Pictionaru of the Middle AgesAMERICAN COUNCIL OF LEARNED SOCIETIES. The American Council of Leasned Societies, organized In 1919 for the purpose of advancing the stady of the humanities and of the humanistic aspects of the social sciences, is a nonprofit federation comprising forty-five national scholarly groups. “The Council represents the humanities in the United States in the International Union of Academies, provides felloviships and gtants-in-aid, supports researchand:- planning conferences and symposia, and sponsoxe special projects and scholarly publications, MEMBER ORGANIZATIONS AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL. SOCIETY, 1743 AMERIGAN. ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, 1789, AMERICAN ANTIQUAIZAN SOCIETY, 1812 AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY, 1842 AMERICAN NUMISMATIC SOCIEIY, 2858, AMERICAN PHILOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, 1862 ARCHAROLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA, 1999 SOCIEFY OF BIBLICAL. VSTERATURR, 1090 MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, 1883, AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION, 184 AMERICAN ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION, 1835 AMERICAN FOLKLORE SOCIETY, 1888 AMERICAN DIALECT SOCIETY, 1889 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, 1992 ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN LAW SCHOOLS, *900 AMERICAN FHILOSOPHICAL, ASSOCIATION, 3901 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, 1902 ‘AMERICAN POLITICA). SCIENCE ASSOCIATION, 1903 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 1504 ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOGRAPHERS, 1994 HISPANIC SOCTETY OF AMHIGICA, 1804 AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, 180 AMTRICAN SOCIRT'Y OF INTERNATIONAL LAW, 190 ORGANIZATION QF AMERICAN HISTORIANS, 1997 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF KPLIGION, (919) COLIFGE ART ASSOCIATION OF AMFRICA, 1912 UISTORY OF SCIENCE SOCIETY, 1924 LINGUISTICSOCIETY OF AMERICA, 1924 MEDIAEVAL ACADEMY OF ANMBRICA, 1925 AMERICAN MUSICOLOCHCAL SOCIETY, 1936 SOCIETY OF ARCHSTECTURAL HISTORIANS, 1940, FCQNOMIC HISTORY ASSOCIATION, 1940 ASSOCIATION FOR ASIAN STUDIES, 1941 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR AESTHETICS, 1942 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SLAVIC STUDIES, 1946 METAPHYSICAL, SOCIETY OF AMERICA, (950 AMERICAN STUDIES ASSOCIATION, 1950 RENAISSANCE SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 1954 SOCIETY FOR PTHNOMUSICOLOGY, 195 AMERICAN SOGIETY FOR LEGAL HISTORY, 856 AMBPRICAN SOCIETY FOR THEATRE RESEARCH, (956 SOCIETY BOR THE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY, 1588 AMERICAN COMPARATIVE LITERATURE ASSOCIATION, 1960 AMERICAN SOCIFTY POX EICHTEENTH-CPNTURY STUDIFS, 1969 [ASSOCIATION FOR JEOISH STUDIES, 1969,SSG Ke sa2 taken! David and Goliath. Byzqusiae misiaeare Frou the Paris alter, 10th century. eas, smatonitque NATIONALE 985 G39, Cl. ayPictionary of the Middle Ages JOSEPH: R.. STRAYER, EDITOR IN CHIEF Volume 9 MYSTERY RELIGIONS—POLAND CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS + NEW YORK=) ARO x pe Copyright @ 1987 Amesican Council of Lesened Sociesis ary of Congeess Cataloging ia Publication Data Main entry under tile: Dictionary of the Midalle Ages Includes bibliogtaphies'and index. 4, Middle Ages—Dictionaries. 1. Serayer, Josegh Reese, 1504— DIWDs 1982 poner 82-904 ISBN 9-684-16760°3 jy. 1) ISBN 0-684-17022-1 fe. 2) ISBNS 0-684-17023-X W. 3} ISBN 0-684-17024-8 fv. 4) ISBN 0-684-19 161-4, 5) ISBN 0-684-1816841 (6) ISBNY 0-684-18169- 7) ISBN 0-684-1827422 (0.8) ISBN 0-684-16275-0 {v. 9} Published simultaneously in Cxsada by Colter Macmillan Canada, Ine. ‘Copyright under the Berne coneension, All sights eeserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in aay form without he permission of Chorles Scribner's Sons 13S79NLISISITI9 M/G 2098161412 1986.42 PRINTED INTHE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, ‘The Dictionary of she Middte ages has been produced with support from the Nacional Endowment for the Humaniies. ‘The paper in this book moots the guidelines for permanence and durability af the Committee on Praduction Guidelines for Book Longevity of che Cour on Library Resources, ‘Maps prepared by Sylvia Lehrman,Editorial Board ‘THEODORE M, ANDERSSON, Stanford University NINA G, GARSOIAN, Columbia University HERBERT L. KESSLER, The Jobus Hopkins University JOHN LEYERLE, University of Toronto AVRAM 1. UDOVITCH, Princeton UniversityAdvisory Committee GUSTAVE ALEF, University of Oregon JEANETTE M, A. BEER, Pardue University THOMAS N. BISSON, University of California, Berkeley JEAN BONY, University of California, Berkeley JAMES F. BURRE, University of Toronto ANGUS F. CAMERON, University of Toronto MARK GOHEN, Princeton University §. TALBOT DONALDSON, indiana University ANN DOOLEY, University of Toronto D. J. GEANAKOPLOS, Vale Universtey KEVIN J. HARTY, Tevnple University ANDREW HUGHES, University of Toronto W.T. H. JACKSON, Columbia University ROBERT E, LERNER, Northwestern University IR. M, LUMIANSRY, Americeit Council of Learned Societies THOMAS F. MATHEWS, New York University BRIAN S. MERRILEES, University of Toronto HELMUT NICKEL, Metropolitan Museum of Art KENNETH D. OSTRAND, University of New Orleans ROGER B, REYNOLDS, University of Toronto TIMOTHY R, ROBERTS, Jefferson City (Mo,) High Schao! FRANZ ROSENTHAL, Yalo University KENNETH M. SETTON, Institute far Advanced Study, Prixceton ECKEHARO SIMON, Harvard University PRISCILLA P, SOUCEK, Now York University E, A. SYNAN, University of Toronto BRIAN TIERNEY, Cornell University KARL DAVID UIT), Princeton University CRAIG B, VITTETOR, Palo Alto (Calif) City Seboats LYNN WHITE, Jt. University of California, Los AngelesLditorial Seaff JOHN F. FITZPATRICK, MANAGING EDITOR JONATHAN G, ARETAKIS, Associate Editor DANIBL J. CALTO, Bditorial Assistant NORMA FRANKEL, Associate Editor SANDRA D. KNIGHT, Administrative Assistant ANJU MAKHUJANI, Production Manager BETH ANN McCABE, ‘Senior Editorial Assisiant DAVID J. BABIN, Assistant Photo Editor TEPPREY 1. BENEKE, Associate Editor LESLEY ANN BENEKE, Associate Editor ILENE COHEN, Associate Editor EDWARD FERRARO, Associate Editor EMILY GARLIN, Proofreader GHOPFREY B. GNEUHS, Assistant Editor ROBERT HALASZ, Associate Editor ROBERT K. HAYCRAFT, Associate Editor PAMELA NICELY, Assistant Editor W. KIRK REYNOLDS, Proofreader JACK RUMMEL, Proofreader IRINA RYBACEK, Associate Faitor SAM TANENHAUS, Proofreader DEBBIE TAYLOR, Photo Editor TERENCE WALZ, Associate Bdisor WILLIAM K, WEST, Associate Editor ELIZABETH I. WILSON, Associate Eaitor G, MICHAEL McGINLEY, DIRECTOR, REFERENCE BOOKS DIVISIONContributors te Wolume 9 WILLIAM Y. ADAMS University of Kentwchy Nopia DOROTHY AFRICA O'Sivaicay, Ceutacny PARK, St. MANSOUR J. AJAMI Princeton University Naot 18N Al- GUSTAVE ALEE University of Oregon Noveonon ‘THEODORE M. ANDERSSON ‘Stanford Universisy Ninmnsuvantieo; Nowse, Taos” Sacass ODDRUW A Grier AVERY ANDREWS Goorge Washington University, Wasbington, OC, Pena-GaLara MICHAEL ANGOLD University of Ldiuburgh Nicata, Esarine or; Nempatiion YOM Tov Assis, Hebrew University of Jerusslem Ont, Mone funsieo Lvon AVDOYANS Libary of Congress Bren ent) Tato PETER J. AWN Coluanbla Universizy Mysticisiy, Ista SUSAN M, BABBITT “American Philosophical Society Nicorous ‘TERENCE BAILEY University of Wastern Ontario Niwa; NOEANNOE JOHN W. BALDWIN, ‘The Joins Flophius University Peren re Coanrens Phir th Aucusros JOHN W. BARKER University of Wisconsin Ninovaos Kavastuas CARL F. BARNES, JR. Nori Dawe ne Panis, Carmeprat. or; Ouse. Wrsoow; Onrieney; Penne ve ‘Montuiit; Pluerepas Caamos ELUGZER BASHAN Bar-tlan University Nast DLC BATES “Hunter College, City University of New York Orag ROBERT BEDROSLAN ‘ORD LEAN, STEP“ANOS JEANETTE M. A, BEER Prerdue University Pica LANGUAGKS Preamp Lerenarune HAD BEINART Hebrew University of Jerusalem New Cunysrians HANS BEKKER-NIELSEN Odense Universzer Dais Saca Bipeues, ALDO S. BERNARDO. Stave University of New York at Bingbaroton Prsreaeat ix LIONEL BIER Brooklyn College Nagsirs Rosvams PankuLD JANE BISHOP Nicaouas |, Pore THOMAS N. BISSON University of California, Berkley Pract oF Gon, Tauce of Gon ROBERT J. BLANCH Northeastern University Peart CALVIN M. BOWER. University of Notre Dame PARAPHONISTA; PERPECTIO EDMUND A. BOWLES ‘Oncan WILLIAM M. BOWSKY University of California Ponrsta, MARY BOYCE PaNLAvI LiTeRaTuR®. DENIS J. M, BRADLEY Georgetown University Pusnosoruy axp TitloLogy, ‘WasreRN Funorean: To Min Tiyeurrn Cavruey STEPHEN F. BROWN Boston Catlege Neos aTontsM; PritoscrNY anp Tueotocy, Wesnia Bunoecan: Lark Maptevat KEVIN BROWNLEE Darimowh College Pratipra os Novak LISLIE BRUBAKER ‘Wheaton College, Norton, Mase. Ocraveucn; OrcsCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 9 AxcuicanuMs Ontos; Pik D’Ono; Pauistrsesr; PaLWETTC; Parousia, PawoRsrive; Pexrarouct FRANCOIS BUCHER Hlorlda Swute University Panter Eaatty RICHARD W, BULLIET Columbia University Nistarun, ROBERT W, BURCHEIELD Grford English Diettonsvies Owneurn CHARLES 5, F, BURNETT Warburg Institute, University of London Piato oF Tivout DAVID BURR, Virginia Pinecone Inside and Statz University ren foun Quit ROBERT G. CALKINS Cornell University PLeunawr DANIBL CALLAM ‘St. Thumas More Coltege Panavise, Wastes Concser'or AVERIL CAMERON King's College, University of London PASscHALE CHRON ICON JAMES B, CATHEY University of Massachnseas, Amherst Nona GRETEL CHAPMAN Micmotas oF Venoun COLIN CHASE University of Teranso, Contre for Medievai Studies Paut thn Descow CHARLES D. CHAVEL ‘Nauneanipas, Moses MARJORIE CHIINALL Gambriige University Onnenicys Virauis Vv. GHRISTIDES Navies, fs,anc CAROL | CLOVER Iniversity of California, Berkeley NyAts Sacas Noase Burin MARK R. COHEN Princeton, Usiversity Naping Iny ates Nacam; Prone oF THs Book SIDNEY L. COMEN® Louislana State University ‘Oseinuae Fino THOMAS H, CONNOLLY University of Parnsylvacia Ou» Roman Cran LAWRENCE |, CONRAD “Tha Welleonne fastitute for the Hisaory of Medicine ‘Nags PlAGUES IN THE ISLAMIC Wort> DEMETRIOS J. CONSTANTELOS ‘Stockton State Unversity Ontuanorkordas; Pa ARCH JOHN J. CONTRENI Duerdie University Perer or Pisa MADELEINE PELNER COSMAN Gity Goilege of New York Puarnsacoretn’ WILLIAM J. COURTENAY. University of Wisconsin NoMINaLisaty OGRHAM, Wiiuaw or EDWARD |. COWAN University of Guelph, Ontario PaRLIaMENt, SCOTTISH GLYNNIS M. CROPP ‘Massey University, New Zaclandd Pawsineuns BEIARD CULLEN ‘The Queen’s University of Belfast Peiacius JOSEPH DAN Hebrew Univesity of Jerusalers Paiuoseny axn TawoLosr, Jesse Ty Noweratean Bondy x MICHAEL 7. DAVIS ‘Mout Hoiyolee College PatcuM Panumancentims Passion Cyeuns PAUENS Pert Unssousis, Sr; Paver von Pracitatytzs Prigei’s Guioe NORMAN DAVIS ‘Aterton College, Oxford Pastow Lierrans, THE PETER F. DEMBOWSKI University of Chicage Puree Macsker LUCY DER MANUELIAN | Nonavann® ar Asati; Oyon WILLIAM J. DIEBOLD Nowe Sccrunts Preicores WACHTANG DjOBADZE ‘California Stace University, Los Angeles Nimonctaetsa; OFF JERRILYNN DODDS Columbia University Prareassque SrvLi ANN DOOLEY “Se iMbaa's College, University of Toromo © Brovcdi Maor fos, © Dataicn, Donwenann Mén; © DALAlGH, GommaroH Frown; 2 DALareH, MuiREDACH sananacts KATHERINE HSCHER DREW Rice University OnoaceR; Ostroscoriss DIANE L. DROSTE University of Toronto, Centre for Medinval Studios Puica WILLIAM HUSE DUNHAM, JR. Pasiinment, ENGLISH WILLIAM DUNPHY Si, Miehael’s College, Usioersity ‘of Torowta Phinosortty AND TueoLocy, ‘Westuset BUROPHAN: ‘Taugrnente-Cesvuay Crisis RICHARD A. DWYER Dorks International University vin wy Tae Mibiue AGEsCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 9 LAWRENCE M, EARP University of Wisconsin-Madison ‘Puraus pe Cauce STEVEN G, ELLIS Univrty College af Gatery AaRCLAMENY, [6H MARCIA J. BPS University of Calgary Pune Vian; Pray om Dares; Play oF Mraon STEVEN EPSTEIN Unlwority of Colorado Pisa, JOHN H. ERICKSON ‘St, Vadinit’s Seininory Nowocanon; Paverigon MICHAEL VAN ESBROECK Société des Botlandistes Nino, St. ‘THEODORE EVERGATE: Western Maryland Cali Nowtxs ano Nowtury De Fowraivis ROBERT FALCK University of Toronto Oncanvig; O Rona Nowiutss PLancrus ANN E. FARKAS Prcieaskava Lavea; PoRROV JEFFREY FEATHERSTONE, Haruard University Nikzewonos, Partiancit S.C, FERRUOLO Stanford University Nicit ov Loncensmey Puaceerinys R. S, BIELD Yole ‘nivorsity NIELLO JOHN V. A. FINE, J. Univesity of Michigan Deven ax ASS; Pero OF BeLeania EVELYN SCHERABON FIRCHOW University of Minnesora Nernann; Porra Saxo RUTH H, FIRESTONE University of Missouri Ox PATRICK K, FORD Censor or the Sty of aarti ered istbvlogy, Univesity o Calformin Loe Angelee Mutnovoor, Gaunt JEROLD C. FRAKES University of Soutbors California 1 Pantie Tee CuancetLor JOHN b, FREED isso State University Oreo il, Ewerron; Nonestnine PAUL FREEDMAN Vanderbit Univesicy ume EDWARD FRUEH. Columbia University Nonarar oF Inuag; Onur ov Srv ASTRUK C. GABRIEL University of Notre Dame Panis, Univeasity OF STEPHEN GARDNER Sackler Museum, Harvard University Nicos oF Ey; Ou Sanus Onciako, WILLIAM, NINA G. GARSOIAN Golamia University Naeanany NayCawany Netste f tie Gnuar, Sr; Nansts Il Agraaanacht, Nests {Il Myanse Osiikanis PaHLAWUN PADLICIANS; PeAWSTOS BUZAND; Pe1tantos Vannznunt ADELHEID M. GEALT Indiana University, NaNwr bi Banco; Nano or Crone; Niccoud ot Buonascoxse; Niccoud bt Ponino Gerint; Onceons, Awana; Paes PaINTINes Pap20 1 Glovanns Fe; PoLo Vexwaiano; Prema na Risin xi ENO J. GEANAKOPLOS ‘Yale University Priegonia (CHRISTIAN GELLINEK University of Florida Onenpe, MOSHE GUL Tel Aviv University Patasting; PreoRiMage, Jawesit DOROTHY F. GLASS State University of New York at Buifelo NiCCOLD ba Venonas Opeetst, Preto JOSCELYN GODWIN Colgat University Maysreny Ruiscions PETER B, GOLDEN Rutgers University Niches seMuLe RORERT S$. GOTTRRIED Rutgers University Puacuies, BuROPEAN ANTHONY GRAFTON Princeton University Nicoiaus be Tupescuns EDWARD GRANT. Indiana Unversity Orassan, Nicous KATHLEEN GREENNELD Albright College Pecnman, Jou JAMES GRIER University of Waterloo, Ontario Neve KAAREN GRIMSTAD University of Minnesota NigRaR MARY GRIZZARD University of New Mexico Nisan, Pennoy OLrenant HINNBOG) GuBMUNDSSON ENEVINGEA SAGA JEAN-MARIE GY, OP. Couvent SainteJacgues, Paris Parax Conta, Lenzner oFCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 9 JAMES HANKINS Harvard University Pusto tw 7H Miopux Aces, NATHALLE HANEET ‘OvA oF CasreRntiny JOSEPH HARRIS Harvard University Nouna-Gests barre RALPH S. HATTOX, Emory University Osman t ROBERT K. HAYCRAPY PausorT0 OF S. Amitnoaio NUT BELLE University of Bergen, Norway Nowway HEATHER HENDERSON University of Paronto Q Huxcitn, TADHG Danis © Horan, TAH JOHN BELL HENNEMAN Princeton University Library Prt Vor Varas JONI HII, Derren Tae Manat RODERT HILLENBRAND Uanersity of Elinburgh Friern JN, HILLGART Pontifical Institue of Mediaeval Studies, Toranto Permn IV 0 Cetemonious DAVID L. HOOVER New York University Oko ENGLISH Lancuace, JASPER HOPKINS University of Minnesota Nichouas oF Cusa GEORGE F. HOURANE ‘State Universny of New York at Buffeio Pmvosonuy quo Tasovoey, Istamte NORMAN HOUSLEY University of Liverpoot Prcansace, Westen Bunorran MALIL INALCIK University nf Chicago Ortomans JBAN IRIGOIN Pavan, INtRODUCTION oF ALFRED L. IVRY Jewiste: Istayse Wort WHAJAM B, JACKSON Onwersty of Virghuia Orzo vow Boraiaunen, WT. JACKSON Colonia Universiey no oF Meoy; Orr0 oF Bamane, 5 MICHAEL SACOFE irsokiyn College, City University of New York Niccond DA BoLocnas PACINO: DI maGuIom JAMES L. JOHN Corneil University Pankocnanny, WesreKn Eunoreast D, W. JOHNSON Catholie University of Avro Nesroniawisag; NustORIUs GEORGE FENWICK JONES University of Maryland Ostain Vo WoLKENSTEIS JENNIPER E, JONES Naviveryy Rumuuss Not Me Tantcene; Pawrecosr; Prov; Prarrrens CHRISTIANE L. JOOST-GAUGIER University of Now Mexico Pisaneto, ANTONIO WILLIAM CHESTER JORDAN Priveston University ‘Onpisawen (Free ANT Excuisi)s Pacus; PastouRtaux; PastuRe, Rucsrs oF WALTER EMIL KALGAL, JR Univereity of Chicago Nort Digrraranes Ops:kion, THEME oF RICHARD W. KABUPER Univereiy of Rochester Nest Prsus; Over anu “Termin, TRAILRAStONS PUasawts” RUBFLLION (OL KALAVREZOUMANEINER Cniversity of California, Los Angeles Pans Psacren MARIANNE. E. KALINKE University of lina 2 Urbana hartpaign Pancrvats Sac; PARTALOMA Sioa FRANCIS KELLEY ‘St Bonaventure University PereR AUREOL CHOMAS &. KELLY Purdie University Paatasvaus MARILYN KAY KENNEY Owain Gwenson FRANCES KIANKA Deanbayron Gaks NiccrHonos Gasconas JOSEPH A, KICKLIGHTER ‘Aubura University Pantene oF Paras RICHARD KIECKHEFER Northwestern Univursiy Paracy, OWGINS AND Duvenonennt OF DALE KINNEY Bryn Mawr College ‘O00 oF Merz; Otn Sr. Pever's, ROME; PISA, Carnspent ALAN E. KNIGHT Ponsyloania State University Passron Mays, FRENCH PAUL W. KNOLL University of Southern California, Los Angetes Biase DyNasty; POLAND BARISA KREKIC University of California, Los Angeles cumCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 9 VALERIE M. LAGORIO University of fowa Mysticise, CinsTIAN: Cownuenta (Womens Mysnicisy, ENousH ANGBLIKI LAIOU Harvard University PALAIOLOGOH; ParomKors Pexres IAN LANCASHIRE Erindale College University of Toronto at Mississauga N-Town Plays DAMIAN RIEHL LEADER University of Toronto, Contre for Medievat Suis ‘Oxponn Univanssty R WILLIAM LECKTE, JR. University of Toronto, Contre for Medieval Studies Newaius JOHN Le PATOUREL, University of Leeds Nonataxs ayo Noxmanpy ROBERT E, LERNER Narikwestens University Orro oF Fucisinc; Orro J THe Gren; Pascnat Il, Pore ARTHUR LEVINE University of Toronto Ou Hat MS DAVID C. LINDBERG Univers of Wisconsin Orrics, Wasreen ErRorean JOHN LINDOW University of California, Barley LARS LONNROTH Coteborgs Universitar Gone Swoweasons O1tes Sac Freuca; OSes Sac Taycavasowan JOEIN E, LYNCH Catholic University of America Oxo BRYCE LYON Brown University Pie Rouis MICHAEL McCORMJCK Dunbarton Oaks! The Jobns Hopkins University Parvaus; Pancimnnt; Pacias Pitta or Hanvencrs Pockemooxs DAVID R. MeLINTOCK Unwersty of London Ot High Gaaatan Literature; Orrmn von WatssrvouRs; Petmustin HARRY J. MAGOULIAS Wayne State University Nuevas Cuowtarus GENRY MAGUIRE University of Mois at Urbama- Champaign NikoLaos Mesaatrss GEORGE P. MAJESKA University of Marylond Nuvsky, ALEXANDER; Ovecs OeaiFieten; OMornoRrons Onaaion; PAPERT; PELENA; Prrex, Masren; Pricrimace, Russians PLasucaNtrsa; Pocosr KRIKOR H. MAKSOUDIAN Neasts 1V SvoRnact; Nests Lamanarsac=ty Pernos Greapany STEPHEN MANNING University of Kentucky Pasrounkiie HARRY J. MARGOULIAS Nuwotas CHowraTes: THOMAS F, MATHEWS New Yovk University Pax Lesi0N RALPH WHITNEY MATHISEN, University of South Carolina Onextivs; Onostuss Pamrcsasy Rosas; PAULINUS oF AQuittia, Sty PAULINUS OF Bizusnss PAULINUS aF NOLA, Stuy PAULINUS OF PLLLA; Pavumus oF Péxicvecx E, ANN MATTER, University of Permyivania Onicen; Pasciasivs Rappertus or Connie, Sr. xiii BRIAN MERRULEES University of Toronto OuriocHarnia GaLticas ‘Oxvono Psavren; Passiun Saint EDMUND, Las Perse Purtosorie, La JOHN MEYENDORFF Hordbane University Mysnicisi, Byzasrins Nit SORSKY, S7-; Proerancays Dazmeanent SyHODs Pumoracos Kexxines STEPHEN MURRAY Columbia University Papuan Fase JOMON W. NESBITT Dumbarton Oaks Researels Center Nowisata STEPHEN G, NICHOLS, JR. University of Perneylvanta Paine Canons FH, NICOLAISEN Slate Universicy of New Yark at Binghamton Necisran; Prcrs THOMAS F, X, NOBLE University of Virgieia Pei I) Peers Uj Peeps IIE AND ‘the Dowarion oF Peni; Pouriens, Barrie oF JOHN T. NOONAN, FR, University of California, Berkeley Paucaraua RICHARD O'GORMAN University of town Nowvents PADRAIG P. 6 NEILL University of North Casolina Ogias THOMAS H, OHLGREN Burdua University Oswato OF Ranisey NICOLAS OLKONOMIDES Université da Montrast Nikuronos iT Paokas; Purtotiieos; PHOKASCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 9 ERIC L. ORMSBY “MeGill Unbversity Panapise, Istantc ROBERT OUSTERHOUT Lviv of Uli at Urner impatign aos; Nyssrnanusts Oratory; PasearHony SHERMAN PLSSON ‘Yriversty of Flinurgh Onwar-Onns Sxcn PETER PARTNER Winchester College, England Parat Staves JOSEPH F, PATROUCH University of Dagton Pucock, REGINALD PIERRE |. PAYER PENANCE ARO PuNIreTIALS, FRANKLIN J. PEGUBS ‘Obin Suet bintverity Nocaner, Guittause De DAVID PELTERET ‘New Coitege, University of Faronto Nita Se KENNETH PENNINGTON, ‘Syracuse University Persi Excerviones ALEJANDRO ENRIQUE PLANCHART University of California Ovincron, Watren JAMES F. POWERS College af che Fly Gross Navan, KINGDON oF JAMES M, POWELL Spracise University Nanus; Paciaio; Paven’'s Porc; Pisko Davin Views; Play, Sr. WALTER H, PRINCIPE Pontifical fustitute of Mediaeval Studies, Toronea Puutotorny axw THeoLoey, ‘Westuen FuRorEAN: Fwauetss Carrery To AQUINAS CHARLES M, RADDING Loyola University, Chicago ‘OnDeats THOMAS RENNA Saginasn Valley Ssate College Opito oF Cuowy, Sty One oF Coon, Se ELIZABETH REVELL Huron College Perex oF Beors ROGER E, REYNOLDS Pontifical Institute of Mediceval Studies, Toronto Naaoowts Rive; Onpwauay OnoINaRIus Liste; ORDINATION, CLERICAL; ‘Onpinns RoMant AG. RIGG Univesity of Toranto, Centre for Medieval Studies Panopy, Lavin PATER RIGA ELAINE GOLDEN ROBISON NicoLarrIsn; ODINGTON, \Waxrun; Pero or Soatn; Pervie PEREGRINUS oP MaiucauRT HELEN ROLFSON, 0.5.6 St fobn's University, Coltegeville, Minnesota Mssriciss4, Comistian: Low Countiugs LINDA C. ROSE: Naxos, Ducky or; Nieeriionos Buvesntos; Patapios; Paitirporoty Prinostoretes: REIMAN A. ROTZ Indica University, Northwest Pamucian, Usean DANUEL RUSSELL University of Pittsburgh Ovine Morauiss JAMES R, RUSSELL ‘Colymbia University PaRniatans ALL. SABRA, tarvard University ‘Opnies, Istamic xiv ERNEST H. SANDERS Coltinbia University: Norn Dane Se Prnovious "A, SANDQUIST University of Toronta Ourtawiey NICOLAS SCHIDLOVSKY Smithsonian Institution ‘Oxroxcnos JAMES 4, SCHULT Yale University Oswann, St. Census Epics IRFAN SHAHID Georgetown University Nan DANUTA SHANZER, University of California Newesianus, MARCUS AURELIUS Onna LON R. SHELBY Southern Hiinois University at Carbondele Pricras, ANTON CHARLES R, SHRADER NATO Defense Goltege Novore or betce S.A, SHUISIGL Princeton University Navigation: Lota Ocean, ep Sta; NOKITIN, AKANASTS Pruarintnce, fstasue LARRY SILVER Nowburestert University Ont Parsing; Norge, Bunnr; Pacer, MicHagts PLevorwonee, Hans. ECKEHARD SIMON Harvard University Nutonanr “von REvENTAL™ BARRJE SINGLETON Courtauld Institute, University of London Panes, Joun JABES SNYDER Bryn Matar College OUWATER, ALBERT vanCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 9 PRISCILLA P. SOUCEK ‘Naw York University Nags; Nagst Flaptoa; Nasi Nasta®i.10; Paiwocharny, ARANG ARD Pansian JAY L, SPAULDING Michio: State Univarty BG. STANLEY Pembroke College, Oxford OWL AND THe NicHTINGaLE, THe RUTH STEINER Catholic University of Amorica Orrzerone; PLAIXsoNs, Sounces oF JOSEPH R. STRAYER Princeton University NackA, ALEXANDER: ‘Onownnnus; Prinuar {V te Pain; Ponicas Dusen PLawvacezis| LARRY £, SULLIVAN Lebman College, City University lof New York Paris RICHARD E. SULLIVAN Mebigan Stave University es SANDRA CANDEE SUSMAN Preno p1 Grovannt Taors¢o; Pisano, ANDREA DONALD W. SUTHERLAND University of lowe Perry Assizes, EXouste RN, SWANSON University of Bivmninghare Nuncio, PAPAL EDITH DUDLEY SYLLA North Carojina State University Pursics EDWARD A. SYNAN, Dontifical institute of Medinevol Studies, Toronto Puiuosoriy ao THaoLogy, Wosrenn Eurorsay: ‘TuwmuwoLocy JOSEPH SZOVERFFY Wissonchaftekolieg tn Berlin Novae BaLvurus; Posey, Lrvuncrcat PETRUS W. TAX University of North Caralina Noraae Touvanicus; OTLOW (08.51. ExeMenaMs PLeriR, Den JOHN TAYLOR riety of Lede * Pazariwaris MICHAEL B, TAYLOR University of Houston Pisano, GroVaNmis Pisano, Niwous ROBERT TAYLOR, Victoria College, University of Toronto Donker b'Auvuann FRANK TOBIN University of Nevada Mysricisn, CHRISTIAN: Gurman WARREN T. TREADGOLD. Hillsdale College Nikuesonos |; Puorios RICHARD W. UNGER University of Brits Columbia Navins, WesreRn MILOS VELIMIROVIC University of Virginia Oxrorcnes; Prsinsons, Eqgruey Eunore CHARLES VERLINDEN Navicarion, Wesrens EvRorsan, CHRYSOGONUS WADDELL Abbey of Gethseman: Peter tHe Vewtrantr STEPHEN WAGLEY Purwitybo Porestarts ELLEN T, WEHNER University of Foronio Nicoue Bozow Onvtorent pes xv Davaas; PrroR LANGTOFT; Perse Puckieams PruLinvw ok HAO MARTIN WERNER, “Temple University Pictish Axr LG, WESTERINK State University of New York at ‘Araberst NiKOLAOS | MysriKos, Parmiaacn; PHILOSOPHY AND ‘Theorogy, Brzantuse ESTELLE WHELAN Nafuna; Onrugins GREGORY WHITTINGTON ‘Neiw York University Nant Naw Nieeis Onus Auxaxpanuss, Orus Francicununt; Orus Moc un, Opus RericutaTum; Opus Secritz; Prissten; PrcasTer Sree GERNOT WIELAND University of British Columbia Paras JOHN WILLIAMS University of Pittsburgh Oneco; FuoKo ne Conpona; Penns BRUCIA WITTHOFT Framingham Stare College Nui nt Pioravawni; Nivagpus or Fuguay MARTHA WOLFF, ‘Art Institute of Chicago Praving Carbs, Masta, KENNERLY M. WOODY Perk Dawean, St. MARK A. ZIER University of Toronto Nicwoxas oF Lyaa; Pere ‘Comesron; Peres LosBanp; ever The Deacon oF Mow: ASSING RONALD EDWARD ZUPKO Marquette University (Ounce Pac; Penny; PercDictionary of the Middle AgesDictionarn of the Widdle Ages MYSTERY RELIGIONS—-POLAND MYSTERY RELIGIONS. Although the term “mys- tery religions” is usually reserved for certain cults” of antiquity (notably those of Beusis, Dionysus, Orpheus, Isis and Osiris, Seeapis, Mitheas, Artis, and Cybele), there were several movements. and cults in the Middle Ages that fulfilled the condi tions requisite to being designated mystery eli- gions. These are: (1) being restricted in member~ ship; 2) requiring the performance of initiatie and other ceremonies under conditions of secrecy; and (G) promising spicicual peivileges to their members. Since both medieval Christianity and (slam were universal religions, hey had the function, from which the anciene mysteries were exempt, of pro- viding a doctrine and a practice, or lituegy, thi could accommodate everyone without distiction. Openly proselytizing, their goal was ro increase their membership, whereas in the ancient mysteries the approach had been from: the other direction. Under such conditions both religions divided at a very early stage—perhaps from the outset—into an exoteric form suitable for the commonality of be- Tievers, and an esoteric form for the elece. Esoteric Christianity and esoteric Islam were, in effect, continuations of the mysteries of antiquity, bue widh a difference, As soon as temporal power was joined to spiritual authority (in the case of Christi= anity, with the conversion of the emperor Con stantine in 312} the exoterie church became the established church, whose authorities regarded ists not as an initiated elite but often as unbelievers or heretics. Initiatic groups then had to contend with climates very diféecene from che easy tolerance of the pagan Roman Empire, and their scerecy was as much a matter of self-preservation as of principle. ‘The exporiences of mystery cultists are 2 phe- nomenon that recurs everywhere and at all times, be it within the framework of an established reli- gion or outside it. There are always some who seek a more intense spiritual experience and are more curious about theological, cosmological, and psy- chological matters ghan the majority of believers. While che first aspization can sometimes be satisfied without human assistance and within the orthodox: system, there are certain aids such as personal contact, meditarion techniques, and citwal practices which may further or intensify such experiences, The understanding of how and why these are efficacious leads to doctrines not easily compre hended by those who lack the experiences. Both the techniques and the theories seem atrange, occult, and often threatening to the outsider, who is there- fore excluded both to protect the iniziates from ridicule and persecution, and for his own prorec- tion from unguided dabbling or intellectual eonfu- sion, If this is cecognized as the raison d'éire of esoteric mysteries in general, the degree to which this type of celigion was present in the Middle Ages can be rightly judged, and one can appreciate Henry Corbin’s statement: “There is a common around berween the ancient mystery religions, whose adepts arc initiated into a mystery, and the iniciatory brothethoods within the tevealed reli- ns, whose adepts are initiated into @ gnosis.” CHRISTIANITY AS A MYSTERY RELIGION ‘The question may arise as to what extent Cath- lie or Orthodox Christianity itself is a mystery religion, It fulfills some of the conditions enumer~ ated above: initiatic and other ceremonies ace performed, although publicly, and spiritual beneies are promised. Jesus Cheist resembles mystery saviors such as Dionysus, Orpheus, Mithras, Osiris, Atis, and Adonis in being an incarnate son of God who ‘knew human suffering and death, and with who the religion offers a personal relationship, even an identification; while the central ChristianMYSTERY RELIGIONS saccaments of baptism and the Eucharist are s0 similar to payan ones thar there must be either a mutual influence or a common drasving, on some Fans of universal symbolic meaning. But the special purpose of Christianity appears to have been to throw open at least some aspects of the mysteries to all people withour distinction and without secrecy, Thus all people, including slaves, sinners, and idi- ‘ots, are offered the chante of attaining the King. dom of Heaven, where “she last shall be fise"—a “cathaticty”” whose obverse is the compulsion of everyone alike to accept the official version of this mystery, Within Christianity esareric movements, have periodically surfaced in whieh the resemblance co the pagan mysteries is still stronger. ‘The first one of the medieval period was the quest for the Holy Grail, whose mythology bears consideration in this, ontext from a purely phenomenological point.of view. To swnmarize: The Grail is the abject of @ guest thar may or may svt succeed in this lie. tis concealed, guarded, and eventually removed from the world, or else sequestered in thy Orient. Ie is perhaps a cup of plenty, or immoredlity, or of Christ's Blood: perhaps the emerald eye of Lucifer ‘before his fall; pethaps a stone “in exile.” A group ‘of ascetic warriors assembles to guard it in a semisobstantial xemgle, another group to seek for it. ‘These present 2 phenomenology closely akin to chae cof alchemy, with all the ambiguity and maltiple layers of mythology that also mark the alchemical aquest and jee object. t is impossible to say, in che ease of the Grail material, how much is inner and how much outer history, just a§ in alchemy one cannot tel! wheter che operations described are supposed to be physical, psychic, or spiritual. In bboth cases, all chat is certain is thae there is a quest which leads, even in this life, ae sonteching hac cannot or may not be described in rational lan- ‘guage: hence the “mystery,” the “keeping silent.” The Grail mythology borrows elements. from ancient Celtic paganism, fram Christianity both Celtic and Roman, and from Islam. Again like aichemy, it concerns a secret without confessional boundaries: ic is ite own seligion ia the sense of being a means (0 reconnect man with his origin, ‘The exoreric religioas are merely a support «0 ic. While one cannot isolate “Grailisis” as one con Snfis or Templars, chis highly developed mythology points to the existence of more or lese organized conclaves of devotees to this particular form of ‘quest —one thar regards the heating of the world as 2 MYSTERY RELIGIONS: the concomitant duty of one who is seeking to heat his own exiled state, ‘The ions of the Grail then become the archetypal spicitual path of the sacred warrior, seldom realized in practice, but always presene as an ideal sn medieval chivatey. Pethaps its closest realization was in the Order of the Temple (Templars), whose knights, at lease in the casly perio, were engaged in some farm of accvity, scitl not folly explained, connected with the site of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem. They were cer- thinly an initiatic organization and some of thei tenets and rites may wel! have been heretical in the eyes of the Roman church. The eelations they fostered with the Islamic world went far beyond the ‘obvious one of crusading: the work af Dacte alone proves that philosophical exchanges rook place under their auspices, The Templats are among the most visible signe of the underground currents which connect Isfamic esotericism, the Fedele d'Amore {servants of love), he secret society to which Dante is said by Guénon to have belonged, and what were much later called the Rosicrucians ‘The dualistic heresies such as Bogomils and Cathars cannot be considered mystery religions bbeeause they embraced whole peoples and claimed tn he the tous and potentially universal church. The qualifications of sheir initiates were noc grostic but purely asceti MYSTERIES WITHIN ISLAM Although heresy was always regarded in the Muslim world with great severity, the absence of 2 censeal charch and hierarchy of professional clergy permisted the flourishing of an Islamic gnosis or esotericism to which the medieval Christian world offers no parallel, The trensmission of esoteric lyetrines and powers, in any tradition, has always taken place individually, either in the context of a mystery initiation or in the relationship of master «9 pupit. The Christian in need of spirieual advice turned naturally to the clergy; the Muslim, on the other hand, tuned eo a more oF less recognized imam (model or proroeype, sho was beholden to rng ecclesiastical supeciors, While itis necessary to digcinguish the separate existence of an actual sect, such as the Druzes, from the circle or spirizaal progeny of an orthodox Sufi master, the intention ‘of the aspirant or pupil remains the same: the dedication of hfe vo spicitual goal that remains a “mystery” until realized. Another important difference was the relationMYSTERY RELIGIONS ship of Islam with the pagan past. Quite soon afer she first period of extreme revulsion against pagan- ism, concerced efforts were made to rescue Greek learning and science. The form in which these legacies were found was colored by the general fendencies of very late paganisin toward what can broadly be called hermeticism: a blend of Neopla- tonic philosophy with syncretistic religion and the ‘occult sciences of theurgy, alchemy, and astrology. ‘These predslamic religions, with theit strong mys- tical content and literature descriptive of states, could not be ignored by esotcrically inclined Muslims, to whom the validity of the Jewish and Christian revelations was already an article of faith, Sometimes their influences were successfally absorbed imo orthodoxy; at other times—espe cially when completely unorthodox beliefs such as polytheism or reincarnation were concerned—they Formed separate sects. A cosmic system which promises successive re- ‘births on earth to the mass of humanity, but holds out the possibility, for the few who can attain it; of permanent liberation from the world of time and. ‘matter, is common to the ancient mystery religions as well as to Buddhism and Hindoism, We treat here four sects within the Islamic domain which share these assumprions. ‘The Druzes. According to Druze doctrine, ak Hakim and Hamza proclaimed that the time had ‘came to supersede both the Sunnis’ literal incerpre cation of the Koran, and the Shires’ allegorical interpretation; t0 open mankind co what Eloraza called “a spiritual doctrine without any ritualistic impositions” (Epistle 13}, in which, according to Makarim, man seeks to realize himnselé “in God, che absolute Reality, the only Existent and the only Real, the One Whom no one can realize in himself unless he moves away ftom his own self hat separates and alienaces him from the Unity that comprises all existenice.” This Unity will eventually be reestablished in an Apocalypse which will be ‘experienced by those prepared (or it as Paradise, by the unprepared as Hell. ‘The Druze’s search foe the divine Unity is a mystical one, informed by 3 philosophical non- duslism, ‘The path extends through successive reincarnations, one life not being. sufficient for full realization of the Truth; but the moment of accepting the Call by pledging one’s allegiance in writing is considered 4s che miciation into the ultimate stage of evolution, marked by the highest refinement of philosophy and ending in erior = MYSTERY RELIGIONS the highest goal attainable by man, that of conscious absorption into the Divine Unity. Present-cay Druzes believe themselves 10 be cein= carnations of those wha then accepred the Call in the eleventh century. Bat the majority of man- kind was not ready to understand this doctrine, hence its failure to become universal, the persecu- tion of its followers from the outset, and the seereey and close clanmnishness practiced by Druzes ever since. ‘Whether this sketch of contemporary Druze be- liofs ghased on Makarim) reflects the situation of medieval Drvzism cannot be ascertained; but unless there has been some influence in the intervening centuries from Sufism or from farther east (one observes, for instance, striking correspondences with Advaita Vedanta, and, in the Druze incarna- tional theosophy which is to0 involved co summa rive here, with Tiberan Buddhism it is more plau- sible than the previous accounts of Westerners working mainly from limited and prejudicial Mus- lim sources. We are still without any evidence ‘concerning the secret initiations and rites that have bbeen suspected by outsiders. The Nusayris. As in the case of the Druzes, knowledge of the medieval Nusayris is largely a matter of induction from modern sources, partici larly che testimony of a nineteenth-century apos- tate, Sulaiman Effendi, The clear evidences of pre- Islamic religion prove that there mast have been some doctrinal contimuity from long before the eleventh century, when they were mentioned in 2 refutation by the Druze founder Hana. They were, like the Drazes, a hereditary sect, accepting no converts except Shiites (who shared some of their devotion © Ali}. They celebrated mysteries and initiations which carried vows of absolute secrecy and which, in contrast to the Islamic prohibition, tased consecrated wine. ‘The Nusayris resemble most the syneretistic mystery celigions of the Roman Empize. From Shiite Isiam they accepted the imamate, though authorities differ on whether they were welvers oF seveners. But thelr devorion co AI) went mach further than any Shiite would allow. They applied to him the Christian doctrine of incarnation, call- ing him Gods mana (creative mind or Logos} and asserting thar “there is no god bue CATT ibn Abi Talib.” ‘They allowed many other incarnations, ranging from Adam to the camel of Saleh (Koran 7:73, 16:155), At the vore of Nusayti theology (most complex in its ramifications, though simpleMYSTERY RELIGIONS in igs essence) isthe Tri ying table, Whilea parallel with the Chistian Trinity is just recognizable here, the Nusayris! identificarion of these chree Persons with heavenly bodies (usually Sicy, Sun, and Moon respectively, hut vacying with ‘the subscets} betrays a closer origin in the Palmy- rene Trinity of Baal Shamin (Sky god), Matakbel Sua god}, and Aglibol (Moon god), Theit religion therefore seems to be cooted in the ancient pagan ism of Palmyra, to whoxe empire their region orig inally belonged. The Nusayris expected only seven reinearna- tions before attaining the realm of *Al7 among the stars—a clear echo of the hermetic ascent through the spheres of the seven planets, culininating in che ateaicunent of the transvendent eighth sphere. They also awaited the apocalyptic reruen of SA from the sna to the earth, ‘Their mysteries seem to have consisted of the delivery of a doctrinal Book of the Sueacnary and the eeaching of prayers, including the invocation “AMS” (initials ofthe last incarnation). ‘Their ceremonies employed wine (as did the sacred Danquets ofthe ancient Palmyrenes), incense, herbs, ‘and prayers, some of them beautiful, others consist- ing of virulent curses on all other sects, “The Sabaeans of Hlarran, “The Nusayris had a teadition that the elect stand at the gate of Harrin and there receive the just, who will inhabit heaven, Harri has an immensely long history as a center of trade roures, metallurgy, alchemy, astrolacry, and hermetic religion—one thing, presumably, having Jed to avoiher. (n $30, in response to the caliph ‘al-Ma"nudo's chailenge, the inhabitants claimed to be Sabaeans, a seer whose approving mention in Koran 2:62, 5:69, and 22:17 allowed cheat che seatus af “people of the book.” They were in fact more pagan than Muslim, being worshipers of star gods, of Hermes and Agathodaemon, practitioners of astrological rituals and of alchemy. This survieal cof hermeticism in tie bosom of Islam was possible because these divinities had been accepted into the prophetic canon by identification with Weis and Seth. In the early Abbasid period a schoo! of transla. ty shown in the accompa MYSTERY RELIGIONS tors flourished in Harrdn under the guidance of ‘Thabit ibn Quera, specializing in Greek mathemat- ical and astronomical texts. Both chese sciences ‘were highly developed there, and Pythagoras him- self was tegarded as the ancestor of the community. “The Sabaean doctrines of the cosmos and human fate are close to his, Sever spisitual beings rule over the seven planets, which in turn direct the material universe, Where Divine Light meets the darkness of vil. The human soul is consubstantial with che divine, but forgets its powers because of the admix- ture of matter. The universe proceeds in great eycles ‘of 36,425 years, in each of which che human soul Teincarnates under conditions decermined by. its previous conduct, unless chrough great efforr it has completely emancipated itself from mattet and eseaped t0 join the pure souls in che timeless heaven. This appeats to have been the more philo~ Sophical and esoteric side of Marranian belief AlShahrastint divides them into two sects, the spicituals” and the “idolaters,” presumably refer- ring respectively to these philosophical and ritual elements, The tkhwan atSafa. ‘Che avowed heirs of the Harranian Sabacans were the community in Basra known as the Ikhwan al-Safa> (Brethren of Purity), whom F. Es Peters calls “pact of that Gnostic elite which in many times and many culeures has bene ies efforts roward recovering the secret teuths neces- sary for salvation, .., They knew that the joys of Paradise had nothing t do with houriss it was assimilation 0 the One, and man need not wait upon death ro attain ite” The fifty-second and lase volume of the Ikhwin’s Encyclopedia, devoted to theurgy and magic, acknowledges the Sabacans and is connected with the magical treatise of Harranian ‘origin known to the Renaissance io Latin under the name uf Picatrie. The Ikhwin also celebrated a hermetic licurgy, including che reading of a “cosmic text" facing the Pole Star, and psalms and prayers attributed to Plato and Aristotle. Their Encylopedia ‘was read by the Druzes, the secret sect of Assassins, and most Sufi schools. The identity and nosliter- ary activity of the Ikhwan remains enigmatic, but they were evidently a group in which the main ‘The Nusaytf Tiniey Nanwes Given in Initiation Enernal archerypal deity Expressed deity ‘Commutiicaror Incarnational Type ‘asas {foundation} snatig {wnceser) or Iser Came) Boh igaued 4 Last Incarnation AIT ibe Abi Talib Muhammed Selman al-FaeistMYSTERY RELIGIONS ‘object of the classical mysteries—the transforma tion of the individual through riewal and gnosis— was pursued in the new context of the Islanic revelation. JUDAISM AS A MYSTERY RELIGION In one sense, Judaism was a mystery religion within the Roman, Christian, and Islamic worlds it ‘was a nonproselytizing community whose members considered themselves in a special relationship with God, which could be entered by sincere converts on acceptance of initiation and a way of life permeated ciewsl. fe was in this sense that late Roman syneretism could aecept Judaisin a3 just one among many such colts. But in a decpet sense Judaism possessed its own mysteries in the abla, which Interprets the scriptures in an esoteric and symbolic sense, reading its own doctrines into the Torah, In this it eesembles the Neoplatonie reading of Homer, the Sufi reading of the Koran, and certain Christian mystical interpretations of both Testaments, The doctrines of the medieval cabala incorporated ideas commen to all mysteries of the hermetic type, for example, emanation, cosmic cycles, reincarnation, numerology, correspondences of microcosin and macrocosm. It envisaged the human race as arising from the sinking of divine sparks into matter, and the potential for theic liberation either through the tniversal messianic redemption, oF sooner through individual gnosis. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hexry Corbin, "Rituel Sabéen et exeabee ismaclienne du riruel” in Enamoscfabrbuch, 19 (1950), Creative Imagination tx the Sufism of thm SArabh, Ralph Manheim, trans, (1969), and “L'lmogo Templi face aux. formes profanes,” in BrenasJabirbweh, 43. (1974); Joseelyn Godwin, Nystery Religions in the Ancient World (1981}; René Gasman, L'ésotérisme de Danie (1925); Suphen Howacth, The Knights Templar (1982); Sami Nasi Makirim, The Drvge Faith (1974): John Matthews, The Grail (1980); Seyyed Mosssin Nasr, Ait Introduction o Istantie Gosmolugical Doctrines ev. ed. (1978); FB, Peers, Allah's Comiaonwenith: A History of Islans in the Near Last, 600-100 A.D. (1973); Bernatd H. Springest, Secret Sects of Syrit and the Labraion (1922), Joscetyn Goose {See also Abbasids; “Ali ibn Abi Talib; Assassins; Basta; Bogomilism; Cabata; Cathars; Chivalry, Orders of, Daves; Eneyelopedias and Dictionaries, Arabic and Per- sian; Grail, Legend of; Htkim bieAme All, ak; Imem; MYSTICISM, BYZANTINE Koran; Ma?min, aly Neoplatonisin; Sabacans; Sees, Islamic; Shi'a; Summa. MYSTICISM, CHRISTIAN. The subject of Chris- tian mysticism is treated below in five separate articles: Byzantine, Continental (Women}, English, German, and Low Countries. Additional discus- sions are cited in cross-references at che end of each essay. MYSTICISM, CHRISTIAN: BYZANTINE. The word “mysticism” is widely used to designate the spirituality represented, in Byzantine tradition, by such authors as Origen, Grepory of Nyssa, and. Maximus the Confessor. Whereas ir ia methodolog- ically possible in studying the Western Christian tradition to draw a clear distinction berween inys- ticism and theology, such a distinetion is hardly admissible at all in Eastern, and particularly Byz= antine, Christianity. All historians recognize today that, in the words of Jaroslay Pelikan, “one distinc tive feature of the doctrinal history of Greck Chris tlanity . . . was the tole of mysticism.” It is also. possible to say that, fora Byzantine, Christian faith was identical with personal expecience, and the latter was understood as being shared wich others, as tradition and common teaching of the church. Thus, Vladimir Lossky could vite: “IF tae mystical expeiience is a personal working out of the content cof tho common faith, theotogy is an expression, for the profit of all, of that which can be experienced by everyone.” One can legitimately wonder, therefore, whether the term usual distinctive con- temporary meaning, implying subjectivism and in- dividual emotionalism—is applicable at all to she Eastern Christian tradition, In Greek patristics, the adjective “mystical” (ystitos) points most fre- quently to the hidden and transcendent character of divine existence, and only secondarily to the human perception of it, The short treatise “On Mystical Theology" by the unknown author who weote in the early sixth century under the pseadonyin of Dionysins the Areopagite is actually about divine transcendence; Ie affirms that God is torally unac- tainable by human senses or reason, that he is not ‘an object of cteated perception at all, and that, therefore, knowledge of God is, indeed, a mysteri=MYSTICISM, BYZANTINE ‘ous “communion,” implying nor only intellectual purification (zs in Platonism), but a detachment from anything that is not God. This goal and method is proposed not oly to individual asceties but ro any cheologian and, actue ally, any believer, Since the term “‘detachmene? in his context implies individual effort, however, those who devored their lives co it (essentially the monks} were generally recognized as spiritual Jead- ers par excellence, and the specifically monastic spirituality ended to beeome a general example for all Christians. Consequently, the various trends of that spirituality influenced theology and the church inva decisive way. ‘These remarks concerning religious knowledge, understood in seems of mystical communion, imply fa general recognition in Byzantine Christianity that ‘teuth is accessible, in a particular way, through the personal experience of the saints, ‘This recognition does not exclude the teaching authority of “the institutional and sacramental hierarchy of the church, but it presupposes that doctrinal pro- nouncements of bishops, or coveeils, lack final validity without theie “reception” by all the beliew- cs, The numerous cases of popular, particularly monastic, opposition co synodal and; indeed, umpe- rial pronouncements in the history of Christian Byzantium show that the external authority of the church magisterinm—cercainly essential ecclesi- ologically—was nor seen as a substitute for the direct experience of the faith itself; rather institu tional authority and mystical experience ate the necessary and mutvally validating poles of reli- ‘lous knowledge. “THE ORIGENISTIC AND EVAGRIAN TREND. ‘The thought of Origen, the greatest of Christian philosophers and apologists of che third century, is ‘eased on the principle of convergence between Neoplatonic mysticism and Christian experience. The biblical idea of creation applies, according co Origen, not to an even happening in time, but to the existence of an eternal world of “intellects” whose original destiny was to participate in the ‘sated throughout Burope, and also reached Ene sland, through a redaction by Reger of Ford in the 1170's Mechtbild of Hackeburn, Mechtbild of Mag- debug, Gertrude the Great. The three tbitteench- century German mystics, Mechthild of Hackeborn, Mechthild of Magdeburg, and Gertrude the Great, were associated with the Cistorcian/Benedietine sourenc at Helfta, which, under the forry-year abbatial tenute of Gertrade of Hackeborn, was an intellectual, spiritual, and mystical center. Mechthild of Hackeborn (2241-1299) was charged not only with assisting her sister Abbess Gertrude, but also with such conventual casks as teaching, counseling, training novices, and direct- ing the choir [for which she was called! “God's Nightingale") Her close friend Gertrude the Great compiled the accounts of Mechthild’s ascetic life, visions, and ccstasies into the seven-part LiberMYSTICISM, CONTINENTAL specialis grative, which is infused with a joyfut spirit of praise and love of God, and participates in the Brautmeystik school of mystical writings, col cored by the chivalric and minnesar, traditions. Along with other Helfta religious, and especially Gertrude, Mechhild was instrumental in promot ing the cult of the Sacred Heart. Her Liter was circulated on the Continent and in England, whete a Middle English teansiation, The Booke of Gosilye Grace, often referred 10 as the “Maude Book,” was a popular devotional work. Altor leaving her aristocratic family to become a beguine abour 1230, Mechthild of Magdeburg (1210~1282/1294) became Dominican tertiary, under the spiritual ditection of Henry of Halle, & disciple of Albert the Great. In 1250, after years of aseetic and prayerful living, she began to record he particulars of her mystical life, which were then edited and ccarranged by Henry into Das Hliessende Licht der Goithert (The flowing light of the Godhead). Because of her outspoken denne: tions of immoral conduct in both church and state, for which she was gersecuted and even accused of heresy, she cook refuge at Helfta around 1270-1271, and, having lost ber sight, dictated the conclusion af her book ro che cons. Shortly after ber death, Heney produced a Latin translation of her book, Lirx divinitatis fluens tr corda veritatis, and a subsequent High German version by Henry of Nérdiingon was circulaced among the Gottesfreunde in soucheca Germany and Switzerland, inclading the Waldschwestern recluses at Binsiedeln. In addition to recounting Mechthild’s spiritual journey from purgation through illumination co ‘union with God, the Movbing Light is a devotional work of extraordinary beauty and, at the same time, a jeremiad against societal and ecclesial ineq- uwities. Like Hildegard of Bingen and Mechthild of Rackeborn, Mechthild of Magdeburg was an inclusivist, encompassing all of creation in her visions, Gertrude the Great (1256-1301/1302), who came to Helfta at the age of five, avidly pursued higher learning until a spiricual ccisis ia 1281, This, marked the beginning of her mystical vocation, which resulted in the invisible stigmara, like Catherine of Siena, and, later, the wound of divine love, a privilege later to be accorded to Teresa of Avila, At Christ's behest, she wrote The Messenger or Herald of God's Loving Kindness (Legatus divinae pietatis, or Insinuationes), a5 well as the WW MYSTICISM, CONTINENTAL ascetical-mystical Spiritual Exercises, composed for the Helfia community. Only Book 2 of the Inshnuationes was actually composed by Gertrude, Book 1 being a posthumous cribute to the saine, but itis believed thatshe dictated tie last three books to members of the community, While following the contemplative life, Gertrude was actively engaged in conventnal tasks and in her apostolate co the laity and clorgy. Like the wo Mechthilds, she promoted the cult of the Sacred Heatt of Jesus, a devotion also promulgated by Lintgard of Aywiéres and othgr Low Country eescatics. “THE LOW COUNTRIES Asa result of the Fravenprage, Frauenbewweguong, and cura monialinm (the charge laid to the celi- gious orders, especially che Cisteccians and Domin- icans, 0 assume the spiritual care of women monasties in convents), a large number of mudieres saiceae in the Low Countries and elsewhere in Europe attached themselves to Cistercian andl Do- in houses, or became associated with the seimiveligions bugeine movement, which, in iss emphasis on apostolic poverty and Chistian per- fection, anticipated the Gottesfreunde, Brethren of the Common Life, and devotio nsoderna of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The women mys- tics of the Low Countries, with vocations as lay wonien, tentiaries, religious, cecluses, and beguines, weré particularly noteworthy: Mary of Oignies (d. 1213), Christine of St, Tronde, called “Mira- bills” (el 1224), Yverte of Hay (4. 1228), Ida of Nivelles (@. ea, 1231), Margaret of Ypres (d. 1237), Lutgard of Aywitres (d, 1246), Hadewijen /t 1259), Alice of Schaarbeck (d. 1250}, Juliana of Cornillion (d. 1258), Ida of Leeuw (4. 1260), Eve of St. Martin (4, 1265), Beattice of Nazareth (4. 1268}, Ida of Louvain (d. 1300), Christine of Stommoln (d. 1312}, Elizabeth “of Spalbeck (d. 1316}, and Gertrude of Oosten (d, 1358). All led lives of heroic virtne, exteeme asceticism, and deep spirituality, extolled in whar might be termed the Vitae matrum (Lives of holy women} by hagi- oataphers such as Jacques de Vitry (Mary of Oi- gies), Peter of Dacia (Christine of Stommeln), Thomas de Cantimpré (Lutgard of Aywitres, Christine of St. Trond, Margaret Ypres), and Hugh de Ploteffe (Yvette of Huy}. In addition to follow- ing the vie mystica, these holy women were, like their sister mystics, oecupied with campaigns againat social evils, church laxity, and heresy, 38 well as with spiricual counseling and social serviceMYSTICISM, CONTINENTAL, Mary of Oignies and Christine of Stommetn book fulfilled the cole of pia mater for a zealous circle of followers: Lucgard of Aywidres and Alice of Schaarbeck championed the devotion to the Sacred Heart Juliana of Cornillon and Eve of St. Mactin ‘were instrumental in establishing the feast of Cor pus Christi; and, consonant with the spirit, of imitatio Caristi, Mary of Oignies, kda of Louvain, Christine of Stommeln, Elizabeth of Spalbeek, and Gertrude of Oosten all received che stigiata OF the Low Counties group, perhaps the best known are Beatrice of Nazareth, a Cistercian nua fea, 1201268}, and the beguine Hadewijeh (ft, 4250}, both exponents of love mysticism, which drew upon the Bernardian Braxtnsyssik and the chivalric concept of Minne to expeess che centrality of fove of the exemplar Christ co the spiritual life. Beacrice authored a spiticual autabiography, subse- guently transiated into Latin by William of At flighem, and an excerpt therefrom, entitled The Seven Ways of Degrees of Love (Van Seven Manieren van Heitigher Minnen). The tract out lines the theopathic states of the progressive spiri- sat ff feading to the son's passivity in the realm of higher contemplation, annihilation, waion, and longing for death which alone would bring full union with God, Ar one time erroneously identified with the he- retical beguine Bloemardinne of Brussels {d. 1336), Hadewiich loft fourteen visions, thirty-one Leeeers addressed to an anonymous young beguitte, forty five steophic poems which are adjudged her greatest work, and sixteen poems in rimes plates. Employ- ing the metaphor of 2 duel ¢9 describe the soul's ascent to God, who is Love, Fadewijeh was influ- enced by Bertiard of Claievaws, William of St. ‘Thierry, Richard of St. Victor, and Neoplatonic: Trinitarian exemplarism, and, in gurn, exerted a {great infloence on Jan van Rtwusbroec. FRANCE Despite the opportunities for Christian women to seek fulfillment in religious life, ehere is ede evidence of women contemplatives in France during the early Middle Ages. Only Livtberga of Wend= hhauser (d. 8607) is singled out in this cegaed. In the later Middle Ages, only Marguerite 4Oinge and the beguine Margatet Porcte have received aay signifc cant mention. Born into a nable Beaujolais family, Marguerite e?Oinge (d, 1310} entered ehe Carthu sian house of Poletcins near Lyon and subsequently was appointed priacess, + position she held uncih 12 MYSTICISM, CONTINENTAL her death. Het canon af writings is composed of the Pagina meditationum, a sevies of Latin medi ‘on Christ’s Passion, sin, hell, God's grace, and the Motherhood of Christ, @ theme shaced especiatly with Julian of Norwich; and of several woeks in Provengal: the Speculum, relling af her visions of Christ, the Trinity, and heaven; the Life of St. Beatrix d'Oricrence, which shows many similari- tes with Marguarite’s own affective spirituality: and five letters, Margaret Porete (d. 15 10) has been orediced with the Miroir des simples ames, & manual on the progressive spiritual life secuccured as a dialogue, which concentrates on the higher stages of contem= plation, union, and the mystical marriage. Because of its seeming espousal of tenets of the Free Spirit heresy, both the work and iss author were con- demned and burned in 1310. Despine its pecacive heterodoxy, the work was translated into. Middle English by MAN. in the fifteenth century, possibly theough the agency of the Carthusians, but those passages which mighr be Interpreted as unortiodex were carefully glossed by the tcanslator. In 1491, M. N's Middle English version was translated isto Latin by Richard Methley of Mount Grace Charterhouse, who also glossed the suspect sec sions. Both M.N. and Methley, along with the three French theologians who approved the original French text, were obviously convinced of che Mir ror’s orthodoxy, @ position which is questioned today by such critics a8 Edmund Colledge and Rontana Guacnieri SOUTHERN GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND The efflorescence of women mystics in Aleman- nic Switzerland and southwestern Germany during, tte late thirteenth and fourteenth centuries received its impetus generally from the Frauenfiage and Frauenbewegung, but mote particulacly feom the cura monialiun OF the mendicant orders. In addi tion to assuming the spiritual responsibility for semireligious communities, the Dominicans were charged with the direction and guidance of cleis- tered women religious in this locale. To carey Gut this responsibility they assigned some of their mast outstanding men, such as Henry Suse, who intro~ duced the suns to theological apeculation and mys- tical contemplation. It is important to note that many of the nuns were from the uppér classes or aristocracy, capable of bringing substantial dow- sies 10 the convents, and also were well educated. Ac the beginning of the fourreenth century, thereMYSTICISM, CONTINENTAL ‘were over seventy Dominican convents in this, ‘geogeaphical area, several of which were. noted centers of mysticism: Toss near Winterthas, Kotharinental by Diessenhofen, Oetenbach near ‘Zurich, Engeltal and Maria-Medingen near Nurem- berg, Adelhausen in Freiburg, Kirchberger near Sulz, Weiler by Esslingen, and the Alsatian house at Schinensteinbach. Interestingly enough, mony of © these convents, such as Téss and St. Katharinental, originally were Gorteshduser (houses of God) or beguinages. ‘A second major influence was the socio-religious phenomenon known as the Gottesfreunde, whose practical mysticism espoused individualism, self renunciation, the feasibility of wifo mystica be- tween God! and anan, and the essential equality of lay and religious Christians. Among the leaders of this movement who were particularly imporcaat in the southern Dominican houses were Henry Suse, and Henry of Nérdlingen, laypersons such as mem- bers of the Golden Ring in Basel, and, among the nuns Elsbeth Stagel, Suso’s spiritual daughter, at “Yess; Margacer Boner at Maria-Medingen, associ- ated with Henry of Nordlingen; and Christine Ebner and Adlhaid Langman of Engeleal ‘These religious led che mixed life of intense ascesis, penance, prayer, an contemplation, cou pled with participation in convent life, counseling, charitable works, and literary activity, which eon sisted in recording sermons, seiting down their own mystical experiences as well as those of consorores {sister mystics), and extensive fester writing. Bex cause of their penitential susteities and, in some cases, excessive subjectivity and sentimentality, as well as the physical and psychic tensions generated by the whole community, these women haves been rather unfairly castigated by later erities as hyster- ical, pathological, repressed, torally imitative, oF, at best, uninspiced Theie literary productivity was varied and usu ally represented the collaboration of two mins or a ‘monk and a nn. Several wrote cevelations of their systical life, Examples ace the Diariue of Mar garer Ebner (d. 1351), recounting her contempla- five experience from 1312 10 1348, actually written down by the prioress Blaabeh Scheppech and edited by Henry of NOcdlingen; Vor der Gnade Ueberlast by Christine Ebner (d. 1356), and the Ojfenbarungen of Adelhaid Langmann (é. 1375). The correspondence herween these cJojstered ins and a wide circle of other religious, clergy, and laity affords illuminating accounts of the” mystical 13 MYSTICISM, CONTINENTAL atmosphere and practices in the convents and the religious milieu of the age, as well as contemporary historical events like papalimperial struggles, the interdict, and Black Death, Noteworthy in. this regard are Henry of Nérdlingen’s correspondence with Margaret Ebner and her contemporaries, which isthe first collection of letters in the German language, and the communications of Elsbeth Stagel and Henry Suso, ‘The most illustrious of this group of women mysties was Elsbeth Stagel, who ‘was as important in Hlenry Suso's lile as Clare was to Frangis of Assisi. Not only did she encourage him to write his vite and collect his lettrs, but she also translated some of his Latin works into. the vernacular. A thitd important literary legacy from these muns are the vitae sororum (Scbwesternbilcher}, which were collections of the spiricual and mystical biog- raphies of the sisters, written by Anna von Mun- ingen, Elsbeth Stagel, and Katherine von Geb- welery among others. The vitae were intended to provide edifying exemplars of the ascetie-mystical vocation for the later nuns at Adelhausen, T8ss, Engeleal, Unterlinden, Weiler, Katharinental, and etenbach, and represent a distinct genre of reli- gious writing, While tie chronicles bave been der- ogated as pedestrian and derivative in their lan- guage; possibly because they lack the lyric flights and intensity of a Mechthild of Magdeburg or a Henty Soso, Hester Ghering’s careful study sug ests that such criticism is njust, and that they indeed made a definite contribution to the mystics! language of the later Middle Ages by affording 2 complete terminology of practical, as opposed to speculative, mysticism, Furthermore, answering the charge that the nccoumts of supernatural manifes- tations—which were the central concern of the vitse-sippear unauthentic, Gheving demonstrates that they encompass all phases of the ongoing mystical life. As’ even stronger apologia for the importance and validity of these works is offered Walter Blank's Die Nonnenviten des 14, Jabr- hunderts.. Another important foureeenth-century German niystie is St. Dorothea of Montau, patronness of Prussia (1347-1394). Like Birgitta of Sweden, whom she admired greatly, she was married and widowed, went on pilgrimages, aud simuleancousiy led 2 contemplative life, Toward the end of her life she was enclosed in tke cathedral wal at Marien= werder, where, like rae English recluse Julian of Norwich, she was sought after ax a spiricual coun-MYSTICISM, CONTINENTAL selor by her “even Christians.” Her experiences, recorded by her spiritual director, John of Marienwerder (1343-1417), are contained in her vita, che. Septililium or Seven Graces, and the Liturgically oriented Liber de Festis. Her spiricualiay is similar ro thac of Birgitta and Catherine of Siena, and, according ¢o some schofars, may have exerted an influence on Margery Kempe of Lynn, ivay ‘The flowering of feminine mysticism in Ger- many and Switzerland was paralleled in Iraly, again under ehe impecus of the Dominican and Franciscan orders, Approximately 100 known . mulieres sanctae, following a variety of fay and religious ways of life, appeared bebween 1200 and 1400, among them St. Verdiana, Bd. Gherardesca of Pisa, St. Flumiliana, St. Umilts of Florence, Bd. Beneventua of Friuli, Bd, Margaret of Faeaza, Bd. Aldobrandesca of Siena, Bd. Santuccia af Gubbio, Rd. Margaret of Cortona, Bd, Agnesa of Monte pulciano, Bd. Ginliana Falconiere, Bd. Margherita of Citta di Castello, 8d. Giustina of Arezzo. The most famous of these Iealian visionaries were Bd, Angels of Foligno, St. Catherine of Siena, and, in the fifteenth century, St. Catherine of Genoa. Angela of Foligeo. in her spiritual autobioges, phy, entitled Memoriale de fra Arnaldo, Angela of” Foligno (1248-1309) depicts her earlier life as a ‘wife and mother as one of indulgence, vanity, and, at best, lukewarm Christianity. Converted about 1285 by a dream of St. Feancis of Assisi, she made 1a general confession to her relative, Fra Arnaldo da Foligno, OFM, who subsequently became rer spi= ieval advisor and the transcriber and Latin teansla- tor of her revelations, Her spiritual conversion turned her to a life of asceticism, penance, and contemplation, together with unflagging work at the leper bospital and related social service, Finally, in 1291, following the death of her husband, children, and mother, she became a Franciscan tertiary and, en route to Assisi, reccived a revelation, from the Holy Spirit, seating that she would be Goe’s instrument, a vocation which would bring ‘great fame to her and even greater glory to God. At Fa Armaldo’s insistence, she dictated the account of hr spiritual itinerariv (eom 1285 to 1296, which she arranged imo thirty steps t0 perfection to accord with the hidden years of Christ's eacthly lie, After 1296, she directed hee energies into her spiritual materniey to cemacles of souls in Italy and elsewhere, an activity which resulted in her 14 MYSTICISM, CONTINENTAL Istrucioni saluiifere and an extensive cotrespon- dence. For her theological and mystical acuimen and fher work with her priest “sons,” she was given the titles “Mother of Souls” and “Mistress of Theolo- glans," and was lauded by one of her spiritual sons, Ubertino da Casale, in his Arbor vitae crucifixes fest. Catherine of Siena, Catherine af Siena (1347— 1380) nov only pussved the via mystica butalso was innmersed in che active life as a teacher, theologian, social worker, reformer, peacemaker, advisor to secilar and ecclesiastical culers, and leader of the cause to end the Babylonian Captivity and return, she papacy 10 Rome. TI sifed woman became a Dominican tertiary or mianteliata at sixteen, and four years leter was mystically espoused to Christ, Bight years hnter, in 1375, she received the stigmata, which, at her request, were invisible, Through hee sancrity, charisma, and zeal- ‘its efforts for church and social reform, she gath- ered a following of lay and religions disciples, called fa bella brigata ot Caterinati, one member vi which was William Flee, the noted English Augus- tinian recluse, Although her rigorous apostolate to clfect the sarito passaggio (holy passage or holy return to Rome) ended in failure with the Great ‘Wescern Schism, she continued to work for the reform of the Dominican order and other causes of her earthly mission until her death in Rome in 1380), at the age of thirty-three. Catherine's works include 382 Letters, ewenty+ sin Prayers, and the Dialogue, also known as the Book of Divine Providence, an extended colloquy between her soul and God. "This record of her mystical fife is centered around Christ crucified, his salvific Sacred Blood, and divine love, experienced co the fullest in union and translated into seevice in ‘ochallf of her fellow Christians and of the church, as Christ's mystical body. Her Dialogue and the vita written by her confessor Raymond of Capita, later to become master general of the Dominicans, were disseminated throughout the Continent andl in En sland, where a Middle English translation of the Dialogues called The Orcherd of Syon, was pre~ pared for the Birgittine nuns at Syon Abbey. Catherine was canonized in 1481, designared by the church as patronness of Italy,” together with Francis of Assisi, in 1939, and proclaimed a doctor of the church in 1970, along with Teresa of Avila. Catherine of Genoa, The third great Italian ‘woman inystic, Catherine of Gevoa (1447-1510), was boen ints an aristocratic Genoese family, wasMYSTICISM, CONTINENTAL pressured into marriage at the age of sixteen, and, in 1473, experienced a dramatic second conversion to a life of is, penance, and content= plation. Her husband agresd eo a continent mar- Fiage, and boch focused their energies on nursing the sick poor, and particularly the plague victims, at the Fammatone Hospital, Like Catherine of Siena, she fulfilled the demands of the mystical life; with a special devotion to the Eucharistic Presence of Christ, and of the active life of sacial service and church reform. She also attracted a devoted band of disciples, one of whom, Ettore Veenazaa, inspired by Catherine, founded the Oratory of Divine Love, dedicated to the reform of the church and care of the poor. Unlike many of her sister my Catherine had no spiritual director until approxi- rately eleven years before her death, when Dom Cattaneo Marabotto assumed this responsibility. She died in 1510, surrounded by her circolo, and ‘was canonized tn 1733. Catherine's teachings ar¢ found in a Vita, the Tratiato or Purgation and Purgatory, conceened swith spiritual purgation in this life and the next, and the psychomachian Disiogo ot Spiritual Dia- ogue, all of which were written by her follow. ets, most probably Dom Marabatto and Ettore Vernazza, who drew upon her accounts of her mystical experiences and the inner Jife, a well as hrer spiritual advice. Birgitta of Sweden. St Birgitta of Sweden (1303-1373) is often associated with Catherine of Siena, owing to her commitment to moral reform ‘and to the sando passaggio. Married to a Swedish nobleman at fourteen and mother of eight children, Liggicta led an ascetic life under che direction of Master Mattias d, 1351), the foretost shealogian in Sweden. After her husband's death in 1344, she began eo lead an intense life of prayer and conem- plation, and, like Hildegard of Bingen, to experi ence revelations calling for reform of church and secular governments. She was also commanded by Christ to found! @ new religious order, the Order of the Most Holy Savior, dedicated co the Blessed Virgin, which subsequently flonrished throughout Europe, with major houses at Vadstena, Liibeck, and Syor Abbey, established by Henry V_ at Isleworth, England, in 1415, ‘At God's direction, she proceeded to Rote in. 1349, where her forceful intervention in papal, ecclesiastical, and secular affairs resulted in great hostility roward her on the one hand, but, on the other, catned hee the title “protectress of the Holy 15 MYSTICISM, CONTINENTAL See.” Birgitta had several spiritual directors. in Rome, he most important being Alphonse of Pecha, bishop of facn, who served as her confessor, advisor, collaborator and editor of her Revelations, and as the leading force for her canonization, After pilgrimage to the Holy Land, which occasioned a number of visions of Christ and the Blessed Virgin, Birgitta died in Rome in 1373, and her remains ‘were translated to the mother house of her order at Vadstena. Owing to the efforts of her daughter Katherine, who vas the first superior at Vadstena, the Deferorivin of the English cardinal Adam Easton, and, above all, Alphonse of Pecha, with his Episrota Solitarii ad Reges, Bitgitea’s canoniration occurred in 1391, and was reaffirmed in 1449. Yet he remained 2 controversial figure and was attacked during dhe concitiar movement by John Gerson, with his De probatione spiritumn, and by Matthias Déring in his Probate spiritus. With the apologins ‘af Alphonse and Baston, however, and bolstered by Cardinal john Torquemads’s Defonsione, Birgita’s, cause prevailed. Her major writings are er 700 Revelations or Liber ceiestis, which were widely circulated and ceceived with special favor im England; the Rule of 5% Savior; and the Sermo angelicus or lessons for the Birgittine Night Office, ‘An inspired visionary, spiritual foree, and prophetess, Birgitta exemphties the mixed life of the fue siystic, combining the activity of the human spirit with the Divine Will of God, and joins her mystical conzorores in imparting thei tiveless mes- sage of human dignity, hope, and love, BIBLIOGRAPHY General Background, “Women in the Kingdom of God,” in Monti, 241 (4980); Caroline Bunum, Jesus as Mother (1982), and The Refigious Significance of Good {3 Medicus! Women (1987) John E, Croan, "Srudhes is Fourteenth Century Mystical Terminology: "he Middle High German of Meister Bckéiart and. tke Middle Netheshandic of fan van Ruusbroce™ (dis, Yale, 1966); Peter Dronke, Worse Writers ofthe Midde Ages (1984); Lina Hckenstem, Women Under Monasticism (1896; hard Kieckhefes, “Mysticism and Social Conscious ness in the Fourteentn Century,” in University of Otcave Quarterly, 48 (197R); Lucia of the [ncarnation, “The ‘Western Spiriral Teadision," in Way, suppl 16 (1972), Lsey Menaies, Mirrors of the Holy: Tew Sudies in ‘Sanétity 1928}; Ray C, Petey, “Sovial Responsibility and the Late Medieval Mystic” in Church History, 24 (1952); Wolfgang Riehle, The Middle English Mystics,