Fuel cell ---Fuel cells require a continuous input of fuel and an oxidizing agent

(generally oxygen) in order to sustain the reactions that generate the electricity. Therefore,
these cells can constantly generate electricity until the supply of fuel and oxygen is cut off.
Characteristics of fuel cells: Hydrogen fuel cells are a clean, reliable, quiet, and
efficient source of high-quality electric power. They use hydrogen as a fuel to drive an
electrochemical process that produces electricity, with water and heat as the only
by-products.---Efficiency: ---Environmental Friendliness:---Scalability: ---Quiet Operation:
---Durability:---Low Emissions:
Operating principle of a fuel cell
Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging. They produce
electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes—a
negative electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)—sandwiched around
an electrolyte. A fuel, such as hydrogen, is fed to the anode, and air is fed to the cathode.
In a hydrogen fuel cell, a catalyst at the anode separates hydrogen molecules into protons
and electrons, which take different paths to the cathode. The electrons go through an
external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. The protons migrate through the electrolyte to
the cathode, where they unite with oxygen and the electrons to produce water and heat.
fuel cell types:-- alkaline fuel cell. --Proton exchange Membrane;--- direct methanol
fuel cell. ---Phosphoric acid fuel cell, ---molten carbonate fuel cell,--- solid oxide fuel cell
Alkaline fuel cell
An alkaline fuel cell (AFC) is a type of fuel cell that
uses an alkaline electrolyte, typically potassium
hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH), as the
electrolyte. It operates by converting the chemical energy of
a fuel, usually hydrogen, into electrical energy through an
electrochemical reaction.---• These fuel cells are also known
as ambient temperature fuel cells wherein the electrolyte is
circulated in order to transfer heat and water and, at the
same time, aid in removal of the carbonate.---• An alkaline
solution, generally being potassium hydroxide
solution (KOH) is the electrolyte.---To prevent
carbonation of the electrolyte, scrubbers are used
to scrub both the air and the fuel gas inlets.--- In this case
anode and cathode electrodes are catalyzed with small
quantities of platinum (Pt) and silver (Ag), respectively.
WorkingThe chemistry behind the AFC is:- The fuel cell produces power through a redox
reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. ---At the anode, hydrogen is oxidized according to
- -
the reaction: 2H + 4OH + 4H O + 4e
2 2 producing water and releasing two
electrons.----The electrons flow through an external circuit and return to the cathode,
- -
reducing oxygen in the reaction :O + 2H O + 4é + 4OH
2 2
producinghydroxide ions.The net reaction consumes one oxygen atom and two hydrogen
atoms in the production of each water molecule.Electricity and heat are formed as
by-products of this reaction. Applications --Despite the problems associated with
scrubbing CO2 from the fuel gas and air inlets, the AFC seems to be a very attractive
solution for large-scale power generation systems. • The AFC is being used extensively in
the U.S. for various space programs since the early 1960s. ----The alkaline fuel cells are
the most used as they are the most efficient and are cheap to manufacture.• The first
alkaline fuel cells were used by NASA in the Apollo missions to provide power as well as
provide with potable water for the astronauts.• The alkaline fuel cell is commercially
incubated into a 22 seated hydrogen ship ,power-assisted by an electric motor that gets its
electricity from a fuel cell. • The ship is known as HYDRA,it was used as a ferry boat in
GHENT, Belgium. Advantages ----• Activation over voltages at the cathode is usually
less than with an acid electrolyte fuel cells-----• Electrodes do not have to be made of
precious metals.---• High electrical efficiency of up to 60-70% in moderate
condition.----Mobile electrolvte fuel cell can easily cooled by circulated hydrogen.---* High
performance, simple design.---• Good power density.---* Low temperature operation.
Disadvantages --• The cost of the AFC is comparatively much higher than any other
fuel cell at the moment. • This high cost arises due to the fact that the reactant processing
cost to handle the carbonation problem is quite high.---- They need to be installed in a CO,
free environment----Preparation of the electrodes with noble metal catalysts is very
expensive-----* Diaphragm made of asbestos but this material is hazardous for health
Proton exchange Membrane fuel cell
Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), also known as
polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, use a
proton-conducting polymer membrane as the electrolyte.
Hydrogen is typically used as the fuel. These cells operate
at relatively low temperatures and can quickly vary their
output to meet shifting power demands. PEM fuel cells are
the best candidates for powering automobiles. They can also
be used for stationary power production. However, due to
their low operating temperature, they cannot directly use
hydrocarbon fuels, such as natural gas, liquefied
natural gas, or ethanol. These fuels must be
converted to hydrogen in a fuel reformer to be able to be
used by a PEM fuel cell.Working--- • The electrolyte of a
PEM fuel cell consists of a layer of solid polymer, which allows
protons to be transmitted from one side to the other. • Requires hydrogen and oxygen as
its input, though the oxidant may also be ambient air. • These gases must be humidified. •
The anode conducts the electrons that are freed from the hydrogen molecules so that they
can be used in an external circuit. • Cathode, on the other hand, has channels etched into
it, which distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. • Cathode also conducts the
electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst, where they can recombine with the
hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water. • The electrolyte is the proton exchange
membrane. This specially treated material only conducts charged ions. • The membrane
blocks electrons. • The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the reaction of oxygen
and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum powder coated very thinly onto carbon paper
or cloth. • The platinum-coated side of the catalyst is placed facing the membrane.
Anode 2H2→ 4H+ +4e- Cathode: O2 +4H+ +4e- → 2H2O
Overall Reaction: 2H2+O2→ 2H20 + pOWER
These fuel cells can be used for a variety of different applications, especially in automotive
systems. • These fuel cells can operate with efficiencies of about 55% at a temperature of
about 90°C Advantages 1. High power density of all the fuel cell classes 2. Good
start-stop capabilities 3. Low-temperature operation makes it suitable for portable
application Disadvantages 1. Use expensive platinum catalysts (Pt) 2. Polymer
membrane (nafion) and ancillary components are expensive 3. Active water management
is often required 4. Very poor CO and S tolerance Applications Transportation:
Portable Power: Backup Power Systems: Remote Power Generation: Combined Heat and
Power (CHP) Systems:
Direct methanol fuel cell
A Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) is a type of fuel cell that
generates electricity directly from the electrochemical reaction
of methanol and oxygen. Unlike other fuel cell types that use
hydrogen as a fuel, DMFCs can directly utilize liquid methanol
as the fuel source. ---The DMFC’s design is a lot like that of a
battery. It has two electrodes separated by a membrane
: an anode and a cathode. When coupled with oxygen,
the methanol fuel cell transforms the fuel (methanol) to energy,
hence the name. The sole by-products of combustion are heat,
water and a trace quantity of CO2. Methanol and water react
electrochemically (the methanol is oxidised) at the anode to form carbon dioxide, protons
and electrons. Protons are generated at the anode flow through the polymer electrolyte to
the cathode, where they react with oxygen to produce water. The electrons created at the
anode carry the free energy change of the chemical reaction and travel through the
external circuit, where they are used to generate electricity
Working--- • • The primary fuel used in fuel cells is hydrogen, which can be easily
obtained from reformation of hydrocarbon fuels such as methane and methanol. •
However, such a method of electricity generation immediately suggests a low efficiency of
fuel utilization as well as increased cost of operation. • This limitation can be overcome by
the use of the DMFC wherein methanol is directly used as the primary source of fuel. • The
operation of the DMFC is based on the oxidation of an aqueous solution of methanol in a
PEM fuel cell without the use of a fuel processor. • The methanol fuel, which may be stored
in a reservoir, is directly fed to the anode. • Oxygen from air is fed to the cathode. • The
catalyst used at the cathode is typically a platinumruthenium • (Pt-Ru) combination, while
only platinum (Pt) is used at the anode
• The controlled oxidation, taking place at the anode, can be expressed as:
The cathode reaction can be depicted as follows

There is a controlled oxidation taking place at the anode, whereas a reduction of oxygen to
water is observed at the cathode. • The entire conversion process takes place at lower
temperatures (200°C). Advantages ---Fast start-up time---- Simple and compact
system design----- Widely used and well-established for low power applications
Disadvantages -----Require high purity methanol----- Comparatively low efficiency (20
– 30%) ------Storage temperature at sub-zero temperatures problematic, as formation of
water crystals can damage the membrane----- Methanol “cross-over” on membrane can
affect lifetime and system efficiency -----High platinum content required as catalyst.
Applications DMFCs are used both in commercial and private settings. The fields of
application include remote monitoring stations, video surveillance systems or smaller
electrical systems in traffic control – mostly with a demanded power of less than 150 Watts.
In the leisure sector, DMFCs are used for on-board power supply in caravans and boats.
Why methanol is used directly? • The primary fuel used in fuel cells is hydrogen,
which can be easily obtained from reformation of hydrocarbon fuels such as methane and
methanol. • However, such a method of electricity generation immediately suggests a low
efficiency of fuel utilization as well as increased cost of operation. • This limitation can be
overcome by the use of the DMFC wherein methanol is directly used as the primary source
of fuel.
Phosphoric acid fuel cell
These fuel cells involve the use of phosphoric acid as an
electrolyte in order to channel the H+ The working
temperatures of these cells lie in the range of 150oC – 200oC
Electrons are forced to travel to the cathode via an external circuit
because of the non-conductive nature of phosphoric acid. Due to
the acidic nature of the electrolyte, the components of these cells
tend to corrode or oxidize over time.
Working--- • • A phosphoric acid fuel cell consists of liquid
phosphoric acid electrolyte sandwiched between an anode
(negatively charged electrode) and a cathode (positively charged
electrode). The processes that take place in the fuel cell are
as follows: 1. Hydrogen fuel is channeled through field flow
plates to the anode on one side of the fuel cell, while oxygen
from the air is channeled to the cathode on the other side of the cell. 2. At the anode, a
platinum catalyst causes the hydrogen to split into positive hydrogen ions (protons) and
negatively charged electrons. 3. The phosphoric acid electrolyte allows only the positively
charged ions to pass through it to the cathode. The negatively charged electrons must
travel along an external circuit to the cathode, creating an electrical current. 4. At the
cathode, the electrons and positively charged hydrogen ions combine with oxygen to form
water, which flows out of the cell.
Advantages > It has better tolerance to carbon monoxide (tolerates ~ 1%) is the
advantage of the phosphoric acid fuel cell. ----They are pollution-free and eco friendly.
---These cells are not sensitive to CO2---- It has the possibility of cogeneration
(electricity-heat). > They have low volatility, etc. DIsadvantages ---- The electrolyte
solidifies around 40°C, so the fuel cell must be kept at a higher temperature to avoid
damaging the electrodes.----They are poor ion conductors at low temperatures.---The
strong corrosively of the acid causes deterioration of the electrodes.----The carbon
monoxide tends to severely poison platinum in the catalyst----They have relatively high
start-up time.----The catalyst used is the high cost. > They have sulfur sensitivities, etc.
Applications > It is typically used for stationary power generation.---They are used to
power large vehicles such as city buses and locomotives, etc.
Molten carbonate fuel cell
A Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) is a type
of high-temperature fuel cell that operates at
temperatures around 600 to 700 degrees
Celsius. MCFCs use a molten carbonate electrolyte,
typically a mixture of lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) and
potassium carbonate (K2CO3), which allows for the
conduction of carbonate ions (CO32-) within the cell.
The molten-carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) is similar to the
solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), but it uses carbonate ions
as the charge carrier in a high-temperature
liquid solution of lithium, potassium, or sodium
carbonate as an electrolyte.---The MCFC
operates at a temperature of 600° C to 700° C
(1,112° F to 1,292° F), so it can generate steam
that can be used to generate more power. It is
best suited for large stationary power generators.
Because the MCFC has an operating temperature
that is a bit lower than solid oxide fuel cells, it can
use less exotic materials, which makes it a little less expensive to manufacture and
operate Working--- • • A single cell is a laminate of two porous electrodes made of Ni
and NiO, an electrolyte, and separators. • A fuel cell stack is made by alternating these
single cells with cooling plates. • The electrolyte is a porous plate of LiAlO2 impregnated
with carbonates. • The cathode must be supplied with carbon dioxide, which reacts with the
oxygen and electrons to form carbonate ions, which carry the ionic current through the
electrolyte. • At the anode, these ions are consumed in the oxidation of hydrogen, which
also forms water vapor and carbon dioxide to be transferred back to the cathode.• Carbon
monoxide (CO) is not directly used by the electrochemical oxidation, but produces
additional H2 when combined with water. • Carbon dioxide and oxygen from air together
with electrons from the cathode are converted to carbonate ions, • These carbonate ions
react with the fuel (hydrogen and carbon monoxide) at the anode, releasing electrons and
producing carbon dioxide and water.
Advantages • Have high efficiency---Do not need noble metal catalysts---Have fast
reaction kinetics (react quickly)---• Due to high temperature at which they operate, the fuels
are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by a process called internal reforming,
which reduce costs. Disadvantages• Having a liquid electrolyte, which introduces the
handling of electrolyte---The known lifetime limiting phenomena are-• Corrosion of
separator plate---• Electrolyte retention capacity---• Matrix cracking----• Contaminants
Applications---MCFCs are suitable for distributed generation and combined heat and
power.----• It is used in large stationary power generation.----Most of the fuel cells of
megawatt capacity use MCFC as da large CHP* and CP. These provide efficiency about
80% -----Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) has been developed by the European-funded
MC WAP research project to be eventually used as an alternative power supply for ships.
Solid oxide fuel cell
A Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) is a type of fuel cell that operates at
high temperatures, typically between 600 to 1,000 degrees
Celsius. SOFCs use a solid ceramic electrolyte, typically
made of metal oxides such as yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ),
as well as metal oxide-based electrode materials. ---SOFC has
emerged as an alternative high temperature technology
contender.----The electrolyte is in solid state and is not a liquid
electrolyte, which would mean having material corrosion and
electrolyte management problems. • The cell readily
conducts oxygen ions from the air electrode (cathode),
where they are formed through the zirconia-based
electrolyte to a fuel electrode (anode).• Here they react with
fuel gas CO or H2, or any other mixture, and deliver electrons
to an external circuit to produce electricity. • A number of
different fuels can be used, from pure hydrogen to methane to carbon monoxide. • The
nature of the emissions from the fuel cell varies correspondingly with the fuel mixture.
Working--- • • • -----Natural gas goes through a steam-reforming process. This chemical
reaction produces hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
steam (H2O). There will be some unreformed natural gas left in the mix as well.
-----The mix of elements from the reformer enter the fuel cell at the anode side. Meanwhile,
air (including oxygen) enters the fuel cell at the cathode side.
----Oxygen in the air combines with free electrons to form oxide ions at the cathode. Oxide
ions with free electrons travel from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte.
----At the anode, oxide ions react with hydrogen forming water (steam) and with carbon
monoxide (CO) forming carbon dioxide (CO2).
----Reactions covered on Step #4 release free electrons. These free electrons travel to
cathode through the external electrical circuit, producing electricity.
Advantages • Sealing-free structure • Less complex gas manifolding • Increased
thermomechanical stability • More compact and simplified designs • Easier stack assembly
• Great potential for miniaturization Disadvantages• • Highly selective and catalytically
active materials necessary • Low efficiency due to parasitic, non-electrochemical reactions
• Lower fuel utilization than in dual-chamber SOFCs • Risk of explosion for fuel-air mixtures
at high temperatures Applications SOFCs are being considered for a wide range of
applications, such as working as power systems for trains, ships and vehicles; supplying
electrical power for residential or industrial utility Features of SOFC • Carbon
monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons such as methane (CH4) can be used as fuels in an
SOFC. • It is also feasible that the water gas shift involving CO and the steam occurs at the
high temperature environment of an SOFC to produce H2 that is easily oxidized at the
anode. • The reaction of CO is considered as a water gas shift rather than an oxidation.
Define hydrogen fuel reformer
The reformer is the device that extracts the pure hydrogen from a hydrogen source, such
as hydrocarbon or alcohol fuels, and then provides the hydrogen to the fuel cell. Since the
hydrogen fuel reformer is extracting the hydrogen itself, the reformer has to clean up the
hydrogen and separate it from the rest of the heat and gases that get produced during the
reforming process. Despite the reformer's best efforts, the hydrogen it can provide to a fuel
cell isn't as pure as the hydrogen accessed by a pure hydrogen fuel source.
------
hydrogen storage systems - reformers
Hydrogen storage systems and reformers play important roles in the production, storage,
and utilization of hydrogen as an energy carrier. Let's discuss both aspects:
Hydrogen Storage Systems:
Hydrogen has a low energy density per unit volume, which presents challenges for its
storage and transportation. Various methods are being explored for hydrogen storage,
including:
a. Compressed Gas: Hydrogen gas can be stored under high pressure in specially
designed tanks. This method requires strong and lightweight storage tanks to safely
contain the highly pressurized hydrogen.
b. Liquid Hydrogen: Hydrogen can be liquefied by cooling it to extremely low temperatures
(-253 degrees Celsius). Liquid hydrogen offers higher energy density compared to
compressed gas but requires specialized cryogenic storage and handling.
c. Solid-State Storage: Solid materials can absorb and release hydrogen, enabling its
storage in a condensed form. Examples include metal hydrides, chemical hydrides, and
carbon-based materials. Research is ongoing to develop materials with high hydrogen
storage capacities, low cost, and efficient reversibility.
d. Chemical Hydration/Dehydration: Hydrogen can be stored and released through
chemical reactions, such as the reversible reaction between hydrogen and metal hydrides
or complex hydrides. This method allows for high storage densities and can be particularly
useful for portable applications.
Reformers:
Hydrogen can be produced from various feedstocks using reformers, which are devices
that convert hydrocarbon fuels into hydrogen-rich gas. Reformers can operate through
different processes:
a. Steam Methane Reforming (SMR): SMR is the most common method for large-scale
hydrogen production. It involves the reaction of natural gas (primarily methane) with steam
in the presence of a catalyst. SMR is highly efficient but produces carbon dioxide as a
byproduct.
b. Autothermal Reforming (ATR): ATR combines SMR with partial oxidation, allowing for
simultaneous reactions of methane and oxygen or air. This process offers better control
over the hydrogen-to-carbon monoxide ratio and is commonly used in fuel cell applications.
c. Partial Oxidation (POX): POX involves the reaction of hydrocarbon fuels with limited
oxygen supply. It can be used with various feedstocks, including liquid fuels or biomass, to
produce hydrogen-rich syngas, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
d. Other Reforming Methods: Alternative reforming processes include catalytic reforming,
plasma reforming, and biogas reforming. Each method has its advantages and may be
suitable for specific applications or feedstocks.
Reformers are crucial for hydrogen production, as they enable the utilization of various
feedstocks to produce hydrogen gas efficiently. The choice of reforming method depends
on factors such as feedstock availability, scale of production, energy efficiency, and the
desired hydrogen purity.
Fuel cell vehicles
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are powered by hydrogen. They are more efficient than
conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and produce no harmful tailpipe
emissions—they only emit water vapor and warm air. FCEVs and the hydrogen
infrastructure to fuel them are in the early stages of implementation FCEVs use a
propulsion system similar to that of electric vehicles, where energy stored as hydrogen is
converted to electricity by the fuel cell. Unlike conventional internal combustion engine
vehicles, these vehicles produce no harmful tailpipe emissions. FCEVs are fueled with
pure hydrogen gas stored in a tank on the vehicle. Similar to conventional internal
combustion engine vehicles, they can fuel in about 5 minutes and have a driving range of
more than 300 miles. FCEVs are equipped with other advanced technologies to increase
efficiency, such as regenerative braking systems that capture the energy lost during
braking and store it in a battery. Major automobile manufacturers are offering a limited but
growing number of production FCEVs to the public in certain markets, in sync with what
the developing infrastructure can support.
Methods of Making Hydrogen
I. Steam reforming: Steam reforming of methane Is the most common method for the
hydrogen production. It combines methane with the high temperature steam to trigger a
reaction and separate the hydrogen. At high temperatures (700 – 1100 °C) and in the
presence of a metal-based catalyst (nickel), steam reacts with methane to yield carbon
monoxide and hydrogen. CH4 + H2 O → CO + 3 H2
II. Gasification: Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil fuel based
carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide. This is
achieved by reacting the material at high temperatures (>700 °C), without combustion, with
a controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam.
III. Electrolysis: Hydrogen can also be produced by separating water into its two primary
elementshydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2 ). This process, known as electrolysis, passes an
electrical current through the water to extract hydrogen. The electricity can be sourced
from clean, reneable energy such as wind, solar, or hydro. 2 NaCl + 2 H2 O → 2 NaOH +
H2 + Cl2
Fuel Cell Advantages Reduced greenhouse gas emissions. High Reliability.
Flexibility in installation and operation. Development of renewable energy resources.
Reduced demand for foreign oil. Improved environmental quality.
Disadvantages hydrogen is in the gas state at room temperature and pressure, so it is
difficult to store in the car fuel cells and electric motors are less durable than petrol
engines and diesel engines, so they are not so long-lasting fuel cells are very expensive
there is no countrywide network of hydrogen filling stations at the moment