Proteins

The third of the six nutrients is protein. Chemically, proteins are extensive chains
of amino acids. Amino acids are often abbreviated AA. Figure 2.6 illustrates the
basic chemical structure of an amino acid. All amino acids contain four basic
components linked to a carbon skeleton. The four basic components are a
hydrogen, an amine, a carboxyl, and a side chain, commonly referred to as the R
group. The specific R group determines the specific amino acid. All amino acids
contain an amine, therefore all proteins contain nitrogen.

Individual amino acids are linked via a peptide bond. The specific amino acid
sequence and subsequent linkages between components of the amino acids,
determine the chemical and physical properties of the protein. Figure 2.7 illustrates
the complex structure of a protein. In Figure 2.7, each color represents a specific
atom such as nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, an oxygen, etc.

In the body, protein is the nutrient present in the second greatest concentration. The
primary functions of proteins are to aid in structure, movement, digestion,
metabolism, growth, and defense.
At the cell level, protein synthesis is regulated by deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.
DNA is found within the cell nucleus of each cell. Specifically, DNA determines
the sequence of amino acids and therefore the protein and its associated
characteristics. As protein synthesis requires specific amino acids in precise
sequences, deficiencies of specific amino acids limit synthesis of proteins requiring
those amino acids. The deficient amino acid, limiting protein synthesis, is referred
to as the limiting amino acid. The limiting amino acids of concern for
monogastrics such as poultry and swine are lysine, methionine, and tryptophan. As
will be discussed later, protein nutrition for ruminants is different than protein
nutrition for monogastrics. In general, limiting amino acids are not a concern in
ruminant rations. However, limiting amino acids are of concern for high producing
animals such as lactating or rapidly growing ruminants. Limiting amino acids of
concern for high producing lactating dairy cows are lysine and methionine. The
proteins in an animal’s body are composed of 20 amino acids. Table 2.1 lists the
amino acids.

Table 2.1 - Amino Acids

Essential AA Nonessential AA

Arginine Alanine

Histidine Aspartic acid

Isoleucine Citrulline

Leucine Cystine

Lysine Glutamic acid*

Methionine Glycine*

Phenylalanine Hydroxyproline

Threonine Proline*

Tryptophan Serine
 Valine Tyrosine

*Additional
amino acids
Taurine
required by
chicks

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
There are two sources of amino acids. One source is the animal. Within the
animal’s body, animals are able to synthesize amino acids. The second source is
the diet. In Table 2.1, the amino acids are listed as either dietary essential or
nonessential. The dietary essential amino acids are the amino acids that must be
provided in the diet as the animals are not able to synthesize adequate amounts of
the amino acid to fulfill their requirement. In contrast, nonessential amino acids are
the amino acids not required in the diet as the animals are able to synthesize
adequate amounts of the amino acid to fulfill their requirement. In Table 2.1, the
nonessential amino acids with the superscript “*” are additional dietary essential
amino acids for chicks.
Dietary proteins provide the amino acids required for protein synthesis. However,
the processes from consumption of dietary proteins to metabolism to tissue
proteins differ between monogastrics and ruminants.
In monogastrics, dietary protein is digested in the stomach and the small intestine.
Mammalian enzymes and other compounds degrade extensive proteins to their
specific amino acids. Then, the amino acids are absorbed through the small
intestine and enter the circulatory system. In monogastrics, the amino acid profile
consumed is similar to the amino acid profile absorbed and subsequently used for
protein synthesis in the animal.
For ruminants, protein nutrition is more complex. Figure 2.8 illustrates protein
nutrition in a ruminant.

As illustrated, dietary or feed proteins are divided into three categories. The first
category is rumen inert protein. Rumen inert protein is also known as rumen
undegradable protein (RUP) or undegradable intake protein (UIP). Rumen inert
protein passes through the rumen unchanged. As the protein continues to flow
through the GI tract, it is exposed to mammalian secretions and enzymes in the
abomasum and small intestine. The portion of the protein digested to amino acids
will be absorbed in the small intestine. The undigested portion will pass through
the remainder of the GI tract and be excreted in the feces. The second category is
the rumen degradable protein (RDP) or degradable intake protein (DIP). Rumen
degradable protein is digested in the rumen. Rumen microorganisms metabolize
the protein to ammonia (NH3). The rumen microbes use the ammonia to synthesize
microbial proteins. As rumen fluid and materials, including the rumen microbes,
flow out of the rumen and continue through the GI tract, the microbial proteins will
be available to the animal. Microbial proteins will be digested in the abomasum
and small intestine and the amino acids will be absorbed in the small intestine. The
undigested portion of the microbial proteins is excreted in the feces. The third
category is nonprotein nitrogen compounds, often abbreviated NPN compounds.
Similar to rumen degradable protein, microbes are able to metabolize NPN
compounds to produce ammonia and use the ammonia for microbial protein
synthesis. From there, the digestion of microbial protein is as stated above for
RDP. Microbial protein synthesis is dependent upon substrate availability. The two
most important substrates are nitrogen and energy. If the availability of nitrogen as
ammonia exceeds the synthesis of microbial proteins, as illustrated in Figure 2.8,
the ruminant will absorb the ammonia and recycle the nitrogen in the body. If the
excess exceeds the ruminant’s ability to recycle, the excess nitrogen will be
excreted in the urine.
As a result of the differential protein nutrition, there are differences in the protein
requirements of monogastrics and ruminants. For monogastrics, the protein
requirement is stated in terms of total protein. However, the total protein only
includes true protein or protein composed of amino acids. In addition, the protein
requirements for monogastrics include information on limiting amino acids.
For ruminants, the protein requirement is stated in terms of total protein and
includes both true protein and NPN compounds. The requirements are stated in
terms of the total amounts and relative amounts for the three categories (i.e. RUP,
RDP, and NPN compounds). And finally, for high producing ruminants
requirements provide information regarding limiting amino acids.
Feed proteins provide a direct or an indirect source of amino acids to be used for
mammalian protein synthesis. However, not all feed proteins yield the same total
of each of the amino acids or same relative proportions of the amino acids.
Therefore, there are a number of measures to describe the nutritive value of the
protein source. As some of the measures are also used for other nutrients, Module
III will discuss the measures. The measures to be discussed are digestibility,
solubility, amino acid composition, biological value, and protein efficiency ratio.