be communicated using words (verbal communication). Some key
components of verbal communication are sound, words, speaking and language.

Written Communication

Written communication can be paper based such as letters and memorandum or electronic
documents such as e-mail, SMS, and text chats. Any communication using written words is
written communication. The use of written communication is almost indispensable for formal
business communication and legal instructions. Commonly used written communication includes
books, brochures, contracts, memorandum, press releases and reports. To make written
communication effective, appropriate writing styles, grammar, and vocabulary and in general the
principles of effective communication should be applied.

Oral Communication

Oral communication is communication using spoken words. Spoken words can be used in face to
face conversation, telephone conversation, video conference, lectures and the like. The
effectiveness of oral communication depends on the clarity of speech, volume, speed and the use
of non-verbal communication.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Oral and Written Communication

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Advantages of oral communication

a. Immediate feedback
b. Time saving- it is very fast and it saves time
c. Economical- saves money needed for stationary etc.
d. Personal touch
e. Flexibility-gives opportunity to adjust the speech, the word use etc.
f. Group communication- makes group communication such as meetings easier
Disadvantage of oral communication
a. Poor retention- receivers cannot retain oral messages in their memory for a long period.
b. No record for future reference and evidence.

Advantage of written communication

a. Wide access- not limited by the distance between a sender and a receiver
b. Precision and accuracy- written massages are usually prepared with due care
c. Permanent record- repeated reference and legal evidence
Disadvantage of written communication
a. Time consuming- preparation and sending the message
b. Costly
c. Rigidity- on the spot adjustment and clarification of points cannot made
d. Delayed feedback
Non Verbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is sending and receiving messages without the use of words. It can be
intentional or unintentional.
Better than the verbal communication, non-verbal communication reveals the sender’s feelings,
likings and preferences more spontaneously and honestly.
Nonverbal communication highly influences face to face communication. Various research
findings show that more than 50% of the face to face communication is non-verbal. Types of
non-verbal communication includes (but is not limited to) eye contact, volume of speech, dress,
personal space between communicators (proximity), posture, time, silence, pictures, paintings,
signs, symbols and gestures. Various cultures have different non-verbal language and effective
communication across cultures requires understanding of these non-verbal languages. There are,
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however, some non-verbal communication types that are believed to be common in most
cultures. These include expression of happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise and so on.
Some nonverbal communication types in different cultures
➢ Personal space (proximity) - the definition of appropriate space between communicators
differs from culture to culture. For instance, Americans do not get too close unless they
are among close friends, husband, wife, family members, relatives, etc. Arabs, on the
contrary, stand very close to each other.
➢ Eye contact- in face to face communication eye contact enables us to maintain and
regulate interaction. In western and other cultures it is considered as a positive quality.
But the period for which the eye contact is to be maintained should be brief. Otherwise it
may send a message that you did not want to send. In Arabic culture prolonged eye
contact is a sign of trust and truthfulness. In Japan, some parts of Africa, Latin America
and the Caribbean, however, avoidance of eye contact shows respect.
➢ Dress- how one is dressed has various meanings in different situations. The important
point here is to know what appropriate dressing for the particular context is.
➢ Posture- the way in which someone sits, stands, etc.
Bowing for instance is not common in the US. But it shows respect in Japan. You can
think of what the meaning of bowing is in Ethiopia or your particular culture.
A hand in pocket- is disrespectful in Turkey.
➢ Gestures- body movement.
Some cultures are said to be animated i.e. people move their hands and other parts of
body more frequently than other in other cultures.
Various cultures have different gestures to say the same thing. For instance to point to
something or a place people in some cultures use their index finger while others use the
entire hand.
➢ Facial expression- the facial expressions during crying, smiling, anger etc may be
similar across cultures. Some cultures encourage exaggeration of facial expressions
some others suppression of them.
➢ Time- Punctuality, lateness, waiting before entering an office or a room, choosing the
appropriate time to make phone calls all are related to time and have clear meanings to
communicate.

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 ➢ Silence- absence of sound; complete quite can serve many functions. It can have
different meanings according to the context in which it is used.
Among other things, it can mean hostility/unfriendliness, disagreement, respect,
rudeness and so on.
➢ Paralanguage- the way in which we say (speak) words. It is, among others, about
volume and speed of speech.
Usually, high volume and fast speech may show anger or excitement. Soft and slow
speech may show sadness.
2.2. Types of communication from point of view of organization
We have two types of communication when we classify it based on organization. These are
formal communication and informal communication.
Organizational communication is communication within an organization. It is communication
among members of an organization. It is also about who communicates with whom and through
what channels etc.
Formal communication
Formal communication is communication through official channels. Some characteristics of
formal communication are:
✓ It is intentional, planned
✓ It can be depicted on an organizational chart
✓ It is directly related to organizational goals
✓ It is communication between or among organizational positions
✓ It is further divided in to horizontal, vertical and diagonal communication

Horizontal communication

It is communication between or among people (employees) of the same levels (positions). It may
include communication of a middle level manager with another middle level manager or
communication between two non-managers. Horizontal communication can occur within a
department or across departments. Task coordination and information sharing related messages
are communicated through this type of communication.

Vertical communication (upward communication and downward communication)

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 Upward communication- is transmission of messages from lower to higher levels. For instance,
a first level manager must communicate with a middle level manager or a non-manager may
communicate with a first level manager. Usually, the messages transmitted through this type of
communication are job related problems, grievances and suggestions for improvement.

Downward communication- is communication that flows from upper to lower levels. It can be a
communication from top level manager to a middle level manager or from a middle level
manager to a first level manager. Instructions, orders, directives and procedures are among the
common types of messages that are communicated through this type of communication.

Diagonal communication

It is communication between or among people of different levels and departments (functional

areas). Diagonal communication is said to be more efficient and fast.

Top level

Down

Middle level Middle level Hor Middle level

i
Dia Up

1st level 1st level 1st level

Informal communication

It is a communication, which is not deliberately designed by the organization. It is rather created

by informal groups in order to satisfy their needs to interact and share information among
themselves. In the informal communication, information flows in unstructured and unpredictable
ways.

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 Informal communication is also known as grapevine or grapevine communication. The following
are some of the characteristics of informal communication.

➢ It is spontaneous i.e. it is not planned or managed

➢ It is more relaxed/ flexible/ informal with no rigid rules
➢ It is quick
➢ It doesn’t have specific channels
➢ It has no topic, time, or place boundaries

The messages communicated through the grapevine are considered as rumor or gossip. But
various researches have shown that more than 70% of the information communicated through the
grapevine is accurate.

Why do the owners/workers of gas station at Addis Ababa turn off the lights in their gas stations
and tell their customers that they don’t have fuel? This is because they have got some
information (mostly accurate) through the grapevine that there will be a rise in fuel price may be
the next day and they plan to sell the fuel they already have for more money.

There are times when the grapevine becomes especially active. This include

✓ When employees have some information that something unwanted is going to happen to them
✓ When an organization is about to introduce changes (e.g. BPR, appointment of a new manager
…)
✓ When information from the formal channel is limited

The grapevine/ the informal communication has some advantages and some disadvantages

Advantages of informal communication

➢ Can be used to quickly spread information

➢ Serves social purpose
➢ Reduces stress
➢ Helps to identify dissatisfaction of employees

Disadvantage of informal communication

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➢ Wastage of time- reduced productivity
➢ Hostility against executives
➢ Emphasizes only the negative effects of change
➢ Jeopardizes the goodwill of an organization

Conclusion, the informal communication cannot and should not be restricted. If a manager
attempts to do so, the grapevine may become more active and produce undesirable results.
Hence, what is expected of a wise manager is exploitation of the grapevine and keeping the
formal communication channels open.

2.3. Levels of Communication

Communication takes place at different levels, namely intrapersonal, interpersonal, public and
organizational.

Intrapersonal communication

Intrapersonal communication is communication within us. It is also called ‘self-talk’. Human

beings communicate with themselves at an individual level. Sometimes individual
communication may also involve uttering of words with audible sounds. A person thinks about
possible impacts of the decisions that they are going to make – this is an example of self-talk. Or
a person who reminds themselves to do or not to do something – they are having intrapersonal
communication. Intrapersonal communication is so important that it influences one’s self esteem.

E.g. a student who failed an exam may say to himself “I am worthless, I will never graduate…”
another student who also failed an exam may say to himself “I failed just one test; I will work
hard and improve may result…”

Let us consider another example. A student who is about to give a speech in our administrative
communication class may say to himself “I didn’t have any such experience of speaking before
people and I am likely to give a bad speech” another student in the same situation may tell
himself “this is my opportunity I will grab it and try my best to give an impressive speech.”

The intrapersonal communication that an individual has with himself affects his communication
at other levels.

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Interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication is communication between or among people. For interpersonal

communication to happen at least two people are needed. Interpersonal communication can be
either Dyadic- two persons communication or small group. Small group communication requires
a minimum of three people. The number of people involved in a small group communication
should not be many persons (public).

Some researchers in the area say that the maximum number of persons in a small group
communication should not exceed 15. In interpersonal communication there is direct and person
to person interaction and more chance for feedback.

Public communication

Public communication is communication with a public i.e. audience of several persons. In public
communication the public is mainly receiver. The speaker dominates the communication. The
sender and receiver may not know each other. And the feedback from the audience is expected to
be limited.

Organizational communication

Organizational communication includes the first three levels, namely intrapersonal,

interpersonal, and public communication. The very distinguishing characteristic feature of
organizational communication is that an organization acts like a person i.e. the organization
communicates like a person. You can think of legal personality of organizations. An organization
may initiate messages, send them to individuals or other organizations. Or the organization may
receive messages from individuals or other organizations. Who is sending a message when
students of AAU are informed on EBC that their registration takes place on a specific date? It is
AAU.

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