Senckenberg-Poster
TheEvolutionofAnimals
Manfred Grasshoff and Michael Gudo
with cooperation of S. Hilsberg, W. Oschmann and J. Scholz
One of the most important aspects in
biological sciences is the investigation
of long-term changes in nature. It is
commonly accepted that the universe,
the planetary system, and all the or-
ganisms living on earth, are the result
of a process of continuous modifica-
tion and development. The architec-
ture of recent organisms provides a
key for the understanding and recon-
struction of their history through the
billions of years, of the process called
evolution.
Evolution is the gradual change of or-
ganisms through generations and
time. We cannot directely observe
evolution in nature. So we have to re-
construct how organisms could have
changed and how their variety
emerged under anatomical and struc-
tural-functional constraints. For any
evolutionary transformation it is con-
sidered that the process has to be con-
tinuous. Organisms are not engines,
which can be stopped for rebuilding.
Organismic evolution can be likened
to a gradual change in the running en-
gine.
Evolutionary research should not only
consider obvious similiarities. The ar-
chitectural elements by which an or-
ganism is designed are much more im-
portant. In particular, this means the
mechanical properties of tissues, their
arrangement and their functional con-
nections. (In German this complex of
structure and function is called ‘Kon-
struktion’ or ‘Bauplan’; the latter term
is sometimes used as a German loan-
word in English scientific papers and
text books).
This approach provides new visions of
biological research. Common knowl-
edge of biological investigations can
be integrated, but in addition, this ap-
proach provides answers for the ques-
tion: is a gradual change of one bau-
plan into another possible? For exam-
ple: can a dinosaur evolve into a bird?
This question can be answered with a
‘yes’. We can show that the dinosaur
bauplan supports the possibility of
this evolutionary transformation. An-
other question: Can a dinosaur evolve
into a mammal? This has to be an-
swered with a ‘no’. We can show that
the bauplan does not support this kind
of transformation.
This way of reasoning, its philosophi-
cal background, and the results on the
reconstruction of evolutionary path-
ways, were developed by a group of sci-
entists in the Senckenberg-Museum,
Frankfurt, in cooperation with several
colleagues. The new approach has
been called "The Frankfurt Evolution-
ary Theory" and "Engineering Mor-
phology" (in German: Konstruktions-
Morphologie).
The results are summarized in a
graphic design. It is published as a
poster, and presented in the museum
as a wall-hanging in room 206 and in a
modified form in room 104. The top
part of the poster shows the formation
of the earth and the development of
the first organisms. The most ances-
tral animals are located in the center.
Evolution of Animals 1
From here the evolutionary pathways
originate and branch off. Not all
branchings of the animal kingdom can
be presented in the design, we decided
to include those leading to well-known
animals or to some of specific zoologi-
cal interest. On these branches you
find the most important steps in the
evolutionary transformation of organ-
isms represented by technical draw-
ings. At the end of each pathway a
most recent or a known fossil repre-
sentative is shown in a naturalistic
form. These stand in contrast to the
model-like, hypothetical and technical
drawings. All extant animals are
equally remote of their point of origin.
Each animal by itself has attained its
own stage of sophistication in the evo-
lutionary process. We no longer share
the traditional anthropocentric view
of the world, in which man has taken
the position of the top of a tree grow-
ing from so-called lower to so-called
higher animals.
CONTENTS
The origin of life 1
The explosion of bacterial life 2
The origin of eucaryotes 3
The diversity of Eukaryotes 4
The first of multicellular animals 5
Gelatinous fibrous body mass 7
The body-cavities develop 9
The worm-coelomates 9
The chordates 12
Peribranchial-chambers 13
Vertebral column and tooth 14
Jaws, skull and bones 14
Evolution in teching courses 16
 Early Evolution of Earth and Life

The origin of life

Red Planet

About 5 billion years Archaean Atmospheres

Meteorites and Asteroids
ago accumulating and forming Planet Earth CO2 - Atmosphere
Brownish-red Planet
fusing meteorites and
asteroids formed the Organisms produce O2
and control the Greenhouse Effect
hot red planet earth.
After an extensive about 4 billion years ago Bacteria

cooling the rocks crys-

tallized and internal Protocells Biofilms

Archaea
chemical reactions ex- about 3,8 billion years ago

haled various gases Motiloids

(Proto-Eucarya)
through volcanoes, Endosymbioses
about 2 billion years ago
forming the archean
Eucaryotes:
atmospheres which nuceli, fibres,
mitochondria, cilia
chloroplasts
contained water but no
free oxygen. The water
condensed, and a rain
lasting millions of years
filled rivers, lakes, and
Just like soap-bubbles, they are able to for the bacteria. The stabilizing layer
the oceans. The world of water, called
fuse, to repair small holes and to se- is the so called murein-layer.
hydrosphere was created. About 4 bil-
quester small bubbles. In the lipid-
lion years ago physical and chemical
membrane protein-molecules are in- This also was the time when the ge-
conditions in the water permitted the
corporated, which were able to trans- netic substance desoxyribonucleic-
formation of the so-called organic
port matter from the external medium acid (DNA) originated. The DNA car-
chemical compounds. This fluid has
into the inner cavity and vice versa. ries the information for the distinct
been called ‘Ursuppe’, which means
Such membrane-enclosed structures enzymes and molecules, which are im-
‘primeval soup’. These organic com-
were the result of chemical-evolution. portant during metabolism. In most
pounds were formed at various sites of
They indeed had some properties of cases the genetic information is only a
the oceans and their shores, mainly in-
living beings: metabolism, reproduc- single ribbon, ribonucleic-acid (RNA),
volving mineral surfaces, such as rock
tion and merging. We call them pro- and it merges in some cases to a dou-
or clay. In such places solutions be-
tocells. ble ribbon, DNA. Only the eucarya
came concentrated and chemical re-
enclose these genetic information in
actions took place in favourable condi-
The selective permeability of the an additional membrane. They formed
tions. It was the phase of chemical-
membranes provided two options for a nucleus which hold the genetic infor-
evolution on earth.
metabolism. The first option was to mation in a save place.
sequester membrane-parts (vesicles)
A decisive step in the chemical-evolu-
into the inner cavity, in order to trans-
tion, was the origin of lipids. Lipids are
port substances from the outside into
molecules which arrange theirselves in
the inner space. This option allows to
a flexible double-layer, forming mem-
produce organic substances in the in-
branes. Such membranes are barriers
ner of the cell. This is typical for the
between solutions of different kinds.
motiloids (proto-eucarya). The
Such flexible membranes enclose
second option was to produce a slime
small reactive cavities and therefore
and to deposit it on the outer mem-
they are an indispensible element of
brane surface. These substances stabi-
living beings.
lized the outer shape. This is typical

Evolution of Animals 2
 A certain group of bacteria was of par- transform Earth into a planet similar
The explosion of bacterial life ticular importance for the evolution of to Venus, several hundreds of degrees
the planet earth, the Cyanobacteria (in hot. Only the metabolism of living be-
A typical bacterium is not much larger
former times called the blue-green al- ings continuously recycles both gases,
than a thousandth of a millimeter.
gae). They contain the enzyme chloro- oxygen and methane. Therefore the
Bacteria do not have a nucleus and
phyll which is capable of producing concentration of both these gases is
their small sizes result in simple
sugar out of water, carbon dioxide and contained in a steady-state equilib-
shapes: rods, spheres or tubes. But it
energy from the sunlight. Hereby oxy- rium (homeostasis).
would be by no means adequate to un-
gen is released into the environment.
derstand these simple shapes as primi-
Bacteria have modified the surface of
tive organisms. From these simple
3.5 billion years ago this oxygen re- the planet earth to a considerable ex-
shapes no inference can be made to
acted directly with other elements. tent, and they have provided an envi-
their metabolism capacities. Bacteria
Iron was oxidized into iron oxid ronment suitable for other forms of
live by the use of distinct matter and
(Fe2O3). In water by help of bacteria, life. Bacteria control the green-
exotic elements, such as sulfur, sulfur-
massive stromatolite-like sediments house-effect and the overall impact
hydrogen, copper, iron and even the
were accumulated, called the Banded of solar radiation through the media-
radioactive uranium.
Iron Formation (BIF). When finally all tion of the reflexion capacities (al-
the iron was oxidized, free oxygen bedo) of earth‘s surface.
Furthermore bacteria can live in ex-
could accumulate in the hydrosphere
treme environments, such as the gey-
and the atmosphere. The atmosphere, lithosphere, and hy-
sers in Yellowstone (USA), in New
drosphere are influenced and partly
Zealand in 150 degree hot sulfuric-acid
Oxygen is a poison to cells, because it generated by organisms. All together
and they are also found in more than
oxidizes organic substances. About 2 constitute the biosphere, a realm of
four kilometers depth in the earth‘s
billion years ago, oxygen caused the living matter. Up till now everything is
crust. Some of these microorganisms
largest mass extinction in earth‘s his- based on the metabolic activity of bac-
have been interpreted as living fossils
tory. Even today many microorganisms teria.
and therefore they were called archaic
are sensitive to oxygen, such as the Ar-
bacteria, Archaebacteria or Archaea.
chaea and a number of anaerobic bac-
Today it is well known that the diver-
teria. Life was able to persist, since at
sity of the Archaea is as complex as
the same time some bacteria were ca-
that of the other bacteria. Accordingly
pable of using oxygen for energy sup-
life is divided into three domains: the
ply. Finally an equilibrium of produc-
Bacteria, the Archaea (both called
tion and destruction of oxygen was at-
procaryotes) and the Eucarya (Eu-
tained.
karyotes).
Planet earth is the only planet in our
More than 90 % of all procaryotes live
solar system, which has free oxygen in
on rock surfaces. Here their slime-
its atmosphere. The UV-rays induce
layer develops a tendency to form the
the production of ozone (O3) in a high
so-called biofilms. In such biofilms
stratum of the atmosphere. In return
cycles of production and destruction
the ozone layer reduced the amount of
of organic substances are established.
UV-rays reaching the earth‘s surface.
When particles were added into this
slime or when the cells actively pro- The atmospheres of the planets Mars
duced carbonate matter, a layered sed- and Venus mainly consist of carbon di-
iment developed, a so-called stroma- oxide. In contrast the atmosphere of
tolite. Stromatolites exist in oceans, the earth mainly consists of nitrogen,
lakes and rivers. They are easily pre- oxygen and methane and a small
severd in the fossil record. The first amount of carbon dioxide. On an inan-
stromatolites are more than 3.5 billion imate planet earth methane would
years old. They have been found in the have been oxidized into carbon diox-
West Australian desert – at a place ide and accumulated in the atmo-
which is called ‘North Pole’. sphere. This greenhouse-gas would

Evolution of Animals 3

The origin of eucaryotes
The mobile protocells, which we call
motiloids, lived in the shadow for
long time, compared to the rich bacte-
rial life. In these protocells a cell ske-
leton developed, made up of various
protein molecules forming rigid rods
(the microtubuli) and fibers. Fibers
with tensile strength constructed
cords and grids throughout the cell
and under the surface of the mem-
brane.
Some of the molecules in the fibre grid
are able to glide along each other; they
can contract. Since they are anchored
in the fiber grid they deform the entire
cell and generate motion. Shifting and
gliding consumes energy. Energy is
supplied by special compounds, in
which it is stored in a chemical form.
This chemical energy is transformed
into mechanical work, which creates
heat. Fibers with tensile strength as
well as contractile fibers play a major
role in all organismic cells.
The archaean motiloids were able to
flow around bacteria and other parti-
cles, to incorporate them into their
body, and to digest and use them as
energy suppliers.
However, when bacteria were not im-
mediately digested by the motiloid,
but rather continued to live, the moti-
loid used the substances produced by
these bacteria and a close interaction
began: a symbiosis. As one partner
lives inside the other, this relation is
called an endosymbiosis. Such endo-
symbioses can be observed today in
some fungi and algae.
Two endosymbioses played a crucial
role for further evolution. The first en-
dosymbisis was one in which a kind of
bacteria were incorporated that could
gain their energy by combustion of or-
ganic substances with oxygen. In this
process, energy was stored in special
compounds, called ATP. This process
is called respiration. Such bacteria
transformed into permanent parts of
the cell, the so-called mitochondria.
Energy turnover increased dramati-
cally in these cells and new options
were opened for further evolution.
However, the mitochondria cannot
stop their activity, and they require a
permanent supply of food and oxygen.
Organisms with mitochondria have to
eat and to breathe continuously.
Evolution of Animals 4
The second endosymbiosis opened up
a separate pathway, the evolution of
plants. With the additional incorpora-
tion of cyanobacteria, which are able
to conduct photosynthesis, these cells
had created their own supply for en-
ergy and organic compound. The
chloroplasts produce sugars out of
water and carbon dioxide, which are
the basis for production of distinct
building materials.
The eucaryotes do not only have dis-
tinct cell organelles, but also nuclei,
in which the genetic substance (the
DNA) is located. The DNA became
enveloped by a membrane and was in
this way separated from the mechani-
cal system of the cell.
Cilia had already developed in this
early phase of evolution. They are
movable thread-like structures, whose
beat enabled an unicellular organism
to swim about in water. Cilia are pre-
served throughout the whole of evolu-
tionary history. For example, ciliated
cells are incorporated into the epithe-
lia of many parts of recent organisms,
such as: into lung, central nervous sys-
tem, gut tissues, or coelom cavities.
Cells with one or numerous nuclei,
various fibers, one or several cilia, and
cell organelles, are called eucaryotic
cells. They are the cells of plants, ani-
mals and many other organisms, col-
lectively called Eucaryotes. They in-
habit our world today and they all live
at the expense of bacteria.
 isms, decompose them outside their
The diversity of eukaryotes: body and feed on the degradation
Precambrian explosion of life products, which are taken up in the
form of small drops or as single large
A remarkable array of evolutionary de-
molecules.
velopments roots in this early level of
eukaryotic cells. We may speak of a
Protoctista is a collective term for
Precambrian explosion of life which
quite a number of very different struc-
took place about 2 billion years ago.
tural types of organisms. All of these
(For comparison, the so-called Cam-
divide their cells concentrically and
brian explosion of life, about 600 mil-
completely by incision. In some types
lion years ago, is in reality the begin-
the cells remain in connection, glued
ning of the rich fossil record). The var-
together by tough gelatinous sub-
ious types of eukaryotes differ from
stances. Among such types are the
each other in the contents of their
large kelps of the sea, the red and the
cells, the way in which they gain their
green algae. But many other Protoc-
food, and how they divide and grow.
tista are unicellular. They show a large
variety and represent a huge biomass
Plants, as we know them today, owe
as a whole. Many have chloroplasts
their existence to the second endo-
and are called unicellular plants; oth-
symbiosis shown in our drawing, in
ers ingest particles, they are called
which cyanobacteria were additionally
Protozoa, called unicellular animals.
incorporated into eucaryotic cells.
Three of them are shown in our
The cyanobacteria remained almost
poster, a Paramaecium, a flagellate with
unchanged. They became the well-
chloroplasts, and a foraminiferan.
known green chloroplasts of the
plant cells. All of these eucaryotes
The microscopically small protoctists,
with chloroplasts are called plants, al-
together with fungi and bacteria, are
though they comprise a variety of
almost omnipresent in water and on
types. Photosynthesis with the aid of
land. On surfaces of various kinds,
chlorophyll has never stopped, and to-
they live in thin layers, the so-called
day plants still produce most of the or-
biofilms, in which they interact by
ganic material.
chemical turnover and growth. Al-
ready in archaean times, biofilms
Plants in a stricter sense have a special
played a major role in evolutionary
kind of growth. The cell-nucleus di-
processes.
vides into two, the cell enlarges, and
produces internally a sieve-like plate
The land-plants with their incomplete
with holes, so that on either side a nu-
cell-division are exceptional among all
cleus is placed. The terrestrial plants
eucaryotes, (as well as the animals with
and among the algae the Charo-
their specifically structured body).
phyceae are built according to this
The conspicuousness of plants and an-
type; all of their cells are imperfectly
imals makes them so important for us,
divided. The sugar produced by assim-
but we should not forget: the huge
ilation is chemically transformed into
masses of unicellular organisms, fungi,
cellulose which forms thick walls
and bacteria, including the bacteria-
around the cells and enables the plant
derived chloroplasts of plants, with
to construct large sized bodies.
their energy-turnover are the major
driving force for the megamachine of
Fungi are, in contrast to common as-
life on earth.
sumptions not plants at all. Their cell
walls are made up of chitin. Fungi
chemically attack dead or living organ-

Evolution of Animals 5

Gallertoids:
primitive connective
tissues
The Evolution of multicellular
animals
For the understanding of the evolu-
tionary history of animals we have to
find answers for the question: How did
the body construction which is typical
for the animals (and only for them)
evolve? In the center of the poster a se-
ries of four technical drawings shows
these transformations. With these an-
cestral organisms the threshold to the
animal kingdom was overcome. They
are not drawn at the same scale. The
first (in the back) stands for a small
unicellular animal, less than a millime-
ter in size. The last (in front) for a
larger animal, about some centimeters
in size. The last stage represents the
starting point for all other evolution-
ary transformations in the animal
kingdom.
During this process, the internal tubu-
lar system, the endoplasmatic reticu-
lum, played a major role. It had
evolved already in the archaic proto-
cells, when the membrane from the
surface turned inside, forming tubes in
the cell. As a consequence, there are
two regions in the cell: the inner por-
tion in strict sense, the so-called cyto-
plasm, and the inner portion of the
tube system, which may be open to the
surface. The tubes are flexible, they
can be widened or narrowed, can
merge or branch. Various molecules
are incorporated into the membrane
of the tubes. Here the chemical turn-
over takes place and various chemical
compounds can be secreted into the
tubes, stored or excreted at the sur-
face. A typical example for the latter
procedure are gland cells.
The development towards multicellu-
lar animals (the Metazoa) started when
compounds originating from sugar and
proteins were retained in the endo-
plasmic reticulum. These deposits
have gelatinous and fibrous properties.
Some of the polypeptids are scleropro-
teins (chain-molecules), the basic sub-
stance of collagenous fibers. They
have a remarkable tensile strength,
and are the basic matter of connective
tissue throughout all animals.
Evolution of Animals 6
The body was stabilised by the matrix
of jelly and fibers, and could increase
in size. The matrix expanded more
and more, and filled the cytoplasm,
until in each region of cytoplasm at
least one nucleus and some endoplas-
matic reticulum were retained. These
parts of cytoplasm surrounded by the
membrane of the expanded tube sys-
tem are, by definition, cells, – or if they
had several nuclei, cell complexes. The
body was compartmentalized into fi-
brous matrix and cells. The surface re-
mained covered by cytoplasm with
cilia (later separate cells with cilia), as
the gelatinous matrix may not be ex-
posed to the open water, where it
would swell and pour out.
The result is a body construction in
which many cells and cell-complexes
are fused together with primitive con-
nective tissues. This structural design,
as it is typical for the animal body, had
gradually slipped in.
In the inner of these first ancestral an-
imals, some cells specialized in con-
traction, later forming muscles. Be-
cause of chemical and mechanical con-
straints, contractile fibers could not
extend themselves again. They have to
be extended by outer forces. There-
fore, they arranged automatically in a
counteracting, so-called antagonistic
way. This was only posssible in such a
gelatinoid system. Pressure (by muscle
contraction) on the one side tries to
move the body mass to the counter-
side. The pressure is forwarded to the
side where muscle fibers have to be ex-
tended. The final result are grids of
connective tissue fibers and muscles, –
a typical feature of the animal body.
We call these archaic animals Galler-
toids (this German word means: ani-
mals with a gelatinoid body design).
The first evolutionary steps began in
small unicellular animals, less than a
millimeter in size. They increased as a
consequence of the new mechanical
properties, which expanded their
range of locomotion and to new food
resources. The size of such a fibrous-
gelatinous body is almost unlimited;
jelly fish are structured mainly on this
basis, and some of them attain a size of
more than a meter. The stability of the
matrix permitted various body shapes,
(not only the ellipsoids shown on the
poster). But more decisive was the fact
that folds and grooves at the surface
could be formed that eventually closed
to form canals. In the canals, the water
stream was controlled by the beat of
cilia, improving the ingestion of parti-
cles into the canal wall cells.
Sexual reproduction and vegetative
multiplication, both of which occur in
unicellular organisms, must have con-
tinued during the development of
multicellular animals. The Gallertoid
was able to bud off parts of its body for
vegetative multiplication, and cells
could continue to exchange material in
contact with other individuals. Even-
tually some cells specialized to form
sperm and egg-cells. In many animals,
budding and fission have been devel-
oped for specific modes of vegetative
multiplication, apart from sexual re-
production.
The structural elements and their me-
chanical properties, as outlined above,
persist throughout the entire history
of animal evolution. They are the in-
variant structures which provide the
constraints for bauplans and evolu-
tion. In all following evolutionary
transitions these existing structural el-
ements and constraints are only modi-
fied. Tissues are rearranged, enlarged
or reduced. Cells specialize in frame of
their capacities. Thes develop into
muscle cells, nerve cells, connective
tissue cells, secretorial cells or ga-
metes. The primitive connective tis-
sues differentiate into the defined
types of connective tissues with dis-
tinct mechanical properties. Some of
them are stable against pure and sim-
ple shear or pressure. Others have
elastic properties, some form two- or
three-dimensional grids. All in all The Vendozoa are fossils, more pre-
more than twenty types of connective cisely, they are casts of organisms,
tissues are known for humans alone. known only from Vendian strata,
Much more can be expected across the about 600 million years old. The
range of other animals. rounded, often cushion-like forms are
probably the relics of organisms that
When skeletal elements developed – had the body structure of gallertoids.
and this happened often in the animal
kingdom – the body structure always
as a whole determines where and how
skeletal elements are constructed.
Such hard parts consist of organic
compounds like horn or chitin, and
minerals like carbonate or siliceous
matter. Such skeletons hold parts of
the body in a definite shape without
permanent energy supply.
Shifting, enlarging, reduction of these
elements and/or specialisation of the
A part of the Protozoa, the unicellu-
cells determine further evolution. The
lar organisms, can probably be derived
diversity of the animal kingdom, based
from early gallertoids, without folds or
on these relatively few structural ele-
grooves, which remained small and
ments, is impressive.
continued to move by the beat of cilia.
This explanation might be considered
especially for the Ciliata, to which the
Animals which are close to Paramaecium belongs, and a number of
the Gallertoids Flagellata.
There are no recent or fossil animals
known which completely correspond
to the Gallertoids. However a number
of recent and fossil animals stand rela-
tively close to the ancestral Galler-
toids, can be interpreted on the basis
of this body structure or can be de-
rived directly from ancestral stages.
Trichoplax is about a millimeter in
diameter, flat, creeping on hard sub-
strate. This animal ingests particles
into the cells of its underside. Trichop-
lax most likely evolved from an ances-
tral gallertoid which had not yet devel-
oped canals.
Evolution of Animals 7
 Evolutionary pathways
The various shapes of the ancestral
Gallertoid determined all the evolu-
tionary pathways of the animal king-
dom. In all pathways the structural-
functional constraints are preserved.
Evolution is only possible on the basis
of what already exists. Evolution is
characterized by diversification and,
sometimes at certain levels of evolu-
tion, explosive like radiations can be
observed in the fossil record.
Organisms with gelatinous
fibrous body mass
Gallertoids of a compact body shape,
stabilized by the fiber-grid, continued
to swim by the beat of cilia. The fol-
lowing evolutionary lineages de-
scended from such forms.
Ctenophores
The ctenophores (comb jellies) are ba-
sically similar to gallertoids, as their
body consists largely of gelatinous fi-
brous tissues. However, their cilia
are no more evenly distributed, but ar-
ranged to form an efficient ciliary
propulsion system. They are united
on plates, each plate consisting of long
partly fused cilia, resembling a comb,
and the plates stand in eight rows. A
canal runs under each comb row. Two
tentacles, which developed from pro-
trusions of the body, catch particles
for food.
Sessile way of life
The larger the body, the less efficient
is the beat of cilia for locomotion.
Larger gallertoids began a sessile life
style, this means, they settled perma-
nently on the ground. This was possi-
ble as food collection in canals worked
independently of locomotion. For
sessile gallertoids, two further evolu-
tionary directions were possible: in-
creasing the number of canals and col-
lecting fine particles, or enlarging a
few canals and collecting larger parti-
cles.
Stromatopora
The fossil Stromatopora had no in-
ternal skeleton, but they produced a
calcareous substrate. Their soft body
attained a flat shape by reducing
their gelatinous tissues down to a thin
layer with few canals.
Sponges
In gallertoids that stayed with collect-
ing fine particles, the canals multip-
lied and arranged in such a way that
openings for ingestion and egestion
resulted. The efficiency of driving the
water stream was improved, when in
canal wall cells the cilium grew to a
long flagellum. The tiny protrusions Corals and their relatives
on these cells, (present in all surface Sessile gallertoids with wider canals
cells) became longer and arranged could catch larger particles. Gastric
around the flagellum in the form of a cavities for digestion developed be-
collaret of threads. The finest parti- hind the openings of such canals.
cles, even bacteria, are caught by it. Folds in the canal wall transported and
These cells are called choanocytes, managed the particles, the folds en-
they are placed in a central part of the larged, forming deep pouches into the
canals, the choanocyte chambers. A body mass. The tissue sheets between
skeleton developed, made up of col- the pouches are called mesenteries.
lageneous fibers and calcareous or sili- The flexible tissue of the foremost
ceous sclerites, preventing the sponge part of the canal formed a gullet, the
body from collapsing, when the body pharynx, and tentacles developed in
was hollowed out by more and more front of it. The system, stabilized by
canals. its inner water pressure and held in
shape by the tensile strength of the
Evolution of Animals 8
mesenteries, could be protruded over
the body surface. Such is a typical
coral polyp. The former gallertoid had
been transformed into a coral, the an-
cestor of all later corals.
The octocorals correspond to this
structural type. They developed addi-
tionally calcareous sclerites embed-
ded in the gelatinous fiber grid. All
other corals and sea-anemones, the
fossil Rugosa, and the various Hexa-
corallia, evolved form solitary po-
lyps that descended from the ances-
tral coral by reduction of the common
tissues.
In a different evolutionary lineage pol-
yps with four pouches in the gastric
chamber, developed a peculiar method
of vegetative multiplication. The up-
per parts of the polyps were budded
off, swam for a while settled down, and
grew into a new coral polyp. When the
period of swimming was extended,
eggs and sperm began to ripen, and
new polyp developed out of fertilized
eggs. The alternation of polyp and
medusa was set on its way.
Examples of large medusae are the
jelly fish of Scyphozoa and Cubozoa.
The Hydrozoa have mostly small me-
dusae but may form large polyp colo-
nies.
The body-cavities develop
In ancestral gallertoids with elonga-
ted body shapes, swimming by the
aid of cilia was more and more re-
placed by a propulsion through lateral
bending of the entire body, called un-
dulation. In general, undulation puts
the internal parts of any body under
stress: during bending, the lateral parts
are compressed on the concave side
and stretched on the convex side, and
in the middle line the two forces neu-
tralize each other. In ancestral galler-
toids, it was the jelly/fiber mass (pene-
trated by canals) that was exposed to
this stress. As a response to this stress
the lateral canals widened their diame-
ter. They were fluid-filled and hence
more easier deformed than gelatinous
body structures. Such animals had to
expend less energy for moving than
others, and widening of lateral canals
was favoured. However, the slender
elongated body shape had to be main-
tained. The continuous stress caused a
regular widening of those canals that
ran from the middle to the sides, one
behind the other. The resulting fluid-
filled chambers were placed one be-
hind the other, in a so-called
metameric arrangement. They are the
so-called coelomic cavities. These
animals are called Coelomates, and
they make up the largest part of the
animal kingdom.
Evolution of Animals 9
The various internal functions of the
coelom-chambers have far-reaching
consequences. The internal water
pressure stretches the tissues and sta-
bilizes the body. The connections to
the central canal were cut. The central
canal became the intestinal tract, the
gut, and the coelomic-cavities were
separated from it. The transverse walls
between them, made up of fibrous tis-
sue and muscles, are a kind of tensile
cords, holding the diameter of the
body in a slender shape. In an engi-
neering sense, such a body is a system
of flexible membranes and a fluid-fill-
ing. We call it a coelomate body or-
ganization.
This body organization consists of
connective tissues, muscles, covering
cell layers, and fluids in gut and coelom
chambers. The fluids constitute a hy-
draulic system which works as a
hydroskeleton for the protagonistic
and antagonistic musles.
A number of functional properties of
the coelomic-cavities were decisive for
the further evolution. In the coelom-
fluid the metabolic end-products of
the surrounding tissues were col-
lected, and conveyed outwards
through small canals. Furtheron cells
for reproduction, i.e. sperm and eggs,
developed in the coelom walls and left
the body through the same canals.
There was plenty of space in the co-
eloms and increasing quantities of
eggs could be produced.
The gut remained in the center, run-
ning through the transverse tissue
sheets, which held the gut in its place.
A tissue sheet remained over and un-
der the entire gut, the so-called me-
sentery. Accodingly the gut may have
moved independently from the loco-
motory movements of the body.
Nutritive molecules and oxygen had to
be transported beween muscles and
connective tissues. Therefore parts of
the connective tissue became liquid in
the form of internal tracks, which
eventually organized themselves to
form real blood vessels. Blood is fluid
connective tissue.
The gut transported its contents only
in one direction. As a consequence, a
mouth and an anus, and a fore- and a
rear-end of the body developed. In
Coelomates, we can distinguish a back
(the dorsal side) and a belly (the ven-
tral side). The right and left sides are
equal. The entire organism is bi-
laterally symmetrical.
Hydroskeletons: The worm-
coelomates
Various kinds of animals descended
from the ancestral worm-coelomates.
There are numerous animals, inaccu-
rately summarized as ‘worms’, but also
arthropods and molluscs.
In most evolutionary pathways the
coelom cavities enlarged and made the
body highly mobile. As a consequence
these animals were not only able to
make undulating movements, but also
peristaltic movements (long/thin
and short/thick). The latter can easily
be observed in the earth-worm. The
thin body wall bulged out in the seg-
ments and additionally small bristles
formed.
The ancestral worm-coelomates used
their mobile mouth region to ingest
nutrients. A strong gullet, the phar-
ynx, developed behind the mouth.
The pharynx is highly flexible and mo-
bile.
Polychaetes, bristle worms
In the evolutionary course of the ma-
rine bristle-worms (Polychaeta) the
bulges of the body segments with their
bristles enlarged more and more.
They formed the so called parapo-
dia, appendages used for swimming or
burrowing. Recent polychaetes show a
remarkable variety of parapodia and
bristles.
Many polychaetes have an evertible
pharynx armed with teeth. Addition-
ally, some polychaetes developed ten-
tacular crowns around their mouth re-
gion. These animals live in the sedi-
ment. Many have adopted a sessile life
style and they protrude their tentacles
into the water.

Comparing the evolutionary pathways

Surface cells of the body secreted a
outlined up to now, four different
layer of collagenous fibers, the so-
PostScript-Fehl
types of body stabilization can be dis-
called cuticula. It is thin, flexible, and
tinguished: (1) The ancestral Galler-
highly tearproof. It supports the circu-
toids and the recent ctenophores are
lar muscles by holding the body shape.
stabilized by gelatinous fibrous tissues,
The result was a complete hydraulic
(2) the sponges by internal skeletal ele-
system composed of thin tissue mem-
ments, (3) the coelenterates by mesen-
branes: the cuticula, the connective
teries in a central gastric cavity and (4)
tissues and muscles form a functional
the coelomates by a metameric ar-
unit. It enclosed the coelom-cavities
rangement of coelom cavities. In the
in which the gut made its peristaltic
coelomates and in the coelenterates
movements to transport nutrition in-
the ancestral organization can be
side.
modified by skeletal elements.
Animals with such a body construc-
In subsequent evolutionary pathways
tion can colonise different environ-
of the coelomates the coelom cavities
ments. Various evolutionary pathways
are modified in various ways. In some
were now opened.
cases it is completely reduced. At an
early stage of evolution two lineages
were separated: the coelomates with a
central body axis, the chordates, and
the coelomates with a metameric hy-
droskeleton, which we call worm-coe-
lomates.

Evolution of Animals 10
Arthropods
For polychaetes with large and flat
bodies, who lived close to the ground,
a quite different evolutionary pathway
was opened. This pathway led to the
largest diversity in the animal king-
dom, the arthropods. The body was
flattened and the parapodia were
shifted to the ventral side. These ani-
mals scraped particles from the
ground and transported them between
the parapodia to the mouth. The
parapodia grew longer and finally be-
came articulated extremities, i.e.,
legs. These animals kept their body
more or less stiff, and the body wall be-
gan to harden in parts. But hardening
was possible nowhere else than in the
cuticula, which became thicker and
was impregnated with chitin. The evo-
lutionary level of the arthropods was
attained. The chitinous cuticula can
not grow, so these animals have to
mould from time to time. The cuticula
is split off from the underlying tissues,
the body is soft for a short while, it
grows, and secretes a new cuticula,
which is finally hardened. The diver-
sity of arthropods encompasses three
quarters of the animal kingdom. The
Chelicerata, the spiders and their
kin, have one pair of extremities in
front of the mouth, the chelicerae.
All others have one or two pairs of an-
tennae in that position, i.e., the fossil
trilobites, the crabs and their rela-
tives, the centipedes, millipedes,
and the insects.
Oligochaetes, earth worms smaller and by vegetative budding co-
In another evolutionary pathway, dis- lonies were formed, encrusting hard
tinct from polychaetes and arthro- substrates or growing upright like cor-
pods, the parapodia were reduced. In als. In Brachiopoda, a very large ten-
some of these organisms the body was tacular crown developed which was
long and almost round. They have few encased by a pair of shells. The shape
of these animals resembles that of
small bristles and continued with pe-
mussels.
ristaltic movements. Examples are
the Oligochaeta, among which the
earth-worms are well known. In the
evolution of the Hirudinea, the
leeches, the coelom was largely filled
by muscles and a cell mass, called par-
enchyma. In this way the gut was
tightly connected to the body muscles
and enabled to generate enough force
for sucking.
Nematodes, roundworms
Other worms with an almost round
body specialized in undulating move-
ments. As a result, the cuticula
thickened to stabilize the body. The
muscle-fiber-grid, mainly the circular Platyhelminthes, flatworms
muscles, was reduced up to some Evolution proceeded quite differently
longitudinal muscles, so that the origi- in those worm-coelomates that used
nal metameric coelom cavities were the flexibility of transversal walls to
fused to one large cavity. This is the flatten their body. This enabled them
body structure we find in the nema- to creep along hard surfaces, and even
todes, the roundworms. to hold on to such a surface. In addi-
tion, with the production of slime,
Bryozoa and Brachiopoda, they could wrap around a prey and
Pogonophores overcome it.
Some of the worms, living on the
The flattening of the body was im-
ground, protruded a body segment at
proved when the coelom cavities were
their front end developed into a ten-
reduced and eventually completely
tacular crown around the mouth. The
filled by muscle fibers and a cell mass,
segmentation of the body was reduced
and the animals assumed a sessile life the parenchyma.
style.
The Pogonophores have long and
small tentacles and a long and ex-
tremely thin body, in which the gut
was reduced. Nutrition in the form of
microparticles and molecules is in-
gested through the outer epithelium.
Body segmentation and bristles per-
sisted only at the hind end.
In the evolutionary course to the
Bryozoa the individuals became
Evolution of Animals 11
The dense tissue could form suckers at
any place and the mouth shifted more
to the ventral side of the body. This is
the body structure of the Plathelm-
inthes. The Turbellaria, the flat-
worms, have a sucking gut. The
Cestodes, the tape-worms, reduced
their gut completely. They live parasit-
ically in the intestinal tracts of ani-
mals.
Mollusca
The evolutionary development to the
molluscs started in a quite similar way
as that of the flatworms. However, a
muscle-fiber-grid on the ventral side
enlarged, forming a cushion, movable
in itself and able to adhere to a hard
substrate and to creep along it: the
creeping foot of the molluscs. The
coelomic cavities were shifted to the
dorsal side, and above them hard skel-
etal plates of horn and calcareous de-
posits stabilized the back side.
These animals could tightly press their
mouth to the substrate and graze food.
On the lower side of the mouth horn
bosses and teeth developed as a re-
sponse to the stress of being pressed to
the ground: the rasping tongue, the
radula, evolved. Almost no surface
has ever been resistant against this
strong working rasp. The kinds of nu-
trition available to these animals could
be extended dramatically, and even
plants could be attacked. Further
transformation resulted in the fossil
and living molluscs: the dorsal plates
of chitons are a secondary arrange-
ment, not reflecting directly the old
metameric design. The worm-mol-
luscs are descendants of similarly
structured forms, characterised by a
loss of the shell. A high and spirally
rolled up shell characterizes the Ga-
stropoda, the snails.
In the Bivalvia, the mussels, the shell
is divided in two halves. Among the
Cephalopoda, the fossil ammonites
and the living Nautilus have a cham-
bered coiled shell, and in the squids
the shell is shifted internally into the
shell cavity.
Evolution of Animals 12
The chordates
The evolution of chordates is an alter-
native development in comparison to
that of the worm-coelomates de-
scribed above. It started in those an-
cestral coelomates that kept their
mouth region relatively stiff. The side
canals formed slit-like openings in the
gut, the gill-slits, finally forming a gill-
basket, the so-called branchial gut.
These animals conveyed a water
stream into the gut by the beat of cilia.
The water left the body through gill-
slits and food particles were caught by
sticky slime. The mass of slime and
particles was transported into the gut.
For locomotion, undulating move-
ments were sufficient. As a conse-
quence, the foremost part of the body
developed a rostral filter system
(and finally a head), and the larger part
behind it became a locomotory sys-
tem. This divison of the body was de-
cisive for all further evolution of chor-
dates.
Lengthwise arranged (longitudinal)
muscles, alternately contracting on
the right and left sides, allowed the
body to bend and undulate. Under the
stress of these actions, connective tis-
sue fibers and all muscles were ar-
ranged in an efficient system. In the
mid-line a portion of the ancestral fi-
brous-gelatinous mass remained and
became enveloped by sheets of con-
nective tissues. This was in fact a tube
that could be bent but not compressed
and not shortened. This axial rod is
called the notochord, from which
the name chordates was derived. It
holds the length of the body without
energy input, and the originally
present circular muscles, which had
balanced the forces of the longitudinal
ones, could be reduced. These became
arranged in a new way and formed a
thick skin, including fibers and surface
cells, as is typical for chordates.

The longitudinal muscles enlarged
more and more. The coelomic cavities
lost their original stabilizing function.
They were shifted to the ventral side,
became smaller and merged to just a
few cavities or only one cavity, in
which the gut and finally other inter-
nal organs found their place. The body
was slightly flattened and a fold in the
skin made up a kind of fin in the mid-
line of the body. This shape improved
undulatory locomotion. In further
evolutionary steps, hard skeletal parts
could develop in the skin and in the in-
ner connective tissues.
This specific chordate bauplan stands
in remarkable contrast to that of
worm-coelomates, in which most of
the body-mass is arranged around the
large body cavity, and in which skeletal
plates could develop only at the outer
surface.
The branchial gut region developed in
quite different directions. Some
evolved jaws and skull, some extended
the branchial gut enormously, and oth-
ers became borrowing and creeping
worms and finally developed tentacles.
Graptolites, Pterobranchia
Further steps in evolution led to ani-
mals that wriggled themselves into the
sediment and stayed in it permanently.
They lived in the sediment and pro-
truded their front end into the ambi-
ent water for food collection. The col-
lar could extend like a funnel, and
eventually split to form tentacles.
The small Pterobranchia, still
equipped with two gill slits, and the
fossil Graptolites, constructed stiff
tubes of collagen.
Enteropneusts, acorn worms
The evolution of worm-shaped chor-
dates and their descendants began in
those ancestral chordates that used to
live near the bottom, where food par-
ticles accumulate which have sunk
down in the water column.
The foremost part of the body, above
the mouth, was made up of flexible tis-
sues, and could be used for wriggling
and digging in the sediment, stirring
up particles. This part enlarged and fi-
nally developed a trunk-like digging
organ, the so-called proboscis. The
rear part of the body lost its locomo-
tory function and the notochord and
the muscles were reduced. A transi-
tional part remained between the two
portions. Each of them had one coelo-
mic cavity.
The enteropneusts, the acorn-
worms, show this body structure: they
have a short stiffened structure in the
collar, which can be interpreted as the
remnants of the old notochord.
Evolution of Animals 13
Echinoderms
The evolution of echinoderms started
in similar sessile animals with three
coelomic cavities. Tissues near the
body surface were stiffened by calcare-
ous material in the form of plates. The
fossil mitrates were an early side-
branch of this develoment. They had a
row of elongated openings, inter-
preted as gill slits. The first true echi-
noderms root in sessile animals with
five tentacles. The base of such a ten-
tacle crown is cup-shaped, and it is a
movable soft hydraulic system. With
increasing body size, this tentacular
cup could be supported on its back
side, when the next body region ex-
tended around it. This part could be
stiffened by plates and extended more
and more. Finally the tentacles ap-
peared as sunk into a plate-stiffened
surrounding. This is the coelom-in-
coelom encapsuled body structure we
find in living echinoderms: In a body
coelom is a small coelom (rest of the
reduced proboscis) and a large ring-
like coelom with extensions into the
tentacles. The sea-lilies still have a
tentacular crown on a stalk; the star-
fish (sea-stars), the brittle-stars, the
sea-urchins, and the sea-cucumbers,
descended from upper body parts that
were budded off and became indepen-
dent of their stalk.
Peribranchial-chambers
The gill slits cause a mechanical prob-
lem: the larger and more numerous
they are, the more they weaken the
body wall. Therefore gills arches are
stabilized by stiffer tissue, mostly of
cartilage. An additional stabilization
developed when the body grew wider
and around the branchial gut, so that a
peribranchial chamber resulted. Wide
flat body shapes developed, stiffened
by plates of bone, as in the fossil jaw-
less fishes, some examples of which
are the Heterostraci or Osteostraci.
Chordates with a vertebral
column and tooth elements
Some chordates with elongated body
shapes developed a vertebral column
around the notochord and special
tooth-like elements in the mouth and
gullet. Examples of such organisms are
the fossil conodonts which had com-
The living lancelet Branchiostoma
plicated arrangements of various bars
has a slender shape, a large branchial
or tooth elemets. The function of
gut and has a notochord over the
these conodont apparatuses is not yet
whole length of the body. At its mouth
well understood, but in their micro-
small tentacles developed, used for
structure these elements are quite
food uptake.
similar to the teeth of vertebrates. The
conodonts do not have any recent rel-
Tunicates
atives, but in regard to recent findings,
A large bran- their position close to the vertebrates
chial gut contin- is most likely.
ued to collect
food without lo-
comotion; such ani-
mals could assume a sessile
life style. This development caused
far reaching changes, by which the
tunicates evolved. The system for
locomotion, notochord and mus-
cles, were reduced, however, it is
still present in the free swimming
larvae. The branchial gut extended to
an enormous size, hanging in the thick
tough peribranchial chamber, the wall
of which, the so-called tunica, con-
tains horn and chitin. The sea-squirts
are permanently sessile; the salps have
a thin-wall and have returned to free
swimming.
Evolution of Animals 14

Chordates with jaws, skull and
vertebral column
Ancestral chordates with vertebral
columns additionally developed jaws
and skull. The branchial basket was al-
ternately expanded and compressed.
These movements drove a water cur-
rent through the gill slits, so that
breathing and feeding was improved.
Even larger particles were swallowed
by the pharynx. Some of the rostral
branchial arches were enlarged and ar-
ranged as a cartilaginous jaw. The re-
sult was an efficient apparatus for
catching and holding large particles
and even living prey.
The movements of this primordial
jaw-apparatus were oriented up and
down – which means vertically –, while
the movements of the body for swim-
ming were oriented left and right –
which means laterally. These different
movements were mechanically sepa-
rated from each other by the last gill
arch (i.e. visceral arch). This skeletal
element enlarged more and more, un-
til the complete trunk musculature
found its attachment at its surface. We
call this last visceral arch the shoulder
girdle. Since it separated the head
from the trunk, it played a crucial role
for further evolution of fishes and
tetrapods. Around the head a massive
cartilaginous capsule developed and
the notochord became surrounded by
various cartilage elements, suppress-
ing the range of lateral bending.
Fishes
In the evolutionary course of fishes
bony scales developed in the skin tis-
sues. These scales were arranged in
such a way, that they limited the range
of lateral bending. The head was stabi-
lized by large bony plates, and the car-
tilaginous capsule, enclosing the brain
and the sensory organs was replaced
by bony material. Finally a bony skull
was formed. The lateral, dorsal and
ventral fin folds of the ancestors dif-
ferentiated into certain fin-types.
In the fossil record the first fishes that
were representatives of these evolu-
tionary stages are the placoderms.
Their head was reinforced by large
bony plates and their body shape was
stabilized by a cartilaginous vertebral
column and by large scales in the skin.
The cartilaginous fishes, another evo-
lutionary pathway, not figured in the
poster, have only small tooth-like
scales all over their entire body. A
bony skeleton developed only in the
pathway to the bony fishes.
Tetrapods
Most fishes developed lungs from a
bulge of the foregut and finally swim-
bladders. These fishes
were able to breathe
air. Some of them
had a body organiza-
tion which allowed
them to transform
their fins into legs and
to carry the complete
body on land. The
two bony girdles (pec-
Evolution of Animals 15
toral girdle and pelvic girdle) devel-
oped into the shoulder girdle and the
pelvic girdle. They both provided
joints for the legs and surfaces for the
attachment of the leg-muscles. To-
gether with the vertebral column a
carrying system was constructed,
which allowed the complete body to
be lifted over the ground. With this
evolutionary step the stage of tetra-
pods was attained.
Today we can distinguish different tet-
rapods. The amphibians have to lay
their eggs in the water, where their lar-
vae develop. The reptiles are able to
live on land permanently. Even those
who went back into the water have to
come onto land for laying their eggs.
As an example for the reptiles a dino-
saur is shown in the poster (Triceratops
is the logo of Senckenberg-Museum).
The dinosaurs are a certain group of
reptiles which have their closest rela-
tives in the recent (and fossil) birds.
Some reptiles, the so-called therapsids
are the ancestors of the mammals.
From these early mammal-like reptiles
a huge number of different organisms
evolved.
Man also belongs into the group of the
mammals. Man evolved from schim-
panzee-like ancestors and developed
an upright walking position. As a con-
sequence the brain enlarged enor-
mously. This brain allows thinking,
combining and teaching the following
generations. Such a brain is unique in
the entire animal kingdom, and on the
basis of its intellectual capacities, man
constructs his own view of the world.

Further reading
The evolution of animals is presented here in
a new way, which is not like that of the stan-
dard textbooks. The engineering-like expla-
nation of evolution and the reconstruction of
evolutionary pathways contrasts sharply with
morphometric and genetic phylogenetic
trees. However, explanations are provided,
which are missing in most traditional presen-
tations.
The results which are the basis of this poster
have been developed since 1970 by the group
„Kritische Evolutionstheorie“. Continous
discussion with philosophers and testing im-
proved the coherence of the methodology.
The listed references should give an idea for
further readings.
Frankfurt theory of Evolution and
Engineering Morphology
Scharf, K.-H. & Gutmann, W. F. (Hrsg.)
(1993): Evolution von Organismen. – Praxis
der Naturwissenschaften, 42: Biologie: 1-49.
Gutmann, W. F. (1995): Die Evolution hy-
draulischer Konstruktionen: Organismische
Wandlung statt altdarwinistischer Anpas-
sung. Senckenberg-Buch 65, 220 S. – (Kra-
mer) Frankfurt am Main.
Edlinger, K. Gutmann, W. F. & Weingarten,
M. (1991): Evolution ohne Anpassung. - Auf-
sätze und Reden der Senckenbergischen na-
turforschenden Gesellschaft, 37: 92 S. –
Frankfurt am Main.
Scientific theory, Darwinism
Baumunk, B.-M. & Riess, J. (Hrsg.) (1994):
Darwin und Darwinismus: eine Ausstellung
zur Kultur- und Naturgeschichte. Katalog; ei-
ne Publikation des Deutschen Hygiene-Mu-
seums Dresden; 265 S. – (Akademie) Berlin.
Janich, P. & Weingarten, M. 1999. Wissen-
schaftstheorie der Biologie. 315 S. – (Wilhelm
Fink) München.
Weingarten, M. (1993): Organismen - Objek-
te oder Subjekte der Evolution? Philosophi-
sche Studien zum Paradigmawechsel in der
Evolutionsbiologie; 314 S. – (Wissenschaftli-
che Buchgesellschaft) Darmstadt.
Chemo-Evolution and the origin of
life on earth
Kempe, S., Kazmierczak, J. & Degens, E. T.
(1989): The soda ocean concept and its bea-
ring on biotic evolution, 29-43. – In: Crick, R.
E. (ed.): Origin, Evolution, and Modern As-
pects of Biomineralization in Plants and Ani-
mals; 536 S. – (Plenum Press) New York.
Wächtershäuser, G. 1997. The origin of life
and its methodological challenge. – Journal of
Theoretical Biology, 187: 483-94.
Dullo, C., Mosbruger J. & Oschmann, W.
(2000). Geobiologische und Paläobiologi-
sche Prozesse als Antrieb der Evolution des
Systems Erde. – Kleine Senckenberg Reihe
36. – (Kramer) Frankfurt am Main.
Endosymbiosis and theory of the
biosphere
Margulis, L. (1981): Symbiosis in Cell Evoluti-
on. – (Freeman Co.) San Francisco.
Mollenhauer, D. (1994): Endocytobiosen. An-
lässe zu Revisionen in Taxonomie und Phylo-
genetik: 339-363. – In: Gutmann, W.F., Mol-
lenhauer, D., Peters, D. S. (Hrsg.) (1994): Mor-
phologie und Evolution. – Senckenberg-Buch
70; 454 S. – (Kramer) Frankfurt am Main.
Krumbein, W. E. & Lapo, A. V. 1996. Vernad-
sky's Biosphere as a Basis of Geophysiology.
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Acknowledgements
A number of colleagues did read the text and
its english version and made valuable sugge-
stions. Dr. Sven Baszio, Prof. Dr. Euan Clark-
son, Doris von Eiff and Dr. Eberhard Gisch-
ler. To all of them we extend our thanks.
For financal support we thank PASS IT Con-
sulting GmbH.
Evolution in teaching courses
The poster „The Evolution of Animals“
is available together with this text either
in German or in English. Certain materi-
als for teaching are also avaiable (over-
heads, slides) and guided tours on the
evolution of animals through the Sen-
ckenberg Museum can be offered
(Phone: 069/7542-357).
Please sent your orders to:
Schriftentausch der Senckenbergischen
Naturforschenden Gesellschaft,
Senckenberganlage 25,
60325 Frankfurt am Main,
Phone: 069/7542-246,
e-mail: sjessel@sng.uni-frankfurt.de.