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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about metallic materials. For
the musical genre, see Heavy metal music. For other uses, see Metal
(disambiguation).refer to captionIron, shown here as fragments and a 1 cm3 cube, is
an example of a chemical element that is a metal.A metal gravy boatA metal in the
form of a gravy boat made from stainless steel, an alloy largely composed of iron,
carbon, and chromiumPart of a series on thePeriodic tableshowPeriodic table forms
showPeriodic table historySets of elementsshowBy periodic table structurehideBy
metallic classificationMetalsalkali alkaline earthtransition post-transition
lanthanide actinide (superactinide)Metalloidsdividing metals and nonmetalsNonmetals
unclassified nonmetal halogen noble gasshowBy other characteristicsElementsshowList
of chemical elementsshowProperties of elementsshowData pages for elementsCategory
Chemistry PortalvteA metal (from Ancient Greek ???????? m�tallon 'mine, quarry,
metal') is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a
lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are
typically ductile (can be drawn into wires) and malleable (they can be hammered
into thin sheets). These properties are the result of the metallic bond between the
atoms or molecules of the metal.A metal may be a chemical element such as iron; an
alloy such as stainless steel; or a molecular compound such as polymeric sulfur
nitride.[1]In physics, a metal is generally regarded as any substance capable of
conducting electricity at a temperature of absolute zero.[2] Many elements and
compounds that are not normally classified as metals become metallic under high
pressures. For example, the nonmetal iodine gradually becomes a metal at a pressure
of between 40 and 170 thousand times atmospheric pressure. Equally, some materials
regarded as metals can become nonmetals. Sodium, for example, becomes a nonmetal at
pressure of just under two million times atmospheric pressure.In chemistry, two
elements that would otherwise qualify (in physics) as brittle metals�arsenic and
antimony�are commonly instead recognised as metalloids due to their chemistry
(predominantly non-metallic for arsenic, and balanced between metallicity and
nonmetallicity for antimony). Around 95 of the 118 elements in the periodic table
are metals (or are likely to be such). The number is inexact as the boundaries
between metals, nonmetals, and metalloids fluctuate slightly due to a lack of
universally accepted definitions of the categories involved.In astrophysics the
term "metal" is cast more widely to refer to all chemical elements in a star that
are heavier than helium, and not just traditional metals. In this sense the first
four "metals" collecting in stellar cores through nucleosynthesis are carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, and neon, all of which are strictly non-metals in chemistry. A
star fuses lighter atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium, into heavier atoms over its
lifetime. Used in that sense, the metallicity of an astronomical object is the
proportion of its matter made up of the heavier chemical elements.[3][4]Metals, as
chemical elements, comprise 25% of the Earth's crust and are present in many
aspects of modern life. The strength and resilience of some metals has led to their
frequent use in, for example, high-rise building and bridge construction, as well
as most vehicles, many home appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad tracks. Precious
metals were historically used as coinage, but in the modern era, coinage metals
have extended to at least 23 of the chemical elements.[5]The history of refined
metals is thought to begin with the use of copper about 11,000 years ago. Gold,
silver, iron (as meteoric iron), lead, and brass were likewise in use before the
first known appearance of bronze in the fifth millennium BCE. Subsequent
developments include the production of early forms of steel; the discovery of
sodium�the first light metal�in 1809; the rise of modern alloy steels; and, since
the end of World War II, the development of more sophisticated alloys.Properties
Form and structureGallium crystals on a tableGallium crystalsMetals are shiny and
lustrous, at least when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured. Sheets of metal
thicker than a few micrometres appear opaque, but gold leaf transmits green light.
The solid or liquid state of metals largely originates in the capacity of the metal
atoms involved to readily lose their outer shell electrons. Broadly, the forces
holding an individual atom's outer shell electrons in place are weaker than the
attractive forces on the same electrons arising from interactions between the atoms
in the solid or liquid metal. The electrons involved become delocalised and the
atomic structure of a metal can effectively be visualised as a collection of atoms
embedded in a cloud of relatively mobile electrons. This type of interaction is
called a metallic bond.[6] The strength of metallic bonds for different elemental
metals reaches a maximum around the center of the transition metal series, as these
elements have large numbers of delocalized electrons.[n 1]Although most elemental
metals have higher densities than most nonmetals,[6] there is a wide variation in
their densities, lithium being the least dense (0.534 g/cm3) and osmium (22.59
g/cm3) the most dense. (Some of the 6d transition metals are expected to be denser
than osmium, but predictions on their densities vary widely in the literature, and
in any case their known isotopes are too unstable for bulk production to be
possible.) Magnesium, aluminium and titanium are light metals of significant
commercial importance. Their respective densities of 1.7, 2.7, and 4.5 g/cm3 can be
compared to those of the older structural metals, like iron at 7.9 and copper at
8.9 g/cm3. An iron ball would thus weigh about as much as three aluminum balls of
equal volume.Multiple metal rods, one of which has a glowing hot eyeletA metal rod
with a hot-worked eyelet. Hot-working exploits the capacity of metal to be
plastically deformed.Metals are typically malleable and ductile, deforming under
stress without cleaving.[6] The nondirectional nature of metallic bonding is
thought to contribute significantly to the ductility of most metallic solids. In
contrast, in an ionic compound like table salt, when the planes of an ionic bond
slide past one another, the resultant change in location shifts ions of the same
charge closer, resulting in the cleavage of the crystal. Such a shift is not
observed in a covalently bonded crystal, such as a diamond, where fracture and
crystal fragmentation occurs.[7] Reversible elastic deformation in metals can be
described by Hooke's Law for restoring forces, where the stress is linearly
proportional to the strain.Heat or forces larger than a metal's elastic limit may
cause a permanent (irreversible) deformation, known as plastic deformation or
plasticity. An applied force may be a tensile (pulling) force, a compressive
(pushing) force, or a shear, bending, or torsion (twisting) force. A temperature
change may affect the movement or displacement of structural defects in the metal
such as grain boundaries, point vacancies, line and screw dislocations, stacking
faults and twins in both crystalline and non-crystalline metals. Internal slip,
creep, and metal fatigue may ensue.The atoms of metallic substances are typically
arranged in one of three common crystal structures, namely body-centered cubic
(bcc), face-centered cubic (fcc), and hexagonal close-packed (hcp). In bcc, each
atom is positioned at the center of a cube of eight others. In fcc and hcp, each
atom is surrounded by twelve others, but the stacking of the layers differs. Some
metals adopt different structures depending on the temperature.[8]Body-centered
cubic crystal structure, with a 2-atom unit cell, as found in e.g. chromium, iron,
and tungstenBody-centered cubic crystal structure, with a 2-atom unit cell, as
found in e.g. chromium, iron, and tungsten Face-centered cubic crystal structure,
with a 4-atom unit cell, as found in e.g. aluminum, copper, and goldFace-centered
cubic crystal structure, with a 4-atom unit cell, as found in e.g. aluminum,
copper, and gold Hexagonal close-packed crystal structure, with a 6-atom unit cell,
as found in e.g. titanium, cobalt, and zincHexagonal close-packed crystal
structure, with a 6-atom unit cell, as found in e.g. titanium, cobalt, and zincThe
unit cell for each crystal structure is the smallest group of atoms which has the
overall symmetry of the crystal, and from which the entire crystalline lattice can
be built up by repetition in three dimensions. In the case of the body-centered
cubic crystal structure shown above, the unit cell is made up of the central atom
plus one-eight of each of the eight corner atoms.Electrical and thermalThe energy
states available to electrons in different kinds of solids at thermodynamic
equilibrium. Here, height is energy while width is the density of available states
for a certain energy in the material listed. The shading follows the Fermi�Dirac
distribution (black=all states filled, white=no state filled). The Fermi level EF
is the energy level at which the electrons are in a position to interact with
energy levels above them. In metals and semimetals the Fermi level EF lies inside
at least one band of energy states. In insulators and semiconductors the Fermi
level is inside a band gap; however, in semiconductors the bands are near enough to
the Fermi level to be thermally populated with electrons or holes.The electronic
structure of metals means they are relatively good conductors of electricity.
Electrons in matter can only have fixed rather
than variable energy levels, and in a metal the energy levels of the electrons in
its electron cloud, at least to some degree, correspond to the energy levels at
which electrical conduction can occur. In a semiconductor like silicon or a
nonmetal like sulfur there is an energy gap between the electrons in the substance
and the energy level at which electrical conduction can occur. Consequently,
semiconductors and nonmetals are relatively poor conductors.The elemental metals
have electrical conductivity values of from 6.9 ? 103 S/cm for manganese to 6.3 ?
105 S/cm for silver. In contrast, a semiconducting metalloid such as boron has an
electrical conductivity 1.5 ? 10?6 S/cm. With one exception, metallic elements
reduce their electrical conductivity when heated. Plutonium increases its
electrical conductivity when heated in the temperature range of around ?175 to +125
�C.Metals are relatively good conductors of heat. The electrons in a metal's
electron cloud are highly mobile and easily able to pass on heat-induced
vibrational energy.The contribution of a metal's electrons to its heat capacity and
thermal conductivity, and the electrical conductivity of the metal itself can be
calculated from the free electron model. However, this does not take into account
the detailed structure of the metal's ion lattice. Taking into account the positive
potential caused by the arrangement of the ion cores enables consideration of the
electronic band structure and binding energy of a metal. Various mathematical
models are applicable, the simplest being the nearly free electron model.Chemical
Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss.[6] Most will
react with oxygen in the air to form oxides over various timescales (potassium
burns in seconds while iron rusts over years). Some others, like palladium,
platinum, and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all. The oxides of metals
are generally basic, as opposed to those of nonmetals, which are acidic or neutral.
Exceptions are largely oxides with very high oxidation states such as CrO3, Mn2O7,
and OsO4, which have strictly acidic reactions.Painting, anodizing, or plating
metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion. However, a more reactive metal in
the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when chipping of
the coating is expected. Water and the two metals form an electrochemical cell and,
if the coating is less reactive than the underlying metal, the coating actually
promotes corrosion.Periodic table distributionSee also: Periodic tableThe elements
that form metallic structures under ordinary conditions are shown in yellow on the
periodic table below. The remaining elements either form giant covalent structures
(light blue), molecular covalent structures (dark blue), or remain as single atoms
(violet).[9] Astatine (At), francium (Fr), and the elements from fermium (Fm)
onwards are shown in gray because they are extremely radioactive and have never
been produced in bulk. Theoretical and experimental evidence suggests that almost
all these uninvestigated elements should be metals,[10] though there is some doubt
for oganesson (Og).[11]hidevteBonding of simple substances in the periodic table1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18Group ?? Period1 HHe2 LiBeBCNOFNe3 NaMgAl
SiPSClAr4 KCaScTiVCrMnFeCoNiCuZnGaGeAsSeBrKr5 RbSrYZrNbMoTcRuRhPdAgCdInSnSbTeIXe6
CsBaLaCePrNdPmSmEuGdTbDyHoErTmYbLuHfTaWReOsIrPtAuHgTlPbBiPoAtRn7 FrRaAcThPaUNpPuAm
CmBkCfEsFmMdNoLrRfDbSgBhHsMtDsRgCnNhFlMcLvTsOgMetallic Network covalent Molecular
covalent Single atoms Unknown Background color shows bonding of simple substances
in the periodic table. If there are several, the most stable allotrope is
considered.The situation can change with pressure: at extremely high pressures, all
elements (and indeed all substances) are expected to metallize.[10] Arsenic (As)
has both a stable metallic allotrope and a metastable semiconducting allotrope at
standard conditions.Elements near the border between metals and nonmetals often
have intermediate chemical behavior. As such, a category of metalloids is often
used for such in-between elements, but there is no consensus in the literature as
to which elements should qualify.[12]AlloysMain article: AlloyThree bars of babbitt
metalSamples of babbitt metal, an alloy of tin, antimony, and copper, used in
bearings to reduce frictionAn alloy is a substance having metallic properties and
which is composed of two or more elements at least one of which is a metal. An
alloy may have a variable or fixed composition. For example, gold and silver form
an alloy in which the proportions of gold or silver can be freely adjusted;
titanium and silicon form an alloy Ti2Si in which the ratio of the two components
is fixed (also known as an intermetallic compound).A metal sculptureA sculpture
cast in nickel silver�an alloy of copper, nickel, and zinc that looks like silver
Most pure metals are either too soft, brittle, or chemically reactive for practical
use. Combining different ratios of metals as alloys modifies the properties of pure
metals to produce desirable characteristics. The aim of making alloys is generally
to make them less brittle, harder, resistant to corrosion, or have a more desirable
color and luster. Of all the metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of iron
(steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steel) make up the largest
proportion both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various
proportions of carbon gives low-, mid-, and high-carbon steels, with increasing
carbon levels reducing ductility and toughness. The addition of silicon will
produce cast irons, while the addition of chromium, nickel, and molybdenum to
carbon steels (more than 10%) results in stainless steels.Other significant
metallic alloys are those of aluminum, titanium, copper, and magnesium. Copper
alloys have been known since prehistory�bronze gave the Bronze Age its name�and
have many applications today, most importantly in electrical wiring. The alloys of
the other three metals have been developed relatively recently; due to their
chemical reactivity they need electrolytic extraction processes. The alloys of
aluminum, titanium, and magnesium are valued for their high strength-to-weight
ratios; magnesium can also provide electromagnetic shielding.[citation needed]
These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratio is
more important than material cost, such as in aerospace and some automotive
applications.Alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications, such as
jet engines, may contain more than ten elements.CategoriesMetallic elementsAlkali
metalslithium sodium potassium rubidium caesium franciumAlkaline earth metals
beryllium magnesium calcium strontium barium radiumTransition metalsscandium
titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper yttrium zirconium
niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver hafnium tantalum
tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium
bohrium hassiumPost-transition metalsaluminium zinc gallium cadmium indium tin
mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatineLanthanideslanthanum cerium
praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium
holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetiumActinidesactinium thorium protactinium
uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium
fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrenciumElements which are possibly metalsmeitnerium
darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium nihonium flerovium moscovium livermorium
tennessine oganessonElements which are sometimes considered metalsgermanium arsenic
selenium antimony telluriumvteSee also: Names for sets of chemical elementsMetals
can be categorised according to their physical or chemical properties. Categories
described in the subsections below include ferrous and non-ferrous metals; brittle
metals and refractory metals; white metals; heavy and light metals; and base,
noble, and precious metals. The Metallic elements table in this section categorises
the elemental metals on the basis of their chemical properties into alkali and
alkaline earth metals; transition and post-transition metals; and lanthanides and
actinides. Other categories are possible, depending on the criteria for inclusion.
For example, the ferromagnetic metals�those metals that are magnetic at room
temperature�are iron, cobalt, and nickel.Ferrous and non-ferrous metalsMain
articles: Ferrous metallurgy and Non-ferrous metalThe term "ferrous" is derived
from the Latin word meaning "containing iron". This can include pure iron, such as
wrought iron, or an alloy such as steel. Ferrous metals are often magnetic, but not
exclusively. Non-ferrous metals and alloys lack appreciable amounts of iron.Brittle
metalWhile nearly all metals are malleable or ductile, a few�beryllium, chromium,
manganese, gallium, and bismuth�are brittle.[13] Arsenic and antimony, if admitted
as metals, are brittle. Low values of the ratio of bulk elastic modulus to shear
modulus (Pugh's criterion) are indicative of intrinsic brittleness.Refractory metal
Main article: Refractory metalIn materials science, metallurgy, and engineering, a
refractory metal is a metal that is extraordinarily resistant to heat and wear.
Which metals belong to this category varies; the most common definition includes
niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten, and rhenium. They all have melting points
above 2000 �C, and a high hardness at room temperature.Niobium crystals and a 1 cm3
anodized niobium cube for comparisonNiobium crystals and a 1 cm3 anodized niobium
cube for comparison
Molybdenum crystals and a 1 cm3 molybdenum cube for comparisonMolybdenum crystals
and a 1 cm3 molybdenum cube for comparison Tantalum single crystal, some
crystalline fragments, and a 1 cm3 tantalum cube for comparisonTantalum single
crystal, some crystalline fragments, and a 1 cm3 tantalum cube for comparison
Tungsten rods with evaporated crystals, partially oxidized with colorful tarnish,
and a 1 cm3 tungsten cube for comparisonTungsten rods with evaporated crystals,
partially oxidized with colorful tarnish, and a 1 cm3 tungsten cube for comparison
Rhenium single crystal, a remelted bar, and a 1 cm3 rhenium cube for comparison
Rhenium single crystal, a remelted bar, and a 1 cm3 rhenium cube for comparison
White metalA white metal is any of range of white-coloured metals (or their alloys)
with relatively low melting points. Such metals include zinc, cadmium, tin,
antimony (here counted as a metal), lead, and bismuth, some of which are quite
toxic. In Britain, the fine art trade uses the term "white metal" in auction
catalogues to describe foreign silver items which do not carry British Assay Office
marks, but which are nonetheless understood to be silver and are priced
accordingly.Heavy and light metalsMain articles: Heavy metals and Light metalsA
heavy metal is any relatively dense metal or metalloid.[14] More specific
definitions have been proposed, but none have obtained widespread acceptance. Some
heavy metals have niche uses, or are notably toxic; some are essential in trace
amounts. All other metals are light metals.Base, noble, and precious metalsMain
articles: Base metal, noble metal, and precious metalIn chemistry, the term base
metal is used informally to refer to a metal that is easily oxidized or corroded,
such as reacting easily with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form a metal
chloride and hydrogen. Examples include iron, nickel, lead, and zinc. Copper is
considered a base metal as it is oxidized relatively easily, although it does not
react with HCl.Rhodium powder, a rhodium cylinder, and a rhodium pellet in a row
Rhodium, a noble metal, shown here as 1 g of powder, a 1 g pressed cylinder, and a
1 g pelletThe term noble metal is commonly used in opposition to base metal. Noble
metals are resistant to corrosion or oxidation,[15] unlike most base metals. They
tend to be precious metals, often due to perceived rarity. Examples include gold,
platinum, silver, rhodium, iridium, and palladium.In alchemy and numismatics, the
term base metal is contrasted with precious metal, that is, those of high economic
value.[16] A longtime goal of the alchemists was the transmutation of base metals
into precious metals including such coinage metals as silver and gold. Most coins
today are made of base metals with low intrinsic value; in the past, coins
frequently derived their value primarily from their precious metal content.
Chemically, the precious metals (like the noble metals) are less reactive than most
elements, have high luster and high electrical conductivity. Historically, precious
metals were important as currency, but are now regarded mainly as investment and
industrial commodities. Gold, silver, platinum, and palladium each have an ISO 4217
currency code. The best-known precious metals are gold and silver. While both have
industrial uses, they are better known for their uses in art, jewelry, and coinage.
Other precious metals include the platinum group metals: ruthenium, rhodium,
palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum, of which platinum is the most widely
traded.The demand for precious metals is driven not only by their practical use,
but also by their role as investments and a store of value.[17] Palladium and
platinum, as of fall 2018, were valued at about three quarters the price of gold.
Silver is substantially less expensive than these metals, but is often
traditionally considered a precious metal in light of its role in coinage and
jewelry.Valve metalsMain article: Valve metalsIn electrochemistry, a valve metal is
a metal which passes current in only one direction.LifecycleFormationSee also:
NucleosynthesisMetals in the Earth's crust:vteabundance and main occurrence or
source, by weight[n 2]1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 181 H He2 Li Be
B C N O F Ne3 Na Mg Al Si
P S Cl Ar4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe
Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr5 Rb Sr
Y Zr Nb Mo Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb
Te ?I? Xe6 Cs Ba 1 asterisk Lu Hf Ta W Re Os
Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi 7 1
asterisk 1 asterisk La Ce Pr Nd
Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb 1 asterisk Th
U Most
abundant (up to 82000 ppm) Abundant (100�999 ppm) Uncommon (1�99 ppm) Rare
(0.01�0.99 ppm) Very rare (0.0001�0.0099 ppm) Metals left of the dividing line
occur (or are sourced) mainly as lithophiles; those to the right, as chalcophiles
except gold (a siderophile) and tin (a lithophile).This sub-section deals with the
formation of periodic table elemental metals since these form the basis of metallic
materials, as defined in this article.Metals up to the vicinity of iron (in the
periodic table) are largely made via stellar nucleosynthesis. In this process,
lighter elements from hydrogen to silicon undergo successive fusion reactions
inside stars, releasing light and heat and forming heavier elements with higher
atomic numbers.[18]Heavier metals are not usually formed this way since fusion
reactions involving such nuclei would consume rather than release energy.[19]
Rather, they are largely synthesised (from elements with a lower atomic number) by
neutron capture, with the two main modes of this repetitive capture being the s-
process and the r-process. In the s-process ("s" stands for "slow"), singular
captures are separated by years or decades, allowing the less stable nuclei to beta
decay,[20] while in the r-process ("rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can
decay. Therefore, the s-process takes a more-or-less clear path: for example,
stable cadmium-110 nuclei are successively bombarded by free neutrons inside a star
until they form cadmium-115 nuclei which are unstable and decay to form indium-115
(which is nearly stable, with a half-life 30000 times the age of the universe).
These nuclei capture neutrons and form indium-116, which is unstable, and decays to
form tin-116, and so on.[18][21][n 3] In contrast, there is no such path in the r-
process. The s-process stops at bismuth due to the short half-lives of the next two
elements, polonium and astatine, which decay to bismuth or lead. The r-process is
so fast it can skip this zone of instability and go on to create heavier elements
such as thorium and uranium.[23]Metals condense in planets as a result of stellar
evolution and destruction processes. Stars lose much of their mass when it is
ejected late in their lifetimes, and sometimes thereafter as a result of a neutron
star merger,[24][n 4] thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than
helium in the interstellar medium. When gravitational attraction causes this matter
to coalesce and collapse new stars and planets are formed.[26]Abundance and
occurrenceSee also: Abundance of the chemical elementsA sample of diasporeA sample
of diaspore, an aluminum oxide hydroxide mineral, ?-AlO(OH)The Earth's crust is
made of approximately 25% of metals by weight, of which 80% are light metals such
as sodium, magnesium, and aluminium. Nonmetals (~75%) make up the rest of the
crust. Despite the overall scarcity of some heavier metals such as copper, they can
become concentrated in economically extractable quantities as a result of mountain
building, erosion, or other geological processes.Metals are primarily found as
lithophiles (rock-loving) or chalcophiles (ore-loving). Lithophile metals are
mainly the s-block elements, the more reactive of the d-block elements, and the f-
block elements. They have a strong affinity for oxygen and mostly exist as
relatively low-density silicate minerals. Chalcophile metals are mainly the less
reactive d-block elements, and the period 4�6 p-block metals. They are usually
found in (insoluble) sulfide minerals. Being denser than the lithophiles, hence
sinking lower into the crust at the time of its solidification, the chalcophiles
tend to be less abundant than the lithophiles.On the other hand, gold is a
siderophile, or iron-loving element. It does not readily form compounds with either
oxygen or sulfur. At the time of the Earth's formation, and as the most noble
(inert) of metals, gold sank into the core due to its tendency to form high-density
metallic alloys. Consequently, it is a relatively rare metal. Some other (less)
noble metals�molybdenum, rhenium, the platinum group metals (ruthenium, rhodium,
palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum), germanium, and tin�can be counted as
siderophiles but only in terms of their primary occurrence in the Earth (core,
mantle, and crust), rather the crust. These metals otherwise occur in the crust, in
small quantities, chiefly as chalcophiles (less so in their native form).[n 5]The
rotating fluid outer core of the Earth's interior, which is composed mostly of
iron, is thought to be the source of Earth's protective magnetic field.[n 6] The
core lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle. If it could be
rearranged into a column having a 5 m2 (54 sq ft) footprint it would have a height
of nearly 700 light years. The magnetic field shields the Earth from the charged
particles of the solar wind, and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the
upper atmosphere (including the ozone layer that limits the transmission of
ultraviolet radiation).ExtractionMain articles: Ore, Mining, and Extractive
metallurgyMetals are often extracted from the Earth by means of mining ores that
are rich sources of the requisite elements, such as bauxite. Ore is located by
prospecting techniques,
followed by the exploration and examination of deposits. Mineral sources are
generally divided into surface mines, which are mined by excavation using heavy
equipment, and subsurface mines. In some cases, the sale price of the metal(s)
involved make it economically feasible to mine lower concentration sources.Once the
ore is mined, the metals must be extracted, usually by chemical or electrolytic
reduction. Pyrometallurgy uses high temperatures to convert ore into raw metals,
while hydrometallurgy employs aqueous chemistry for the same purpose. The methods
used depend on the metal and their contaminants.When a metal ore is an ionic
compound of that metal and a non-metal, the ore must usually be smelted�heated with
a reducing agent�to extract the pure metal. Many common metals, such as iron, are
smelted using carbon as a reducing agent. Some metals, such as aluminum and sodium,
have no commercially practical reducing agent, and are extracted using electrolysis
instead.[27][28]Sulfide ores are not reduced directly to the metal but are roasted
in air to convert them to oxides.UsesA metal bracketA neodymium compound alloy
magnet of composition Nd2Fe14B on a nickel-iron bracket from a computer hard drive
Metals are present in nearly all aspects of modern life. Iron, a heavy metal, may
be the most common as it accounts for 90% of all refined metals; aluminum, a light
metal, is the next most commonly refined metal. Pure iron may be the cheapest
metallic element of all at cost of about US$0.07 per gram. Its ores are widespread;
it is easy to refine; and the technology involved has been developed over hundreds
of years. Cast iron is even cheaper, at a fraction of US$0.01 per gram, because
there is no need for subsequent purification. Platinum, at a cost of about $27 per
gram, may be the most ubiquitous given its very high melting point, resistance to
corrosion, electrical conductivity, and durability. It is said to be found in, or
used to produce, 20% of all consumer goods. Polonium is likely to be the most
expensive metal that is traded, at a notional cost of about $100,000,000 per gram,
[citation needed] due to its scarcity and micro-scale production.Some metals and
metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass, making them useful
materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage. Metal alloys can be
engineered to have high resistance to shear, torque, and deformation. However the
same metal can also be vulnerable to fatigue damage through repeated use or from
sudden stress failure when a load capacity is exceeded. The strength and resilience
of metals has led to their frequent use in high-rise building and bridge
construction, as well as most vehicles, many appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad
tracks.Metals are good conductors, making them valuable in electrical appliances
and for carrying an electric current over a distance with little energy lost.
Electrical power grids rely on metal cables to distribute electricity. Home
electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire for its good
conducting properties.The thermal conductivity of metals is useful for containers
to heat materials over a flame. Metals are also used for heat sinks to protect
sensitive equipment from overheating.The high reflectivity of some metals enables
their use in mirrors, including precision astronomical instruments, and adds to the
aesthetics of metallic jewelry.Some metals have specialized uses; mercury is a
liquid at room temperature and is used in switches to complete a circuit when it
flows over the switch contacts. Radioactive metals such as uranium and plutonium
are fuel for nuclear power plants, which produce energy via nuclear fission. Shape-
memory alloys are used for applications such as pipes, fasteners, and vascular
stents.Metals can be doped with foreign molecules�organic, inorganic, biological,
and polymers. This doping entails the metal with new properties that are induced by
the guest molecules. Applications in catalysis, medicine, electrochemical cells,
corrosion and more have been developed.[29]RecyclingA pile of compacted steel
scrapsA pile of compacted steel scraps, ready for recyclingDemand for metals is
closely linked to economic growth given their use in infrastructure, construction,
manufacturing, and consumer goods. During the 20th century, the variety of metals
used in society grew rapidly. Today, the development of major nations, such as
China and India, and technological advances, are fuelling ever more demand. The
result is that mining activities are expanding, and more and more of the world's
metal stocks are above ground in use, rather than below ground as unused reserves.
An example is the in-use stock of copper. Between 1932 and 1999, copper in use in
the U.S. rose from 73 g to 238 g per person.[30]Metals are inherently recyclable,
so in principle, can be used over and over again, minimizing these negative
environmental impacts and saving energy. For example, 95% of the energy used to
make aluminum from bauxite ore is saved by using recycled material.[31]Globally,
metal recycling is generally low. In 2010, the International Resource Panel, hosted
by the United Nations Environment Programme published reports on metal stocks that
exist within society[32] and their recycling rates.[30] The authors of the report
observed that the metal stocks in society can serve as huge mines above ground.
They warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in applications such
as mobile phones, battery packs for hybrid cars and fuel cells are so low that
unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these
critical metals will become unavailable for use in modern technology.Biological
interactionsSee also: Mineral (nutrient) and Metal toxicityThe role of metallic
elements in the evolution of cell biochemistry has been reviewed, including a
detailed section on the role of calcium in redox enzymes.[33]One or more of the
elements iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, and zinc are essential to all higher forms
of life. Cobalt is an essential component of vitamin B12. Compounds of all other
transition elements and post-transition elements are toxic to a greater or lesser
extent, with few exceptions such as certain compounds of antimony and tin.
Potential sources of metal poisoning include mining, tailings, industrial wastes,
agricultural runoff, occupational exposure, paints, and treated timber.History
PrehistoryCopper, which occurs in native form, may have been the first metal
discovered given its distinctive appearance, heaviness, and malleability compared
to other stones or pebbles. Gold, silver, and iron (as meteoric iron), and lead
were likewise discovered in prehistory. Forms of brass, an alloy of copper and zinc
made by concurrently smelting the ores of these metals, originate from this period
(although pure zinc was not isolated until the 13th century). The malleability of
the solid metals led to the first attempts to craft metal ornaments, tools, and
weapons. Meteoric iron containing nickel was discovered from time to time and, in
some respects this was superior to any industrial steel manufactured up to the
1880s when alloy steels become prominent.[34]Native copperNative copper Gold
crystalsGold crystals Crystalline silverCrystalline silver A slice of meteoric iron
A slice of meteoric iron Three, dark broccoli shaped clumps of oxidised lead with
grossly distended buds, and a cube of lead which has a dull silvery appearance.
oxidised leadnodules and 1 cm3 cube A brass weight (35 g)A brass weight (35 g)
AntiquityRefer to captionThe Artemision Bronze[n 7] showing either Poseidon or
Zeus, c. 460 BCE, National Archaeological Museum, Athens. The figure is more than 2
m in height.The discovery of bronze (an alloy of copper with arsenic or tin)
enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than
previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such as
decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper
("Chalcolithic") predecessors. Initially, bronze was made of copper and arsenic
(forming arsenic bronze) by smelting naturally or artificially mixed ores of copper
and arsenic.[35] The earliest artifacts so far known come from the Iranian plateau
in the fifth millennium BCE.[36] It was only later that tin was used, becoming the
major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late third millennium BCE.[37] Pure
tin itself was first isolated in 1800 BCE by Chinese and Japanese metalworkers.
Mercury was known to ancient Chinese and Indians before 2000 BCE, and found in
Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BCE.The earliest known production of steel, an
iron-carbon alloy, is seen in pieces of ironware excavated from an archaeological
site in Anatolia (Kaman-Kaleh�y�k) and are nearly 4,000 years old, dating from 1800
BCE.[38][39]From about 500 BCE sword-makers of Toledo, Spain, were making early
forms of alloy steel by adding a mineral called wolframite, which contained
tungsten and manganese, to iron ore (and carbon). The resulting Toledo steel came
to the attention of Rome when used by Hannibal in the Punic Wars. It soon became
the basis for the weaponry of Roman legions; their swords were said to have been
"so keen that there is no helmet which cannot be cut through by them."[citation
needed][n 8]In pre-Columbian America, objects made of tumbaga, an alloy of copper
and gold, started being produced in Panama and Costa Rica between 300 and 500 CE.
Small metal sculptures were common and an extensive range of tumbaga (and gold)
ornaments comprised the usual regalia of persons of high status.At around the same
time indigenous Ecuadorians were combining gold with a naturally-occurring platinum
alloy containing small amounts of palladium, rhodium,
and iridium, to produce miniatures and masks composed of a white gold-platinum
alloy. The metal workers involved heated gold with grains of the platinum alloy
until the gold melted at which point the platinum group metals became bound within
the gold. After cooling, the resulting conglomeration was hammered and reheated
repeatedly until it became as homogenous as if all of the metals concerned had been
melted together (attaining the melting points of the platinum group metals
concerned was beyond the technology of the day).[40][n 9]A droplet of solidified
molten tinA droplet of solidified molten tin A silvery molasses-like liquid being
poured into a circular container with a height equivalent to a smaller coin on its
edgeMercury beingpoured into a petri dish Electrum, a natural alloy of silver and
gold, was often used for making coins. Shown is the Roman god Apollo, and on the
obverse, a Delphi tripod (circa 310�305 BCE).Electrum, a natural alloy of silver
and gold, was often used for making coins. Shown is the Roman god Apollo, and on
the obverse, a Delphi tripod (circa 310�305 BCE). A plate made of pewter, an alloy
of 85�99% tin and (usually) copper. Pewter was first used around the beginning of
the Bronze Age in the Near East.A plate made of pewter, an alloy of 85�99% tin and
(usually) copper. Pewter was first used around the beginning of the Bronze Age in
the Near East. A pectoral (ornamental breastplate) made of tumbaga, an alloy of
gold and copperA pectoral (ornamental breastplate) made of tumbaga, an alloy of
gold and copperMiddle AgesGold is for the mistress�silver for the maid�Copper for
the craftsman cunning at his trade."Good!" said the Baron, sitting in his hall,"But
Iron�Cold Iron�is master of them all."from Cold Iron by Rudyard Kipling[41]Arabic
and medieval alchemists believed that all metals and matter were composed of the
principle of sulfur, the father of all metals and carrying the combustible
property, and the principle of mercury, the mother of all metals[n 10] and carrier
of the liquidity, fusibility, and volatility properties. These principles were not
necessarily the common substances sulfur and mercury found in most laboratories.
This theory reinforced the belief that all metals were destined to become gold in
the bowels of the earth through the proper combinations of heat, digestion, time,
and elimination of contaminants, all of which could be developed and hastened
through the knowledge and methods of alchemy.[n 11]Arsenic, zinc, antimony, and
bismuth became known, although these were at first called semimetals or bastard
metals on account of their immalleability. All four may have been used incidentally
in earlier times without recognising their nature. Albertus Magnus is believed to
have been the first to isolate arsenic from a compound in 1250, by heating soap
together with arsenic trisulfide. Metallic zinc, which is brittle if impure, was
isolated in India by 1300 AD. The first description of a procedure for isolating
antimony is in the 1540 book De la pirotechnia by Vannoccio Biringuccio. Bismuth
was described by Agricola in De Natura Fossilium (c. 1546); it had been confused in
early times with tin and lead because of its resemblance to those elements.Arsenic,
sealed in a container to prevent tarnishingArsenic, sealed in a container to
prevent tarnishing Zinc fragments and a 1 cm3 cubeZinc fragments and a 1 cm3 cube
Antimony, showing its brilliant lustreAntimony, showing its brilliant lustre
Bismuth in crystalline form, with a very thin oxidation layer, and a 1 cm3 bismuth
cubeBismuth in crystalline form, with a very thin oxidation layer, and a 1 cm3
bismuth cubeThe RenaissanceThe title page of De re metallica, which is written in
LatinDe re metallica, 1555Refer to captionPlatinum crystalsA disc of uranium being
held by gloved handsA disc of highly enriched uranium that was recovered from scrap
processed at the Y-12 National Security Complex, in Oak Ridge, TennesseeUltrapure
cerium under argonUltrapure cerium under argon, 1.5 gmThe first systematic text on
the arts of mining and metallurgy was De la Pirotechnia (1540) by Vannoccio
Biringuccio, which treats the examination, fusion, and working of metals.Sixteen
years later, Georgius Agricola published De Re Metallica in 1556, a clear and
complete account of the profession of mining, metallurgy, and the accessory arts
and sciences, as well as qualifying as the greatest treatise on the chemical
industry through the sixteenth century.He gave the following description of a metal
in his De Natura Fossilium (1546):Metal is a mineral body, by nature either liquid
or somewhat hard. The latter may be melted by the heat of the fire, but when it has
cooled down again and lost all heat, it becomes hard again and resumes its proper
form. In this respect it differs from the stone which melts in the fire, for
although the latter regain its hardness, yet it loses its pristine form and
properties.Traditionally there are six different kinds of metals, namely gold,
silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead. There are really others, for quicksilver is a
metal, although the Alchemists disagree with us on this subject, and bismuth is
also. The ancient Greek writers seem to have been ignorant of bismuth, wherefore
Ammonius rightly states that there are many species of metals, animals, and plants
which are unknown to us. Stibium when smelted in the crucible and refined has as
much right to be regarded as a proper metal as is accorded to lead by writers. If
when smelted, a certain portion be added to tin, a bookseller's alloy is produced
from which the type is made that is used by those who print books on paper.Each
metal has its own form which it preserves when separated from those metals which
were mixed with it. Therefore neither electrum nor Stannum [not meaning our tin] is
of itself a real metal, but rather an alloy of two metals. Electrum is an alloy of
gold and silver, Stannum of lead and silver. And yet if silver be parted from the
electrum, then gold remains and not electrum; if silver be taken away from Stannum,
then lead remains and not Stannum.Whether brass, however, is found as a native
metal or not, cannot be ascertained with any surety. We only know of the artificial
brass, which consists of copper tinted with the colour of the mineral calamine. And
yet if any should be dug up, it would be a proper metal. Black and white copper
seem to be different from the red kind.Metal, therefore, is by nature either solid,
as I have stated, or fluid, as in the unique case of quicksilver.But enough now
concerning the simple kinds.[42]Platinum, the third precious metal after gold and
silver, was discovered in Ecuador during the period 1736 to 1744, by the Spanish
astronomer Antonio de Ulloa and his colleague the mathematician Jorge Juan y
Santacilia. Ulloa was the first person to write a scientific description of the
metal, in 1748.In 1789, the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth isolated an
oxide of uranium, which he thought was the metal itself. Klaproth was subsequently
credited as the discoverer of uranium. It was not until 1841, that the French
chemist Eug�ne-Melchior P�ligot, prepared the first sample of uranium metal. Henri
Becquerel subsequently discovered radioactivity in 1896 by using uranium.In the
1790s, Joseph Priestley and the Dutch chemist Martinus van Marum observed the
transformative action of metal surfaces on the dehydrogenation of alcohol, a
development which subsequently led, in 1831, to the industrial scale synthesis of
sulphuric acid using a platinum catalyst.In 1803, cerium was the first of the
lanthanide metals to be discovered, in Bastn�s, Sweden by J�ns Jakob Berzelius and
Wilhelm Hisinger, and independently by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in Germany. The
lanthanide metals were largely regarded as oddities until the 1960s when methods
were developed to more efficiently separate them from one another. They have
subsequently found uses in cell phones, magnets, lasers, lighting, batteries,
catalytic converters, and in other applications enabling modern technologies.Other
metals discovered and prepared during this time were cobalt, nickel, manganese,
molybdenum, tungsten, and chromium; and some of the platinum group metals,
palladium, osmium, iridium, and rhodium.Light metalsAll metals discovered until
1809 had relatively high densities; their heaviness was regarded as a singularly
distinguishing criterion. From 1809 onward, light metals such as sodium, potassium,
and strontium were isolated. Their low densities challenged conventional wisdom as
to the nature of metals. They behaved chemically as metals however, and were
subsequently recognised as such.Aluminium was discovered in 1824 but it was not
until 1886 that an industrial large-scale production method was developed. Prices
of aluminium dropped and aluminium became widely used in jewelry, everyday items,
eyeglass frames, optical instruments, tableware, and foil in the 1890s and early
20th century. Aluminium's ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals
provided the metal many uses at the time. During World War I, major governments
demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes. The most common
metal in use for electric power transmission today is aluminium-conductor steel-
reinforced. Also seeing much use is all-aluminium-alloy conductor. Aluminium is
used because it has about half the weight of a comparable resistance copper cable
(though larger diameter due to lower specific conductivity), as well as being
cheaper. Copper was more popular in the past and is still in use, especially at
lower voltages and for grounding.While pure metallic titanium (99.9%) was first
prepared in 1910 it was not used outside the laboratory until 1932. In the 1950s
and 1960s, the Soviet Union pioneered
the use of titanium in military and submarine applications as part of programs
related to the Cold War. Starting in the early 1950s, titanium came into use
extensively in military aviation, particularly in high-performance jets, starting
with aircraft such as the F-100 Super Sabre and Lockheed A-12 and SR-71.Metallic
scandium was produced for the first time in 1937. The first pound of 99% pure
scandium metal was produced in 1960. Production of aluminium-scandium alloys began
in 1971 following a U.S. patent. Aluminium-scandium alloys were also developed in
the USSR.Chunks of sodiumChunks of sodium Potassium pearls under paraffin oil. Size
of the largest pearl is 0.5 cm.Potassium pearls under paraffin oil. Size of the
largest pearl is 0.5 cm. Strontium crystalsStrontium crystals Aluminium chunk, 2.6
grams, 1 x 2 cmAluminium chunk,2.6 grams, 1 x 2 cm A bar of titanium crystalsA bar
of titanium crystals Scandium, including a 1 cm3 cubeScandium, including a 1 cm3
cubeThe age of steelWhite-hot steel pours like water from a 35-ton electric
furnace, at the Allegheny Ludlum Steel Corporation, in Brackenridge, Pennsylvania.
The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry Bessemer's
Bessemer process in 1855, the raw material for which was pig iron. His method let
him produce steel in large quantities cheaply, thus mild steel came to be used for
most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used. The Gilchrist-Thomas
process (or basic Bessemer process) was an improvement to the Bessemer process,
made by lining the converter with a basic material to remove phosphorus.Due to its
high tensile strength and low cost, steel came to be a major component used in
buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and
weapons.In 1872, the Englishmen Clark and Woods patented an alloy that would today
be considered a stainless steel. The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys
had been recognized in 1821 by French metallurgist Pierre Berthier. He noted their
resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery.
Metallurgists of the 19th century were unable to produce the combination of low
carbon and high chromium found in most modern stainless steels, and the high-
chromium alloys they could produce were too brittle to be practical. It was not
until 1912 that the industrialisation of stainless steel alloys occurred in
England, Germany, and the United States.The last stable metallic elementsBy 1900
three metals with atomic numbers less than lead (#82), the heaviest stable metal,
remained to be discovered: elements 71, 72, 75.Von Welsbach, in 1906, proved that
the old ytterbium also contained a new element (#71), which he named cassiopeium.
Urbain proved this simultaneously, but his samples were very impure and only
contained trace quantities of the new element. Despite this, his chosen name
lutetium was adopted.In 1908, Ogawa found element 75 in thorianite but assigned it
as element 43 instead of 75 and named it nipponium. In 1925 Walter Noddack, Ida Eva
Tacke, and Otto Berg announced its separation from gadolinite and gave it the
present name, rhenium.Georges Urbain claimed to have found element 72 in rare-earth
residues, while Vladimir Vernadsky independently found it in orthite. Neither claim
was confirmed due to World War I, and neither could be confirmed later, as the
chemistry they reported does not match that now known for hafnium. After the war,
in 1922, Coster and Hevesy found it by X-ray spectroscopic analysis in Norwegian
zircon. Hafnium was thus the last stable element to be discovered, though rhenium
was the last to be correctly recognized.Lutetium, including a 1 cm3 cubeLutetium,
including a 1 cm3 cube Rhenium, including a 1 cm3 cubeRhenium, including a 1 cm3
cube Hafnium, in the form of a 1.7 kg barHafnium, in the form of a 1.7 kg barBy the
end of World War II scientists had synthesized four post-uranium elements, all of
which are radioactive (unstable) metals: neptunium (in 1940), plutonium (1940�41),
and curium and americium (1944), representing elements 93 to 96. The first two of
these were eventually found in nature as well. Curium and americium were by-
products of the Manhattan project, which produced the world's first atomic bomb in
1945. The bomb was based on the nuclear fission of uranium, a metal first thought
to have been discovered nearly 150 years earlier.Post-World War II developments
SuperalloysSuperalloys composed of combinations of Fe, Ni, Co, and Cr, and lesser
amounts of W, Mo, Ta, Nb, Ti, and Al were developed shortly after World War II for
use in high performance engines, operating at elevated temperatures (above 650 �C
(1,200 �F)). They retain most of their strength under these conditions, for
prolonged periods, and combine good low-temperature ductility with resistance to
corrosion or oxidation. Superalloys can now be found in a wide range of
applications including land, maritime, and aerospace turbines, and chemical and
petroleum plants.Transcurium metalsThe successful development of the atomic bomb at
the end of World War II sparked further efforts to synthesize new elements, nearly
all of which are, or are expected to be, metals, and all of which are radioactive.
It was not until 1949 that element 97 (berkelium), next after element 96 (curium),
was synthesized by firing alpha particles at an americium target. In 1952, element
100 (fermium) was found in the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion;
hydrogen, a nonmetal, had been identified as an element nearly 200 years earlier.
Since 1952, elements 101 (mendelevium) to 118 (oganesson) have been synthesized.
Bulk metallic glassesA metallic glass (also known as an amorphous or glassy metal)
is a solid metallic material, usually an alloy, with a disordered atomic-scale
structure. Most pure and alloyed metals, in their solid state, have atoms arranged
in a highly ordered crystalline structure. Amorphous metals have a non-crystalline
glass-like structure. But unlike common glasses, such as window glass, which are
typically electrical insulators, amorphous metals have good electrical
conductivity. Amorphous metals are produced in several ways, including extremely
rapid cooling, physical vapor deposition, solid-state reaction, ion irradiation,
and mechanical alloying. The first reported metallic glass was an alloy (Au75Si25)
produced at Caltech in 1960. More recently, batches of amorphous steel with three
times the strength of conventional steel alloys have been produced. Currently, the
most important applications rely on the special magnetic properties of some
ferromagnetic metallic glasses. The low magnetization loss is used in high-
efficiency transformers. Theft control ID tags and other article surveillance
schemes often use metallic glasses because of these magnetic properties.Shape-
memory alloysA shape-memory alloy (SMA) is an alloy that "remembers" its original
shape and when deformed returns to its pre-deformed shape when heated. While the
shape memory effect had been first observed in 1932, in an Au-Cd alloy, it was not
until 1962, with the accidental discovery of the effect in a Ni-Ti alloy that
research began in earnest, and another ten years before commercial applications
emerged. SMA's have applications in robotics and automotive, aerospace, and
biomedical industries. There is another type of SMA, called a ferromagnetic shape-
memory alloy (FSMA), that changes shape under strong magnetic fields. These
materials are of particular interest as the magnetic response tends to be faster
and more efficient than temperature-induced responses.Quasicyrstalline alloysA
metallic regular dodecahedronA Ho-Mg-Zn icosahedral quasicrystal formed as a
pentagonal dodecahedron, the dual of the icosahedronIn 1984, Israeli chemist Dan
Shechtman found an aluminum-manganese alloy having five-fold symmetry, in breach of
crystallographic convention at the time which said that crystalline structures
could only have two-, three-, four-, or six-fold symmetry. Due to fear of the
scientific community's reaction, it took him two years to publish the results for
which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2011. Since this time,
hundreds of quasicrystals have been reported and confirmed. They exist in many
metallic alloys (and some polymers). Quasicrystals are found most often in aluminum
alloys (Al-Li-Cu, Al-Mn-Si, Al-Ni-Co, Al-Pd-Mn, Al-Cu-Fe, Al-Cu-V, etc.), but
numerous other compositions are also known (Cd-Yb, Ti-Zr-Ni, Zn-Mg-Ho, Zn-Mg-Sc,
In-Ag-Yb, Pd-U-Si, etc.). Quasicrystals effectively have infinitely large unit
cells. Icosahedrite Al63Cu24Fe13, the first quasicrystal found in nature, was
discovered in 2009. Most quasicrystals have ceramic-like properties including low
electrical conductivity (approaching values seen in insulators) and low thermal
conductivity, high hardness, brittleness, and resistance to corrosion, and non-
stick properties. Quasicrystals have been used to develop heat insulation, LEDs,
diesel engines, and new materials that convert heat to electricity. New
applications may take advantage of the low coefficient of friction and the hardness
of some quasicrystalline materials, for example embedding particles in plastic to
make strong, hard-wearing, low-friction plastic gears. Other potential applications
include selective solar absorbers for power conversion, broad-wavelength
reflectors, and bone repair and prostheses applications where biocompatibility, low
friction, and corrosion resistance are required.Complex metallic alloysComplex
metallic alloys (CMAs) are intermetallic compounds characterized by large unit
cells comprising some tens up to thousands of atoms; the presence of well-defined
clusters of atoms (frequently with icosahedral symmetry); and partial disorder
within their crystalline lattices.
They are composed of two or more metallic elements, sometimes with metalloids or
chalcogenides added. They include, for example, NaCd2, with 348 sodium atoms and
768 cadmium atoms in the unit cell. Linus Pauling attempted to describe the
structure of NaCd2 in 1923, but did not succeed until 1955. At first called "giant
unit cell crystals", interest in CMAs, as they came to be called, did not pick up
until 2002, with the publication of a paper called "Structurally Complex Alloy
Phases", given at the 8th International Conference on Quasicrystals. Potential
applications of CMAs include as heat insulation; solar heating; magnetic
refrigerators; using waste heat to generate electricity; and coatings for turbine
blades in military engines.High-entropy alloysHigh-entropy alloys (HEAs) such as
AlLiMgScTi are composed of equal or nearly equal quantities of five or more metals.
Compared to conventional alloys with only one or two base metals, HEAs have
considerably better strength-to-weight ratios, higher tensile strength, and greater
resistance to fracturing, corrosion, and oxidation. Although HEAs were described as
early as 1981, significant interest did not develop until the 2010s; they continue
to be the focus of research in materials science and engineering because of their
potential for desirable properties.MAX phase alloysMAX phasealloy examplesMAX
M A XHf2SnC Hf Sn CTi4AlN3 Ti Al NTi3SiC2 Ti
Si CTi2AlC Ti Al CCr2AlC2 Cr Al CTi3AlC2 Ti Al
CIn a MAX phase alloy, M is an early transition metal, A is an A group
element (mostly group IIIA and IVA, or groups 13 and 14), and X is either carbon or
nitrogen. Examples are Hf2SnC and Ti4AlN3. Such alloys have some of the best
properties of metals and ceramics. These properties include high electrical and
thermal conductivity, thermal shock resistance, damage tolerance, machinability,
high elastic stiffness, and low thermal expansion coefficients.[43] They can be
polished to a metallic luster because of their excellent electrical conductivities.
During mechanical testing, it has been found that polycrystalline Ti3SiC2 cylinders
can be repeatedly compressed at room temperature, up to stresses of 1 GPa, and
fully recover upon the removal of the load. Some MAX phases are also highly
resistant to chemical attack (e.g. Ti3SiC2) and high-temperature oxidation in air
(Ti2AlC, Cr2AlC2, and Ti3AlC2). Potential applications for MAX phase alloys
include: as tough, machinable, thermal shock-resistant refractories; high-
temperature heating elements; coatings for electrical contacts; and neutron
irradiation resistant parts for nuclear applications. While MAX phase alloys were
discovered in the 1960s, the first paper on the subject was not published until
1996.See alsoColored goldDuctilityFerrous metallurgyMetal theftMetallurgy
MetalworkingPolymetalProperties of metals, metalloids, and nonmetalsStructural
steelTransition metalNotes^ This is a simplified explanation; other factors may
include atomic radius, nuclear charge, number of bond orbitals, overlap of orbital
energies, and crystal form.[6]^ Trace elements having an abundance equalling or
much less than one part per trillion (namely Tc, Pm, Po, At, Ra, Ac, Pa, Np, and
Pu) are not shown.^ In some cases, for example in the presence of high energy gamma
rays or in a very high temperature hydrogen rich environment, the subject nuclei
may experience neutron loss or proton gain resulting in the production of
(comparatively rare) neutron deficient isotopes.[22]^ The ejection of matter when
two neutron stars collide is attributed to the interaction of their tidal forces,
possible crustal disruption, and shock heating (which is what happens if you floor
the accelerator in car when the engine is cold).[25]^ Iron, cobalt, nickel, and tin
are also siderophiles from a whole of Earth perspective.^ Another life-enabling
role for iron is as a key constituent of hemoglobin, which enables the
transportation of oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.^ Bronze is an
alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12% tin and often with
the addition of other metals (such as aluminum, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and
sometimes non-metals or metalloids such as arsenic, phosphorus, or silicon.^ The
Chalybean peoples of Pontus in Asia Minor were being concurrently celebrated for
working in iron and steel. Unbeknownst to them, their iron contained a high amount
of manganese, enabling the production of a superior form of steel.^ In Damascus,
Syria, blade-smiths forged knives and swords with a distinctive surface pattern
composed of swirling patterns of light-etched regions on a nearly black background.
These blades had legendary cutting abilities. The iron the smiths were using was
sourced from India, and contained one or more carbide-forming elements, such as V,
Mo, Cr, Mn, and Nb. Modern analysis of these weapons has shown that these elements
supported the catalytic formation of carbon nanotubes, which in turn promoted the
formation of cementite (Fe3C) nanowires. The malleability of the carbon nanotubes
offset the brittle nature of the cementite, and endowed the resulting steel with a
unique combination of strength and flexibility. Knowledge of how to make what came
to called Damascus steel died out in the eighteenth century possibly due to
exhausting ore sources with the right combination of impurities. The techniques
involved were not rediscovered until 2009.^ In ancient times, lead was regarded as
the father of all metals.^ Paracelsus, a later German Renaissance writer, added the
third principle of salt, carrying the nonvolatile and incombustible properties, in
his tria prima doctrine. These theories retained the four classical elements as
underlying the composition of sulfur, mercury, and salt.References^ Chiang, CK
(1977). "Transport and optical properties of polythiazyl bromides: (SNBr0.4)x".
Solid State Communications. 23 (9): 607�612. Bibcode:1977SSCom..23..607C.
doi:10.1016/0038-1098(77)90530-0.; Greenwood, NN; Earnshaw, A (1998). Chemistry of
the Elements. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 727. ISBN 978-0-7506-3365-9.;
Mutlu, H; Theato, P (2021). "Polymers with sulfur-nitrogen bonds". In Zhang, X;
Theato, P (eds.). Sulfur-Containing Polymers: From Synthesis to Functional
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Materials Science and Engineering AFurther readingChoptuik M. W., Lehner L. &
Pretorias F. 2015, "Probing strong-field gravity through numerical simulation", in
A. Ashtekar, B. K. Berger, J. Isenberg & M. MacCallum (eds), General Relativity and
Gravitation: A Centennial Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN
978-1-107-03731-1.Cox, P. A. (1997). The elements: Their origin, abundance and
distribution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-855298-7.Crow J. M.
2016, "Impossible alloys: How to make never-before-seen metals", New Scientist, 12
OctoberHadhazy A. 2016, "Galactic 'Gold Mine' Explains the Origin of Nature's
Heaviest Elements", Science Spotlights, 10 May 2016, accessed 11 July 2016.Hofmann
S. 2002, On Beyond Uranium: Journey to the End of the Periodic Table, Taylor &
Francis, London, ISBN 978-0-415-28495-0.Padmanabhan T. 2001, Theoretical
Astrophysics, vol. 2, Stars and Stellar Systems, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, ISBN 978-0-521-56241-6.Parish R. V. 1977, The metallic elements,
Longman, London, ISBN 978-0-582-44278-8Podosek F. A. 2011, "Noble gases", in H. D.
Holland & K. K. Turekian (eds), Isotope Geochemistry: From the Treatise on
Geochemistry, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 467�492, ISBN 978-0-08-096710-3.Raymond R.
1984, Out of the fiery furnace: The impact of metals on the history of mankind,
Macmillan Australia, Melbourne, ISBN 978-0-333-38024-6Rehder D. 2010, Chemistry in
Space: From Interstellar Matter to the Origin of Life, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, ISBN
978-3-527-32689-1.Russell A. M. & Lee K. L. 2005, Structure�property relations in
nonferrous metals, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, ISBN 978-0-471-64952-6
Street A. & Alexander W. 1998, Metals in the service of man, 11th ed., Penguin
Books, London, ISBN 978-0-14-025776-2Wilson A. J. 1994, The living rock: The tory
of metals since earliest times and their impact on developing civilization,
Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, ISBN 978-1-85573-154-7External linksWikisource has
the text of the 1879 American Cyclop�dia article Metal.Official website of ASM
International (formerly the American Society for Metals)Official website of The
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control: National Edit this at Wikidata Japan Czech RepublicCategories: Metallic
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