Application of Vertical Electrical Soundings in Gully Erosion Studies

APPLICATION OF VERTICAL ELECTRICAL
SOUNDINGS IN GULLY EROSION STUDIES: A CASE

STUDY OF IDEATO,IMO STATE, SOUTH EASTERN NIGERIA.
BY
INWEREGBU, JOHN CHUKS

REG. NO: 20091649735
A RESEARCH PROJECTSUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

FULFILLMENTFOR THE REQUIREMENT OF BACHELOR
OF TECHNOLOGY (B.TECH) IN GEOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF GEOSCIENCES
SCHOOL OF SCIENCES
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
P.M.B. 1526, OWERRI, IMO STATE.
JANUARY, 2015.
i
DECLARATION
I declare that this project is my own personally allocated work and it has not been
presented or submitted to any university .That information from other published
authorshas been duly acknowledged in this work.
…………………………………… ……………………
Inweregbu, JohnC Date
ii
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this research study was carried out by INWEREGBU,
JOHN CHUKSwith RegistrationNumber 20091649735of theDepartment of
Geosciences, School of Sciences,Federal University of Technology Owerri.
…………………………… ………………………
Dr. Alexander I. Opara Date
Supervisor
………………………………… ……………………..
Dr. C.C.ZAkaolisa Date
(H.O.D Geosciences Dept.)
……………………………… ………………………
Prof. F.U.O Osuala Date
(Dean, School of Sciences)
…………………………… ……………………..
External Examiner Date
iii
DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to God Almighty and the entire family of Chf. &
Lolo Bernard N Inweregbu(KSJ), especially to my veryspecial brother
Rev.fr.fg.offr. Roberto C Inweregbu for his financial andinspirational support
which leads me to this successful end.
iv
ACKNOWLEGDEMENT
My sincere gratitude goes to God Almighty the author and finisher of my faith for
hismercies and grace uponme throughout my stay in this campus and for seeing
methrough from the start of this project to its end. Words are not enough to
express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Sir, Dr. Alex I.Opara(KSM) who
relentlessly inspired andguided me constructively to the success of this project
work. In a humble posture, I say thank you very much Sir.
Many thanks to my course Adviser Dr. J.O Nwagbara for his help, adviceand
word of encouragement throughout my stay in the campus.I wish to thank my
H.O.D Dr. C.C.Z. Akaolisa, Prof. E.C Ike, Prof. K.K. Ibe, Prof. Selemo,Dr.
D.O.Ikoro,Dr. C.A. Ahiarakwem, Dr. S.O.Onyekuru,Mrs. Bridget Ubechu, Engr.
Dr. O. C. Okereke, Dr. Ofulume, Dr. Onukwo,Mr. S. Ibeneme, Mr. AEssein, Mr.
H. Echetama, Mr. Prince, Mr. Ezekieland to other lecturers and members of the
staff whose tutoring brought me to this level of myacademic achievement. I
acknowledge with gratitude, the natal support from my parents Chief and Lolo
Bernard N Inweregbu. And I am ever grateful to my brothers,Fr. Roberto
Inweregbu, Mr. Edwin Inweregbu, Mr Casmir Inweregbu, Thaddeus
Inweregbu.To my sisters, Mrs. Queen Bob Tew & her husband, Auntie Dora,
Auntie Marty, Auntie Ann, Auntie Monique, I say big thank you all.My gratitude
also goes to my cousins, friends and colleagues Mr.& Mrs. Paul Nnaji, Mr. Bill
Arinze, Inweregbu Pope Collins,Onyeama, Godfrey, Madu Francis, Alozie
Anebo, Bruno, Iyke, Promise, Chichie, Hope, Osinachi, Ugoma, Oge, Sharon and
others. May God bless you all.
v
ABSTRACT
A detailed geophysical survey was carried out at the gully erosion sites at Ideato,
Southeastern Nigeria. A total of seven (7) vertical electrical sounding (VES) data with a
maximum electrode spacing of (AB/2) of 500 meters were acquired using the
schlumberger electrode configuration. The VES data were interpreted using the
conventional partial curve matching technique to obtain model parameters, which were
used as input for computer iterative modelling using the OFFIX 3.1 software. The study
reveals three (3) to six(6) geo-electrical layers with underlying shale beds. The apparent
restivity of layers of buried formation in the study area ranges from about 65-
44800(Ωm) with the depth of layer varying between 0.61-110m. Similarly, the thickness
of layers of buried formation in the study area ranges from 0.9-90.7m depending on
location, with very low thicknesses around a location at Umueshi Ideato South L.G.A.
The VES 1: Okwelle/Uruala Rd.- Nwa-Afor/Nkwerre reviews four layers variation in
resistivity, but lies within the range of 650-5400(Ωm). It consists of a bit fine to silty
sand and shale. The VES II layer consists of high resistive substratum of about 11600-
25500 within certain depth. It consist of a bit fine, but mostly medium – coarse and silty
sand and shale.The third layer consist of fine – medium sand and little of clay/shale. A
combination of the interpreted sounding results of the fourth and fifth together with
information from an already existing lithological log in the study area were used to
arrive at the conclusion that the two geoelectrical sections constitute lateritic overburden.
The upper segment of the overburden contains mainly fine – medium sand while the
lower segment of this overburden contains lateritic silty sand. The sixth consist of fine –
medium sand only, while the seventh also show restivity variations and consist of largely
lateritic silty sands with medium – coarse sand and clay/shale.Finally, this study has
helped to delineate the probable subsurface condition of the study area, thus revealing
that the soil is friable and unconsolidated. And also the depths and thickness of the
buried formation, hence the cause of landslide.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page-------------------------------------------------------------------------------i
Declaration------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii
Certification----------------------------------------------------------------------------iii
Dedication------------------------------------------------------------------------------iv
Acknowledgement---------------------------------------------------------------------v
Abstract---------------------------------------------------------------------------------vi
Table ofcontents-----------------------------------------------------------------------vii-x
List of tables----------------------------------------------------------------------------xi
List of figures---------------------------------------------------------------------------xiii
List of plates----------------------------------------------------------------------------xiv
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION---------------------------------------------------------------------1
1.0 Background of study-------------------------------------------------------------1
1.1 Aim and Objectives of the Proposed Study------------------------------------3
1.1.1 Aim-------------------------------------------------------------------------------3
1.1.2 Objectives------------------------------------------------------------------------3
1.2 Geology and Physiography of the Study Area---------------------------------4
1.2.1Regional Geology----------------------------------------------------------------4
1.2.2Physiographic Description of the Anambra Basin---------------------------8
1.3 Location of the Study Area-------------------------------------------------------8
1.4 Stratigraphic Settings of the Study Area---------------------------------------10
1.5 Review of Previous Work--------------------------------------------------------15
1.7 Geography and Geomorphology of the Study Area---------------------------17
1.7.1Climate----------------------------------------------------------------------------17
vii
1.7.2 Drainage--------------------------------------------------------------------------17
1.8 Hydrogeological And Geotechnical Properties--------------------------------18
1.9 Scope and Limitations of Study-------------------------------------------------19
1.9.1 Scope-----------------------------------------------------------------------------19
1.9.2 Limitations-----------------------------------------------------------------------20
1.10 Statement of Problem-----------------------------------------------------------20
CHAPTER TWO
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK----------------------------------------------------21
2.1Soil Erosion and its Principles---------------------------------------------------21
2.1.1 Erodibility------------------------------------------------------------------------23
2.1.2 Erosivity--------------------------------------------------------------------------23
2.2Factors that Affect Soil Erosion--------------------------------------------------24
2.2.1 Energy----------------------------------------------------------------------------24
2.2.2Resistance-------------------------------------------------------------------------24
2.2.3 Protection------------------------------------------------------------------------25
2.3 Characterizing Erosion-----------------------------------------------------------25
2.3.1Rill Erosion-----------------------------------------------------------------------25
2.3.2Sheet Erosion---------------------------------------------------------------------26
2.3.3Geologic Occurrence of Erosion-----------------------------------------------26
2.3.4Accelerated or Induced Erosion------------------------------------------------26
2.3.5Water Erosion--------------------------------------------------------------------27
2.4 Mechanism of Water Erosion----------------------------------------------------28
2.4.1 Hydraulic Action----------------------------------------------------------------29
2.4.2 Abrasion--------------------------------------------------------------------------29
2.4.3Attritions--------------------------------------------------------------------------29
viii
2.4.4 Solution---------------------------------------------------------------------------30
2.4.5Transportation--------------------------------------------------------------------30
2.4.6Deposition------------------------------------------------------------------------30
2.5 Factors Affecting Water Erosion------------------------------------------------31
2.5.1 Climatic Factors-----------------------------------------------------------------31
2.5.2Soil Characteristics--------------------------------------------------------------31
2.5.3 Vegetation------------------------------------------------------------------------32
2.5.4Topography-----------------------------------------------------------------------32
2.6 Gully Erosion----------------------------------------------------------------------32
2.6.1Gully Development--------------------------------------------------------------33
2.6.2 Development Processesof Gullies in the Study Area-----------------------35
2.7 Causes of Gully Erosion in the Study Area------------------------------------35
2.7.1 Anthropogenic Factors (Human Factors)------------------------------------36
2.8 Effects of Gully Erosion in the Study Area------------------------------------37
2.8.1 Socio - Economic Impacts of Gullies-----------------------------------------38
2.9 Gully Classification---------------------------------------------------------------40
2.9.1 Classification Based on Shape-------------------------------------------------41
2.10 State of the Gully----------------------------------------------------------------41
2.11 Classification Based On The Dimension-------------------------------------42
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY--------------------------------------------------------------------44
3.1 Desk Study-------------------------------------------------------------------------44
3.2 Desk Study Materials-------------------------------------------------------------44
3.2.1 Field Study-----------------------------------------------------------------------44
3.2.2 Field Equipments---------------------------------------------------------------45
3.3 Gully Characterization-----------------------------------------------------------45
ix
3.3.1 Site Locations--------------------------------------------------------------------46
3.4 Geologic Mapping-----------------------------------------------------------------48
3.5. The Electrical Resistivity Method----------------------------------------------48
3.5.1 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)------------------------------------------49
3.6 Data Acquisition-------------------------------------------------------------------50
3.6.1 Vertical Electrical Sounding---------------------------------------------------50
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION----------------------54
4.1ResultPresentation-----------------------------------------------------------------54
4.1.1 Vertical Electrical Sounding---------------------------------------------------54
4.1.2Data processing and Result interpretation------------------------------------81
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION/ RECOMMENDATION-----------------83
5.1 Discussion--------------------------------------------------------------------------83
5.2 Conclusions------------------------------------------------------------------------84
5.3 Recommendation------------------------------------------------------------------86
5.3.1 Post-control measures----------------------------------------------------------87
References------------------------------------------------------------------------------88
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1:Lithostratigraphic Units of South Eastern Nigeria and
position of the study area------------------------------------------------------------12
Table 4.1: Summary of results of interpreted layer parameters
from the study area--------------------------------------------------------------------55
Table 4.2: Ves i (Okwelle/Uruala Rd-Nwa-Afor/Nkwerre)----------------------63
Table 4.3: Ves ii (Afor Ukwu-Afor Nta)--------------------------------------------63
Table 4.4: Ves iii (Okwelle/Uruala Rd- to the Erosion Site)---------------------63
Table 4.5: Ves iv (Owerri/Orul Rd-Okwodor Erosion Site)----------------------64
Table 4.6: Ves v (Njaba River-Njaba L.G.H/quarter)-----------------------------64
Table 4.7: Ves vi (Umueshi Ideato South L.G.A)---------------------------------64
Table 4.8: Vess vii (Umueshi Ideato South L.G.A)-------------------------------65
Table 4.9: Iso - resistivity (downward continuation of resistivity)
data of the study area -----------------------------------------------------------------65
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Structural setting of South Eastern Nigeria.---------------------------6
Fig.1.2 Map of Imo State Showing the Local Government Areas---------------7
Fig. 1.3: Topographical/Location of Map of the Study Area--------------------9
Fig. 1.4: Geological Map of the Study Area----------------------------------------14
Fig.1.4: Lithographic correlation within South Eastern Nigeria.----------------14
Fig.4.1: VES-Okwelle/Uruala Road-Nwa-Afor/Nkwerre------------------------56
Fig.4.2: VES-Afor ukwu-Afor Nta--------------------------------------------------57
Fig.4.3: VES-Okwelle/Uruala Road-To the Erosion site-------------------------58
Fig.4.4: VES-Owerri/Orlu Road-Okwudor Erosion site--------------------------59
Fig.4.5: VES-Njaba River-Njaba L.G.H./Quarters -------------------------------60
Fig.4.6: VES-Umueshi Ideato South L.G.A. --------------------------------------61
Fig.4.7: VES- Umueshi Ideato South L.G.A.--------------------------------------62
Fig. 4.8: Iso-resistivity values (at AB/2 = 10) of the vertical electrical
sounding data of the study area------------------------------------------------------66
Fig. 4.9: Iso- resistivity values (at AB/2 = 20) of the vertical electrical
Fig. 4.12: Iso-resistivity values (at AB/2 = 50) of the vertical electrical
xii
sounding of the study area------------------------------------------------------------74
Fig. 4.17: Iso- resistivity values (at AB/2 = 150) of hte vertical electrical
Fig. 4.20: Geo-Electric Section ------------------------------------------------------79
Fig. 4.21: Geo-Electric Section of Njaba and litholog of the area---------------80
xiii
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 2.1: Okwelle/Urualagully wallNwa-Afor/Nkwerre gully wall------------28
Plate 2.2: AforUkwu-Afor Nta gully erosion site----------------------------------28
Plate 2.3: A shallow (small) gully.--------------------------------------------------33
Plate2.4:A four meter deep gully advancing into grazing land------------------34
Plate 2.5: AforUkwuUmuaghobe gully erosion site-------------------------------38
Plate 2.6:Abandoned Buildings due to Gully encroachment in
the study Areas-------------------------------------------------------------------------39
Plate 2.7:Damaged Agricultural land in the study Areas by
Gully Erosion---------------------------------------------------------------------------.40
Plate 3.1: Typical Vertical Electrical Sounding Using Schlumberger
Array Display --------------------------------------------------------------------------51
Plate 3.2: Walking down to another station: forResistivity field acquisition
usingthe Schlumberger array display------------------------------------------------52
Plate 3.3: Hammering of Electrode during Vertical Electrical Sounding
Using Schlumberger Array Display.------------------------------------------------52
Plate 3.4: Taking readings during Vertical Electrical Sounding
Using Schlumberger Array Display.------------------------------------------------53
xiv
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Gully erosion is a geomorphological process that involves the erosion of soil
by running water that forms clearly defined, narrow channels that generally
carry water only during or after heavy precipitation. Several scholars and
theories have tried to explain its development. F.A.O (1965), described the
gullies as stream channels whose width and depth do not allow normal tillage.
Hudson (1985) defined gullies as steep sided eroding water courses that are
subject to ephemeral flash flood during rain storms. Morgan (1979) gave a
more landscape – based approach defining gullies as relatively permanent steep
–sided eroding water courses that are subject to flash flood during rain storms.
Most gully erosion began as rills along slopes (which may be the same as their
drainage pattern) and gradually develop into gullies over some period of time.
This is to say erosion is known as an incised cut, steep sided channels with an
eroding head cut and slumping sidewalls (Feliciano, 2008).The main cause of
gully is water (Tucker, et al 2006).
Erosion gullies in southeastern Nigeria have been variously attributed to
high rainfall intensity, wind action, slope instability, poor engineering and
agricultural processes by earlier scholar. While human activities and programs
tend to accelerate erosion processes, it seems that some endogenic geologic
factors make some parts of southeastern Nigeria more erosion prove than other
areas. Some of these endogenic factors are the existence of some particular
geological and geomorphic units and structure in these most erosion affected
parts of south-eastern Nigeria. Whereas the authors agree that certain
engineering and farming practices cause/aggravate erosion, the authors feel that
problem of soil erosion in southeastern Nigeria is more deep rooted in geology
of the area than presently realized.
1
This work which tend to use the resistivity method and especially the technique
of vertical electrical sounding (VES),using a schlumberger array that consist of
a fast and versatile procedure of geophysical investigation and analysis of data
is straight forward compared to other methods(Zohdy et al, 1974). This method
that isalsoof a low-cost technique was applied to carrying out, identifying
anddeterminating the subsurface distribution of resistivity from measurements
on the surface which gives a useful information on the structure or composition
ofburied formation .The studyconducted in the gullies that are over 70 years
from the information we gathered, at some gully erosion sites like that of
Okwelle/Urualla-Nwa-Afor/Nkwerre, Afor Ukwu-Afor Nta in Ideato North
L.G.A, Imo state southeastern Nigeria. Some of these gullies tend to have
resulted from anthropogenic(human) factor which precisely was due to wrong
termination of engineering structure (drainage).
Gully erosion is so common that there are also web pages that give you
instruction of how to solve this problem in different ways if you have this
process in your property. It is very sacrosanct and imperativeto understand this
process because it is common and it is affecting many people that are looking
for help and solution to this problem. If we know the problem it is easier, to
come up with a solution and make prediction of how they will behave to stop
further damage created by them. This project has two main goals, the first one
is to acquire more data through VES application to understand this geological
process, and have more information about them for further research. The
second main goal is to show how effective VES is for geoscience, because it is
a unique way to acquire valuable and large amount of data that tend to gain
information in a short period of time, on this particular study areas in terms of
geological and geophysical characterization as one of the most affected
Lithostratigraphic units and boundaries - the Eocene to recent Ameki and
Benin formation.This will further give us the opportunityto analyze more data
and facilitate our view of this geological process that in the past was difficult to
2
observe, because other techniques were not precise enough for many years that
accelerated erosion, landslide and general land degradation have ravaged many
part of southeastern Nigeria. Lives and property have been forced to desert
their ancestral homes, schools and colleges have been devastated, beautiful
landscapes and fertile agricultural land have been completely lost; such loss of
fertile agricultural land use hasinevitably led to lower food production. It has
also provides a refuge to insect that can eat the land products or bring illness.
It is indeed hoped for that information gained and gathered in the course
of this work will prove and provide valuable way that yield results in the
proper design, construction and implementation of appropriate engineering and
farming program and therefore reduce the incidence of erosion in southeastern
Nigeria.
1.1AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROPOSED STUDY
1.1.1 Aim
The aim of this study is to determine the origin and dynamics of the gully
erosion in the study area from the data acquired using geophysical method – To
show how effective is VES application towards understanding this geological
process and establish a relationship of the results gotten from these approach
and as well have more information about this gullies for future research.
1.1.2 Objectives
 To carryout a detailed literature review as well as regional geology of the

study area and present its geologic interpretation using geophysical method -
VES techniques.
 To generate information on the lithology, drainage pattern, also using acquired
data to generateIso-resistivitymap and geo-electric section of the area and
correlating it with the already existing lithologs of the area.
 To produce lucid pictures of the sedimentary formation of the area.
3
 To make a notable contribution to the literature and enhance the process of
gullying in the study area.
1.2 GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE STUDY AREA
1.2.1 Regional Geology
The geology of Ideato in Imo State is the geology underlain within the
Anambra basin, which constitutes a major depocenter of clastic sediments and
deltaic sequences. The Anambra basin is located in the Southern portion of
Nigeria and bounded by the lower Benue trough to the effect that Abakaliki
sector was folded and uplifted while the Anambra platform experienced
subsidence and resting uncomfortably on the pre Cambrian basement
complex(table 1). It extends from the gulf of guinea to the chad basin and is
thought to have been formed by the Y-shaped (RRR) triple junction ridge
system that initiated the breaking and dispersion of the Afro –Brazilian plates
in the early cretaceous (Kogbe, 1986).The evolution of the Benue trough is
associated with the separation of Africa from the south –American plate in the
Mesozoic.After depositing into the trough with Asu River group being the
oldest sediment followed by Ezeaku group and Agwu group respectively
(Nwajide, 1990). Santonia age marked the stage when the basin experienced
another phase of tectonic event that involves deformation folding, faulting and
uplift of the pre-santonian sediments leading to Anambra basin which evolved
as a depression to the west of the uplift (Benkhelil, 1987).
In Anambrabasin, the strongly folded Albianconiacian succession (pre –

santonian sediment) is overlain by nearly flat – lying campanian –Eocene
succession.The oldest sediment in the Anambra Basin is Nkporo group
(Nwajide, 1990). It was deposited into the basin in the late campanian,
comprisingNkporo Shale, Oweli sand stone and Enugu shale (Reyment 1965
and Obi, 2001).
4
Nkporo group is overlain by main formation it was deposited in the early
Maastrichtian (Kogbe, 1989 and Obi, 2000). It comprises succession of
siltstone shale, coal seam and sandstone (Kogbe, 1989).
Ajali sandstone (Maastrichtian)overlies mamu formation (Reyment,1965 and

Nwajide,1990)which is mainly unconsolidated coarse fine gained, poorly
cemented mud stone and siltstone (Kogbe,1989).Ajali sandstone is overlain by
DiachronousNsukka formation (Maastrictian – Darican)which is also known as
the upper coal measure(Reyment,1965 and Obi ,2000).
The third and last depositional cycle of the lower Benue trough started with a
major transgression that deposited the Imo shale during Paleocene period. Imo
shale (Paleocene) overlies Nsukka formation (Nwajide, 1990). It comprises
clayey shale with occasional iron stone and thin sandstone in which carbonized
plant remains may occur (Kogbe, 1989). The Eocene stage was characterized
by regressive phase that led to deposition of Ameki group (Obi, 2000).
This said regression that started during Eocene continue to the present day with
the deposition of the sediment of the tertiary Niger Delta. Outside the sediment
deposit of Bende – Ameki, Nanka, Ogwashi – Asaba and the coastal plain
sands (Benin) formations are also in the sequences (fig.2). These have many
structural irregularities in their lithologic character and exibits anisotropic
behavior due to fractures, grain boundary cracks and aligned mineral grains in
preferred directions, based on the character of sediment deposition in the basin.
The coastal plain sands (Benin) and amekiformation with bit of Imo shale,
which are the major host formation of the area under study is made up of thin
beds of argillaceous rocks in places and are mainly loose and friable with a
characteristic coarse to medium unconsolidated sands. These area lie in the
rainforest zone, where the annual rainfall exceeds 1500m. The intensity of
rainfall most of the time exceeds 25mm per hour, a factor which encourages
5
gullying activity. The rainy season starts from late February and ends towards
mid November (Ogbukagu, 1976). The relief ranges from 75m on the hills to
30m on the adjoining lowland.
Figure 1.1 Structural setting of South Eastern Nigeria.
6
Fig.1.2 Map of Imo State Showing the Local Government Areas
7
1.2.2 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF THE ANAMBRA BASIN
The roughlytriangular Anambra sedimentary basin in south central Nigeria
covers about 40,000sq.km. The Southern boundary coincides with the Northern
boundary of the Niger-Delta basin. The basin extends Northwards beyond the
lower Benue river. This review actually deals with the Southern portion of the
Basin with Abia, Enugu and Imo State. The Southern part of the Anambra is a
part of the scarp lands of Southern Nigeria. The N-S trending Enugu cuesta or
escarpment forms the major watershed between the lower Nigeria river
drainage system to the West, Cross river and Imo river drainage system to the
East. It is also asymmetrical ridge stretching in a sigmoid curve for over 500km
from Idah on the river Niger to Arochukwu on the cross river.
The Abakaliki area has over a considerate span of geologic time, undergone
several vertical movements. Before the formation of Benue trough, the region
had a positive topography in crystalline basement rocks. When parts of Benue
trough were depressed during the period of Mid-Albian to Santonian, it
accumulated a thick sedimentary fill within the Santonian tectonic event, the
sediment was folded and the area was uplifted. In theCampanian to Eocene,
weathering and denudation processes created a second cycle of sediments that
were transported west ward to the Anambra basin. The Abakiliki area remained
topographically positive till about the end of the Eocene when it underwent
inversion and once again became depressed, though never below sea level. This
reversed the drainage from centrifugal to centripetal and resulted in the
embryonic cross river drainage pattern.
1.3LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA
The study area is located in
Okwelle/Urualla,Nwa-Afor/Nkwerre,AforUkwu/Afor
Nta,Owerri/Orlu,Okwodor,Njaba and Umueshi gully erosion sites within
longitude 07o 00ꞌ to 07o 09ꞌE and latitude 05o 43ꞌ to 05o54ꞌ.(fig.1.3). This area
lie within the coastal plain sandwhich is underlaid byBende – Ameki formation
8
with intercalation of Imo shale in the Anambra basin. These area happen to be
one of the most ravaged by gully erosion landslide activities in the region.
Fig. 1.3: Topographical/Location of Map of the Study Area
9
Fig. 1.4: Geological Map of the Study Area
1.4 STRATIGRAPHIC SETTINGS OF THE STUDY AREA
The stratigraphic setting of Southern Nigeria comprises sediments of three

major sedimentary cycles. The first two cycles belong to pre-Santonain
sediment while the third cycle belongs to the Post-Santonian which is found in
Anambra basin in Afikpo syncline (Nwajide, 1990). The Sedimentological and
Stratigraphic settings within the Anambra basins are defined by three main
evolutionary stages.
10
The first phase defines as Pre-Santonian history characterized by a strong
subsidence in the Abakaliki domain of the Benue trough while the Anambra
domain remain plate form whose mud was deposited in a shallow restricted
marine environment.
The second phase, which commenced in the pastSantonian period, is

characterized by uplift of the subsidence of the Abakaliki sub-basin of the
Benue trough and the subsidence in Anambra plate form characterized by a
shallow marine system. This resulted in the deposition of the Nkporo/Enugu
shales and lower coal measures (Mamu formation), followed by a regressive
fluvio-deltic system during the Maastrichtian leading to the deposition of the
regional Ajali sand stone and Nsukka formation.
The last phase occurred during the lower tertiary and was marked by the
development of the Niger delta, which prograded during the Anambra basin
axis. This was characterized by the deposition of Imo shale and Bendel-ameki
groups. Especially in the southern part of the Anambra sub-basin during the
Paleocene and Eocene period respectively. Field study shows that Ajali sand
stone consist of friable medium to fine grained sand averagely sorted, typically
whitish in colour (occasionally iron- stained in places) with characteristic
across stratification, thus a common reference as false bedded sand stone
(Tattam, 1944; Simpson, 1955).
11
Table 1.1:Lithostratigraphic Units of South Eastern Nigeria and position
of the coastal plain sands,ameki and imo shale with the Anambra Basin
(After Nwajide, 1990).
Geologic Age Geologic Formation Lithologic Description
Pleistocene Alluvium and Unconsolidated freshwater

Quaternary Deposits sand and gravels with silt and
Holocene
clay admixtures.
Beach Ridges Fine grained greyish white

sands
Oligocene-Pilocene Coastal Plains Sands Coarse to medium grained

unconsolidated sands with
gravels ferruginous sandstones
and clays
Oligocene- Ogwasi- Asaba Gritty clays and pebbly

Miocene formation sandstones with ligmite layer
Eocene Bende-Ameki Sandstone and shale sequence

Formation/Nanka sand with bouldery and shelly
limestone
Paleocene Imo Shale Group Grey calcareousshales and

siltstones with bands of
sandstone and ironstone
12
Maastrichtian Nsukka formation Alternating sequence of shales
and sandstones with coal
seams (the coal measures)
Ajali sandstone
Mamu formation
Campanian Enugu/Nkporo Dark grey shales and soft

formation mudstones with occasional
thin beds of sandstones and
limestones
Coniacian Awgu-Ndeaboh shale Shales with thin limestone

group bands and lenticular sand
bodies
New Netim marl Thick marl unit with

formation intercalation of thin band of
dark shales
Turonian Amasiri sandstone High bioturbated fine to

formation medium grained calcareous
sandstones with
fossilliferousshales at the base
Ezillo formation Dark gray shales with fine

sandstone and siltstone
13
intercalation
Eze-Aku Formation Alternating shales, siltstones

and limestone with lateral
facies changes to sandstones
Cenomanian Ekenkpon shale Thick black highly fissile

formation shales with intercalations of
marls calcareous mudstones
and shell beds
Albian Asu River Group Poorly bedded sandyshales

with fine to medium grained
sandstones lenses
Mamfe formation Cross bedded coarse to

medium grained immature
snadstones with basal
conglomerates and arkoses
Mfamosing formation Massive bedded grey chalky

limestones with fossils
Aptian - Awi sandstone Fluvio-deltaic clastics

Neocomian formation consisting of grits, sandstones,
mudstones and shales
14
Fig.1.4: Lithographic correlation within South Eastern Nigeria.
1.5REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK

A lot of work has been done by different authors and researchers of diverse
field on this environmental disaster known as erosion, particularly in
thesoutheastern part of Nigeria to effectively evaluate the causes, problems and
possible solutions to these processes. Some of these early researchers include,
Grove (1951), Carter (1958), Niger Techno(1974), Nwajide and Hoque (1979),
Babalola (1988), Fubara (1988), Ofomata(1988), Ogbukagu (1988), and
Nwankwo et al(1988). They made useful discussions and inferences of the
15
problem and solution of soil erosion in southeasternNigeria. Grove (1951a,
1951b) recognized two main types of gully on the scarp slopesof the Udi
plateau and the Awka - Orlu uplands: (1) spring gullies, where permeable sands
and sandstones rest on less permeable deposits and (2) slope gullies, which
originate as channels (for example, sunken footpaths) in bottom-of-slope
locations. Spring gullies are enlarged by sapping, caving and landslips and
slope gullies by potholing; both types are further enlarged by waterfall action at
the rim and undercutting of the sides promotes earth falls and landslips.
Intensive rainfall clears the debris from the gully bottom and the more
continuous rains saturate the bank materials and cause the slumping of larger
blocks. Grove (1951b) noted a possible connection between gully erosion and
the increased runoff, associated with the clearing of woodland and road
building. Nearly forty years later, the FAO (1990) concluded that most of the
gully in southeastern Nigeria was caused by badly designed roads and the
clearance of vegetation from building sites. It was noted that some gullies
originate as narrow rills with a down-slope orientation, which undergo
progressive widening and deepening, with successive rainfall events (Hudec et
al., 2005). These features tend to occur on bare soil surfaces, created by human
and animal foot traffic and wheeled traffic in off-road locations and also by the
grading of soil along the sides of roads. A special case is provided by lateritic
deposits, in which narrow, relatively deep gullies are eroded downwards to the
more friable materials beneath the lateritic layer, leading to caverning in the
more easily eroded material and collapse. Ogbukagu (1978), in his report on
the influence of geology on soil erosion concluded that area, underlain by
sedimentary terrain are more susceptible to erosion than those underlain by
either igneous or metamorphic terrain.Niger Techno (1974), in its report on the
prefeasibility study of soil erosion in the central states of Nigeria, described the
weathered layer within the Benin formation as made up of slightly siltysands,
poorly permeable surface with no vegetative cover thus preventing absorption
16
of all high rainfall, causing the water to gather into high concentrated flows,
leading to incisions of the surface film. The cohesion less sands are therefore
easily eroded with the help of slope degradation via the concentration of the
water. Ofomata (1988b) in his report on soil characteristics in the rain forest
zone of the southeastern Nigeria was of the view that rainfall is one of the
important factors of erosion in the area. He is also of the notion that the impact
of rainfall (raindrop energy) on overland runoff generate turbulence that
increase the load carrying potential of the runoff, thereby causing soil particle
movement, which occurs only when the tractive force exceeds the shear
resistance of the soil. Fubara(1988) reported on the menace of flood and
erosion, and environmental disaster combat plan and asserted that the ultimate
causes of accelerated erosion is the human interference in the natural
ecosystem, such as indiscriminate removal of vegetation, improper land usage,
construction works and other activities which exposes the land to other
destructive natural agents. Babalola (1988), concluded in his report on soil
properties affecting infiltration, runoff and erodibility attributed the low
percentage of fines in sediments coupled with high porosity, relatively high
permeability and low initial water content to causes of erosion. Jeje (1978),
worked on soil erosion characteristics, processes and extent in the lowland
rainforest area of southeastern Nigeria. He reported that when a surface is
exposed, high intensity storms affect near surface and mechanical eluviations
will be generated, this will lead to the pore spaces blockage development of the
outer coast, decrease in soil permeability and reduction infiltrating on runoff.
Pointing out that surface water flow or runoff begins, when the infiltration
capacity is exceeded. Nwankwo et al (1988) based on their work along
Amucha - Okwudor gully site concluded that the area has high porosity ranging
from 30% to 40% with an average void ratio of 0.6. They also estimated the
average growth rate of the gully to about 25m/yr.
1.7 GEOGRAPHY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA
17
1.7.1 Climate
Nigeria is situated between 4ᵒ and 14ᵒ northern latitude, which implies that it is
a tropicalcountry. Geologically, this area is within the rain forest belt of
Nigeria. The study area has a tropical climate characterized by two distinct
seasons which is wet and dry season. The wet season run from mid march to
October with a short dry season in August (August break) while the dry season
resumes November to mid march. This is influenced by North East trade wind,
which moves over the region during the period.The southward moving Sahara
desert air mass causes the dry season which is associated with extreme aridity,
a dusty atmosphere, lowering of water levels and intense leaf fall. The rainy
season follows the northward advance of the maritime air from the Atlantic
Ocean.July and August is usually the wettest periods of the rainy season. The
convectional nature of the heavy rainfall results in alternating periods of sunny
and rainy conditions. According to National root crop institute Umudike
(NRCIU) climate data, the annual rainfall of the study area is about 300mm.
Some of the rainfall occurs as violent downpours accompanied by
thunderstorms, heavy flooding, soil leaching, extensive sheet wash,
groundwater infiltration and percolation.
1.7.2 Drainage
The area is drained by rivers such as Orashi and Ezeama river which have
some of their source areas on both flanks of a major groundwater divide.
1.8HYDROGEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES
The hydrogeological and geotechnical characteristics of the area have greatly
influenced the growth of the gullies. The unconsolidated sands are loose,
friable and poorly cemented with thin shaley layers. The sands are very
permeable while the shale is not. Below the water table, these sands and shale
is saturated with water which affects their strength. The area receives torrential
downpours of rain during the rainy season when the water table rises and high
groundwater flow rates occur. During the dry season, the water table falls as a
18
result of hydraulic head decay. This produces decreased flow rates, and an
increase in the depth of the unsaturated zone.
During the dry season, erosion and gullying activities are therefore at a
minimum. The depth to the water table varies spatially. In areas that remain
unaffected by gullying, the water table may be as deep as 60 m. In areas where
the overlying lateritic soils have been eroded, the water table is shallower and
may outcrop as effluent seepages, springs, ponds or streams. A considerable
rise in the water table occurs during the rainy season, despite the thick
unsaturated zone. This is due to the high vertical hydraulic conductivity of the
freely draining medium- to coarse-grained soil overlying the multiaquifer
system. The aquifer-aquitard units form a multi-aquifer system. Above the
water table, a deep unsaturated zone, which may be up to 60 m deep during the
dry season, occurs.
The expansion of the gully complex results from the high pore water pressures
in the aquifer complex, particularly during the peak recharge times of the rainy
season. These high pore water pressures reduce the effective strength of the
unconsolidated coarse sands along the seepage faces on the gully walls. The
sands are gradually loosened and eroded. The less permeable clay layers are
lubricated and saturated with water.
The clays subsequently expand and lose their shear strength. Caving-in,
piping,slumping and landslides are common.
These erosion processes occur in a cyclic manner and result in step-like
features that are displayed all over the affected area. The behavior of the
interbedded shale, which undergoes large changes in volume as a result of
alternate wetting and drying, enhance the gullying. They form a caked dry
mass during the dry season. Drying causes contraction of the clay and shale,
resulting in the formation of extensive tension cracks or pressure release
fractures. The cracks are also transferred to the sandstone units. They are
observed horizontally at the ground surface and vertically and transversely on
19
gully walls, extending for a distance or height of many meters. The tension
cracks at theground surface occur about 1.5 m from the edge of the gully, and
they maintain this almost uniformly for a distance of about 50- 100 m, until
they terminate at angles of about 45° to the edge of the gully. The cracks widen
with time, and during the rainy season, these cracks serve as channels for
vertical flow of water to the underlying sand/shale boundaries. As a result of
the shale being thoroughly saturated after many days of rainfall, the clay
minerals swell and develop a tendency to slide. Large masses of sand underlain
by the plastic shale slide down dip into the gully, with the shale acting as a
lubricant. Cashew trees, bamboos and abandoned homes are carried by the
sliding mass into the gully. Quicksand also occurs in some places. After heavy
rains, the water table rises and the pore water pressure increases. This creates
conditions that are unable to withstand any imposed stress.
1.9SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
1.9.1 Scope
The scope of the study is to show in details the factors that initiates gully
erosion, using geoelectrical - VES technique to generate information on the
lithology, geomorphology and drainage pattern and to evaluate these factors
and rendering possible solution to problems of erosion, using Ideato in Imo
state southeastern Nigeria as case study.
1.9.2 Limitations
The limitations encountered during this research work include;
 The accessibility of the sites were difficult due to bad nature of the roads
 There were at times obstructions which limits the result of our
geoelectricalinvestigation due to infrastructures
 Due to the meandering nature of the gully, the extent of eroded parts made our
lateral measurementmore tedious
20
 There was a limit to the extent of our data analysis to this work due to some
financial constraints
1.10 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Owing to the fact that erosion is an environmental problem affecting both life
and property, the need to understand its dynamics and proffering means and
possible solutions to control it should not be over emphasized. Ideato in Imo
state happens to be one of the parts this gully erosion menace hast really put in
a mess and as such there is need for the overview of these sites and providing
this research results and geologic solutions will make the government and other
concerned authorities to see reasons while drastic measures to tackle the
erosion problem.
More so, making this result available could acquaint the public, especially
inhabitants of the affected area, with what actions would aggravate the
development of this environmental mess and steps they should take to
checkmate the trend in their own way.
CHAPTER TWO
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
2.2SOIL EROSION AND ITS PRINCIPLES
Soil erosion is a well – known environmental problem in southeastern Nigeria.
It is the removal of soil particles from surface of the earth, transportation and
deposition of the particles by exogenetic (originating on or above the earth
surface) processes and action of wind, heat, gravity and water, alongside
21
anthropogenic (man and animal activities) agents. Soil erosion encompasses all
activities by water in all forms (rain, flood, ice, sea) resulting in soil erosion.
Soil erosion is one form of soil degradation along with soil compaction, low
organic matter, loss of soil structure, poor internal drainage,salinization and
soil acidity problems. These other forms of soil degradation, serious in
themselves usually contributed to accelerated soil erosion.
The severity of soil erosion depend upon the quality of materials supplied the
detachment process and the capacity of the eroding agent, when agents have
sufficient capacity to transport more quality of materials than the materials
supplied through detachment, then the erosion is termed detachment limited,
but on the other hand, when materials supplied are greater than the materials
transported, then the erosion is described as transport limited.
Erosion can be divided into as potential erosion and actual erosion. Potential
erosion gives an indication of the likelihood and possible intensity of erosion
that could occur under physical and climatic conditions in an area. It also
expresses the susceptibility of an area to erosion. Potential erosion could
therefore be regarded as “that which is likely to be”. Actual erosion gives the
existing forms and intensity of erosion in an area under the prevailing physical
factors and climatic conditions. Actual erosion therefore is “that which is in
existence”.
Potential and kinetic energy are the two forms of energy involved in the
process of soil erosion. Potential is as a result of difference in elevation of one
body with respect to the other.
It is mathematically denoted as;
PE= mgh - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
Where
PE = potential energy (joules)
M = mass of the body (kg)
G = acceleration due to gravity (m/s)
22
This energy is converted into kinetic energy (KE), which is the energy of
motion.
KE = ½ MV2 - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
Where
KE = kinetic energy (joules)
V = velocity of the running water (m/s)
M = mass of the body (Kg)
It is estimated that a large amount of energy is lost against friction provided by
the soil surface on which the eroding agents moves upon. Only 3 to 4% of the
energy remains with the running water to detach the soil particles from the
path. The critical water velocity for detachment, transportation and finally
deposition of soil particles is the function of the particle size, in that the value
of the critical velocity is directly proportional to the particle size. Finer
particles are harder to erode by water flow, because of the cohesiveness of the
clay minerals which compresses them together. Once an individual particle is
set in motion, it is continued until the velocity reduces below the threshold
value, meaning that less force is required to keep a particle in motion than to
entrain it. For example, a soil particle of 0.01mm in diameter requires a flow
velocity of 60cm/s to detach it and it is deposited until flow velocity has
reduced to below 0.1cm/s, this data is valid for a particle of uniform size. But
in practice particles of uniform size are not found, due to this fact, the actual
velocity required to erode the soil differs from the velocity value above. In real
sense what actually happens when a soil mass containing mixed grain sizes is
that, the coarser particles hinders the finer once from being eroded until the
velocity of flow is sufficient enough to pick up the larger particles and erode
them from their place.
The most fundamental way of describing erosion is in terms of the basic
properties and elements of the erosional features, such as length, depth, width,
side slopes etc; these could be determined by precise survey measurements.
23
Erosion can also be characterized by the rates of the erosional processes, and
the various factors influencing them in time and space. This leads to the
concepts of erodibility and erosivity.
2.1.1 Erodibility
Erodibility of the soil or rock material is a measure of its susceptibility to
erosion; it is therefore aproperty or characteristic of the material being eroded.
Knowledge of erodibility is important in the preparation of erodibility maps,
soil loss predictions in erosion control, and in planning land conservation
practices. Erodibility may be determined by direct measurements in the field,
or calculated using the erodibility equation, which is also referred to as the
“nomograph method”. Direct measurement of erodibility is very costly and
time consuming, and has been feasible only in a few locations in Nigeria
(Usoro et al, 1989, 333); in fact there is no such location within the study area.
Nevertheless it should be noted that erodibility represents the combined effects
of all properties of the soil or rock that significantly influence the ease with
which it can be erodedby rain drops and runoff if not protected.
2.1.2 Erosivity
This is an expression of the ability of an agent of erosion to cause soil
detachment and its transportation. This could be defined as the driving force of
erosion agents that cause soil detachment and transportation (Lal. 1988). The
factors that influence Erosivity include:
a) Climate, especially rainfall intensity and duration.

b) Velocity of the runoff, which in turn is influenced by the volume of the
runoff and the slope. Thus any factors (natural or human) which tend to
concentrate runoff or increase the slope are indirectly contributing to erosion. It
should also be noted that sediment load of the runoff is an important factor in
erosivity, since the sediment itself has a scouring effect on the flow channels.
24
Using a slightly different approach, Igbozurike (1990) has classified the
causative factors in soil erosion into seven groups: geologic, geomorphic,
climatic, biotic, anthropogenic, marine and fluvial factors.
2.2FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOIL EROSION
To analyze the factors affecting soil erosion, it is important to understand the
mechanisms of erosion such as rainfall, runoffs, soil types, slopes, plant covers
etc. These factors which influence soil erosion especially in the gully erosion
site of the study area are grouped under the following: Energy, Resistance and
Protection.
2.2.1 Energy
This is the potential ability of rainfall, runoff to initiate erosion and these
factors directlyaffect the power of the agents of erosion such as reduction in the
length of runoffs orwind blow through the construction of terraces, bunds etc.
2.2.2 Resistance
It is referred to that group of factors that affect the soil erodibility. The
mechanical andchemical properties are counted as factors in this case, they
basically encourage the infiltration rate of the soil thereby reducing the amount
of runoff and ultimately decreasing the rate at which the soil is being eroded.
2.2.3 Protection
This group focuses on the plant cover. The plant cover intercept with the
fallingraindrops before they reach the soil, thus reducing their impact on the
soil. Differentplant cover offers different degrees of protection to the soil;
therefore it is important to know the rate of soil erosion so as to know what
plant will be needed to control erosion in a particular place.
2.3 CHARACTERIZING EROSION
Erosion (Latin, erred, to gnaw away) as already noted, is a term applied to the
wearing away and removal of the earth’s surface material by geomorphic
25
agents. A geomorphic agent is any natural medium capable of securing and
transporting earth material; thus running water, including both unconcentrated
and concentrated runoff, is a geomorphic agent.
Basically, there are three (3) types of erosion such as rill, sheet and gully
erosion which for this paper seek I will be focusing on, and towards the end of
this chapter, elaborate more on the aspect of gully erosion even though all
gully erosion must have undergone the two other processes of erosion. The
natural occurrences of erosion are either geologic or accelerated erosion.
2.3.1 Rill Erosion
Rill erosion is immediate between sheet and gullying. Most of it occurs on
recently cultivated soils where runoff water concentrates in streamlets as it
passes downhill. This water has greater scouring action than sheet flow and
removes soil from the edges and beds of the streamlets. Rills also occur in
relatively straight lines between crop rows or along tillage marks. Possen
(1988) defined a rill as a small intermittent water course with steep sides. The
rills are only a few centimeters deep and, hence; do not constitute obstacles to
tillage operations. Often the problem of rill is not always seen by farmers but
nonetheless, it may eventually lead to gully if not checked initially.
2.3.2 Sheet Erosion
This is the removal of thin layers of soil by water acting over the whole
surface. Sheet erosion is caused by raindrop splash providing most of the
detaching energy while flow provides most of the transporting capacity. Sheet
erosion is difficult to see and can occur on any part of the upper portions of the
slope.
2.3.3 Geologic Occurrence of Erosion
26
In its broadest sense, it is a normal process which involves the erosion of soil
and its natural conditions without the influence of man; and constitutes the
normal geologic process of land denudation. This type of erosion also
contributes to the formation and distribution of soil on the earth surface. It is
said to be in equilibrium with the soil forming processes. The geologic erosion
is a long time eroding process, and it is seen in various stream channels and
valleys.
2.3.4 Accelerated or Induced Erosion
This is in excess of geologic erosion. It is the type that has been speeded up by
both human activities and rare natural factors, so that it can be formed. In usual
course, theaccelerated erosion is initiated by the action of water, soil erosion
occurs through sheet flow, stream flow, wave actions and groundwater.
Similarly, wind detaches and transports the soil on the earth surface. The
gravity force causes mass movement such as soil creep, rock creep and
landslide and also subsidence of the earth surface. Accelerated erosion has
been responsible for the gapping erosion gullies, otherwise known as ravines,
in the landscape of southeastern Nigeria.
However, the type of accelerated erosion which is important in the area of this
investigation is the water aspect.
2.3.5 Water Erosion

This is defined as the movement of soil by body of waters running rapidly over
the exposed land surface. The progressive rate of water erosion is totally based
on some natural factors such as land slopes, soil type, and density of the
vegetative cover and the intensity of rainfall in the area.
Almost all the erosion types are effectively influenced by moving water, from
raindrop to gully erosion.
27
Plate 2.1.Okwelle/Urualagully wall Nwa-Afor/Nkwerre gully wall
Plate 2.2: AforUkwu-Afor Nta gully erosion site

2.4 MECHANISM OF WATER EROSION
Understanding the mechanics of water erosion gives us a step further to
creating lastingsolutions or effective control measures to its disasters. Different
28
geologic processes come to play during the action of moving water over the
earth surface, and they include the following: Hydraulic action, Abrasion,
Attrition, Solution, Transportation and Deposition.From the hydraulic action
down to solution are all responsible for the detachment of the soil particles,
though not all of these soils are detached from their province. The fifth and
sixth action completes the entire process.
2.4.1 Hydraulic Action
This action/process can be explained as when water runs over the soil surface,
itsrunning effect compresses the soil, causing the air in the void spaces to exert
pressure on the soil particles, this leads to the detachment of the soil particle.
The pressure exerted by air in the void spaces is known as the hydraulic
pressure, the detached soil particles are being scoured away by the running
water. This hydraulic action is more effective in area where the soil is loose
such as is the Umuago- Urualla gully erosion site.
2.4.2 Abrasion
In this process, the soil particles which are mixed with the running water,
creates anabrasive power in the water and also increasing the flowing water
capacity to scour the soil particles, its example can be seen at River banks and
the bottoms of valleys.
2.4.3 Attritions
This action includes the mechanical breakdown of loads carried along by the
movingwater due to collision of soil particles with each other, this action can
be well explain, when rock fragments ranging from boulders to pebbles present
in the traction current,collide with each other due to the high velocity of the
current, break down into smallerparticles and are moved along with the flow
velocity, which generate abrasive action on the bottom and banks of the water
course. Also continuous reworking winnows out the silt and clay particles
which are carried off in suspension.
29
2.4.4 Solution
This process is associated with the chemical action between the water and
soil/countryrocks. This type of action is seen in the study area, where the loose
soils are easily dissolved in the water containing other chemicals which
enhances this process.
2.4.5 Transportation
The transportation and deposition of sediments are governed by the law of
physics. Thebehavior of granular solids in fluids has been extensively studied
by physicist and engineers of various types. This is the process under which the
loads are moved from their province to a different place as roll along, Saltation,
suspension. In a given situation, the heaviest particles are never lifted from the
ground. They remain in contact with their colleagues and are rolled along by
the current as the traction carpet or the channel bed load. At the same velocity
lighter particles bounce along down-current with steep upward trajectories and
gently down-ward glide paths. This process is known to the learned as
Saltation. Moving at the velocity the lightest particles are borne along by the
current in suspension. They are carried within the fluid inerratic but essentially
down flow paths never touching the bottom or ground and carried away as
suspended load into the Orashi River. The transportation of particles in this
area (Umuago-Uruallaerosion site) depends mainly on the following:
 The amount of the water body
 The critical flow-Velocity
 Obstacles/impediment present on the flow path
 The depth of the water channel
 The amount of the load in the water.
2.4.6 Deposition
A considerable importance is attached to the critical-flow velocity needed to
start aparticle into motion and this is a function of the variable contained in the
Froude and Reynolds number equations. For deposition to occur, the critical-
30
flow velocity of the running water which carrying the load must reduced even
to a greater minimum. The presence of surface structures along the flow path
also aid in the deposition of the bed load irrespective of the forms.
2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING WATER EROSION
The factors affecting the amount of soil removal in the AforUkwu - Afor Nta
and Nwa-Afor– Uruallagully erosion site are given below;
 Climatic
 Soil type
 Vegetation
 Topography factors
2.5.1 Climatic Factors
The main climatic factors that affect soil erosion are the rainfall
characteristics,atmospheric pressure and wind velocity. Rainfall characteristics
are the most effective factors among them, with respect to study area. This
factor includes intensity, frequency and duration of the rainfall; all of these
have great effect on runoffs and soil loose.
Although a greater rainfall amount may not cause excessive erosion if the
intensity of the rainfall is less than the infiltration rate.High intensity or rainfall
has a bigger raindrop size, when rainfalls on the land surface, it cause the
detachment of soil particles in a large amount which is subsequently
transported by the surface runoff.
2.5.2Soil Characteristics
The soil characteristics which influences the soil erosion are the infiltration rate
and soilcover providing resistances to the runoff. When the infiltration rate is
greater than the rainfall intensity, whatever the amount of rain that occurs on
the land surface will be absorbed and surface runoff will be zero.
The infiltration rate mainly depends on the permeability of the soil profile,
surface condition and the presence of moisture content in the soil. Permeability
is simply inversely proportional to runoff, similarly the presence of sufficient
31
moisture content in the soil reduces the infiltration capacity which inturns
increases runoff. Also the structural feature of soil plays an important role in
terms of infiltration, since compaction in soil structure reduces infiltration and
increases runoffs.
2.5.3 Vegetation
Vegetationcreates direct obstruction of raindrops on the land surface as well as
theflowing path or surface runoff. A good vegetative cover completely negates
the effect of rainfall on soil erosion. The AforUkwuAfor Nta and Nwa-Afor-
Uruallagully erosion site is characterized by scare vegetative cover due to both
natural and human activities, as such, making it prone to this form of erosion.
2.5.4 Topography
The length and shape of the land slope are the main topographic factors
whichinfluences soil erosion. A table land /area surface experiences little or no
severe erosion when compared with a sloppy one, like the area of study. As the
land slope increases from mid to steep, the erosion increases in large
proportion. From field observations, it has been found that when the land slope
increases four times, the runoff velocity exceed twice and its kinetic energy
increases about four times, while the transportationof the particles increases by
thirty two(32). Landslope greatly affect flow velocity, kineticenergy and the
transportation of the soil particles.
2.6 GULLY EROSION
Gully erosion is a highly visible form of soil erosion that affects soil
productivity, restricts land use and can threaten roads, fences and buildings.
Gullies are relatively steep-sided watercourses which experience ephemeral
flows during heavy or extended rainfall.
Soil eroded from the gullied area can cause siltation of fence lines, water-ways,
road culverts, dams and reservoirs. Suspended sediments, which may have
attached nutrients and pesticides, can adversely affect water quality. These
fines, colloidal clay particles remain in suspension and may clog groundwater
32
aquifers, pollute water courses and affect aquatic life. Controlling gully erosion
can be difficult and costly. It may be justified on better quality soils where
there is a reasonable chance of success or where a road or building is
threatened by an advancing gully. However, controlling gullies over large areas
of poor soils may be impracticable. For this reason prevention is far better than
control.
Plate 2.3: A shallow (small) gully.
2.6.1 Gully Development

Gully erosion is caused when run-off concentrates and flows at a velocity
sufficient to detach and transport soil particles. A waterfall may form, with run-
off picking up energy as it plunges over the gully head. Splash back at the base
of the gully head erodes the subsoil and the gully eats its way up the slope.
Gullies may develop in water-courses or other places where run-off
concentrates. In cultivation or pastures, advanced rill erosion can develop into
33
gully erosion if no protective measures are taken. Cattle pads can be a starting
point for a small rill that can develop into a large gully. A water-course is
ordinarily in a state of balance where itssize, shape and gradient are suitable for
the flows it carries. If the balance is disturbed, for example by larger than
normal flows, gully formation may begin. Gullies generally create far more
capacity than they need to accommodate the run-off they are likely tocarry.
Plate2.4:A four meter deep gully advancing into grazing land

Widening of the gully sides may occur by slumping and mass movement
especially on the outside curve of meanders. Scouring of the toe slope can lead
to mass failure of the side of the gully under gravity and the soil is then washed
away by subsequent flows.
Active gully sides are usually vertical but may adopt an oblique shape once
they start to stabilize. This process may occur naturally but can be hastened by
the adoption of various gully treatment measures. Run-off may enter a gully
from the sides, causing secondary gullies or branching resulting in a 'badlands'
effect. The gully floor may be subject to further down-cutting as secondary
gullies advance up the channel. Sediment deposition below gully heads results
in a "steps and stairs" pattern.
While peak flows from intense rainfall causes considerable gully erosion, the
prolonged low flows resulting from an extended wet period can also create
34
problems. Constant trickle flows through a drainage line can saturate the soil in
the trickle zone making it structurally weak and very susceptible to erosion.
The constant wet conditions may also weaken the vegetation which then
provides less resistance to erosion. Gully depth is often limited by the depth to
the underlying rock which means that gullies are normally less than 2 m deep.
However on deep alluvial and colluvial soils gullies may reachdepths of 15 to
45 m.
2.6.2 Development Processes of Gullies in the Study Area
Gullies are developed by several processes which may be activated either
singularly or in combination at the same time. Some of these processes are
given as;
 Scouring of the particles from the bottom and sides of the gully by
flowing water,plus the abrasive materials such as hard soil particles or debris
carried by thewater.
 Water fall erosion at the gully area which could result in cutting of the
gully bankand thereby extends the gully into low lands.
Landslides or mass movements of the soil from the gully banks due to seepage
andgravity.
2.7 CAUSES OF GULLY EROSION IN THE STUDY AREA
Earlier studies have attributed their genesis and growth of gully erosion in the
area to influence of human activities on geomorphological processes.
However, investigations carried out by Egboka andNwankwo (1982) have
shown that the primary causes of gully genesis and growth in the area lies in
the hydrogeological and geotechnical properties of the complex aquifer system
underlying the areas. The high hydrostatic pressure in the aquifers produces a
reduction in the effective strength of the unconsolidated coarse sands in the
walls of the gullies leading to intense erosion.
The erosion is followed by mass movements and sediment removal by flood
flows. This is most pronounced during the rainy season.
35
According to Asiabaka and Bores (1988), the perceived causes of gully erosion
in Orlu-Ideato zone are runoff water, sloppy nature of land, heavy rainfall,
construction of roads and footpaths, poor cultivation practices, lack of
vegetative cover in that order.
2.7.1 Anthropogenic Factors (Human Factors)
The affected areas are in the heartland of the Igbo ethnic group where the
human population is dense. Any space not inhabited is cultivated, primarily for
yams, cassava, maize and vegetables.
Since the inception of the gully, the population has increased in a geometrical
progression and thesettlements such as AforUkwuAfor Nta and
Nwa-Afor/Nkwerre-Urualla/Okwelle have assumed suburban status.
Urbanization has been associated with deforestation, construction of new roads,
changes in the flood channels and increased runoff.The pressure on farmland
for agriculture is excessive. The forest and bush are regularlycleared for
farming and exposed to erosion and gullying. Between 1945 and 1949,
extensive planting of acacia, bamboo and cashew trees was undertaken.
Ditches, sumps and diversion channels were dug. Small dams were also
constructed.Instead of checking the gullying, the ditches and sumps increased
groundwater percolation and flow rates, and hence the gullying.
Numerous tracks and pathways have been created by farmers and these form
rills and channels for surface runoffthat is discharged into the gullies.
The erosion in the AforUkwuAfor Nta,Umuago,Nwa-Afor/Nkwerre-
Urualla/Okwelle gully sites has become a great tourist attraction and tourist
pressure causes further stress to the weak soils and may contribute to gullying.
The local inhabitants of the affected areas also make paths into the gullies to
fetch water for domestic use and these further enhance the gullying.
36
2.8 EFFECTS OF GULLY EROSION IN THE STUDY AREA
Across large areaof Nigeria’s southeastern rainforest belt, hundreds of
communities are threatened by erosion because of decades of uncontrolled
deforestation and other types of pressure on the land. The towns of Ideato, or
what remains of it, are a testament to the region’s environmental problems.
Cracks in the soil from erosion on the outskirts of the town seemed harmless
years ago, but seasonal rains further weakened the fissures, triggering a
landslide that swallowed up 400 homes and several major roads, isolating
several communities. (Egboka,2003) More than 2,000 people affected by the
disaster in the study areas sought shelter with friends and relatives.
“We all had to vacate our homes and run as we saw the relentless approach of
the gullies with every rainfall,” said MartiasIkechi, an AforUkwuUmuoghobe
resident who lost his home in the landslide. “We were lucky no one was
killed.”
More than 1,000 severe soil erosion sites scar southeast Nigeria, according to
the Environment Ministry. At least 500 of them are in Imo State, with the worst
cases in the Orlu-Ideato region.
Until 150 years ago southeast Nigeria was covered by thick rainforests, said
local agriculture specialist Theo Eze. Soil degradation first began with the
indiscriminate planting of palm trees as the European demand for palm oil
grew in the mid 19thcentury and expanded during the colonial era.
“The palm tree tends to generate soil salinity when you have a lot of them,
which tends to loosen the soil,” Eze said.
In addition, with its dense population of up to 1,000 people per sq. km,
pressure on land in the region is intense. Relentless farming and grazing
prevents the soil from recovering, Mr. Eze further explained.
Combined with other poor soil management practices, such as bush burning
and large-scalefelling of trees, the soil has been left weak and exposed, he said.
Seasonal rainwash away the topsoil, and gullies and landslides follow.
37
2.8.1 Socio - Economic Impacts of Gullies
The major socio economic impacts of gully erosion in the study areas include;
 Destruction of Houses: cracking of houses and falling of buildings into
gullysites are common features in the erosion prone areas. People have lost
their life investments into gullies in Orlu-Ideato area like AforUkwu-Afor
Nta,Umueshi,Nkwerre,Okwodor,Okwelle/Urualla, Ihiomaetc inImo State.
People have become refugees in their ancestral homes.
 Displacement of Large Population of People: In Imo State, large
number of peoples in Umuchima,Umueshi and Urualla in Ideato L. G. A. were
completelydisplaced due to the expansion of gully sites.
 Destruction of Roads and Transport Infrastructures: The major
highways inthe area have been virtually destroyed or completely cut off.
Federal, state and local governments often intervene in dramatic cases, such as
when a road is cut.
Plate 2.5.AforUkwuUmuaghobe gully erosion site
38
Plate 2.6:Abandoned Buildings due to Gully encroachment in the study Area
39
Plate 2.7:Damaged Agricultural land in the study Area by Gully Erosion.
2.9 GULLY CLASSIFICATION

Gully erosions are classified base on the following;
40
 Shape of the gully
 State of the gully and
 Dimension of the gully
2.9.1 Classification Based on Shape
Gully erosion can, based on shape be sub classified, into two (2) shapes, (U and
V shape). This depends upon soil characteristics, climatic condition, age of the
gully and the type of erosion.
 U-SHAPED GULLY: These types of gully prevail in area with soft materials.
These types of gullies are generally found in alluvial plains, where surface and
subsurface soils are easily erodible. Since site is made up soft materials, the
banks of the gully collapses easily due to runoffs, which result in the formation
of vertical side walls thus a U-shaped cross sectional gully is developed.
 V-SHAPED GULLY: These types of gullies usually develop in area with hard
materials.They develop in area where the sub soils are tough, creating
resistance to the rapid cutting effect of runoffs. In this case as the resistance
increases with depth, the width cutting effect decreases accordingly, resulting
to a V-shaped gully. This gully type is common in hilly region, where the land
surface is accompanied with steep slope where the flow velocity is very high
but the flow volume is low, causing the development of a V-shaped gully.
The latter type of gully is exactly what is seen in the AforUkwuUmuaghobe,
Umuago-Urualla gully erosion site which is the study area.
2.10 STATE OF THE GULLY
Based on the state of the gully, this is divided into the following;
 ACTIVE GULLIES: These are gullies whose dimensions are being
enlarged withtime as a result of the soil characteristics, land usage and the
amount of runoffwithin the gully. The AforUkwuUmuaghobe, Umuago-
Urualla gully is characterized under thistype of gully.
41
 INACTIVE GULLIES; these are gullies whose dimensions remain
constant withina long period of time. These types of gullies are found in rocky
area, and this isbecause rocks are good resistant to erosions.
The AforUkwuUmuaghobe,Umueshi,Umuago-Okwelle/Urualla gully erosion
site can be referred to as an activegully with the following reasons;
 The gully site is found in an almost plain land.
 The soil characteristics such as infiltration rate, and soil cover
providingresistance are low and weak respectively, causing the volume of the
runoff toincreases especially during the rainy seasons thus increasing the size
of thegully
 The size of the gully head has increased when compared with the
newmeasurements, even other measurements made from the buildings close to
thegully.
 The depth of the gully has also increased
2.11 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE DIMENSION
The classification of gullies based on their sizes, is given as;
 Small gullies
 Medium gullies and
 Large gullies.
SMALL GULLIES: Small gullies are those that can be easily crossed over
byfarm implements, can be removed by ploughing, smoothening operations
and bystabilizing the vegetation.
MEDIUM GULLIES: Medium gullies are those that cannot be easily crossed
over byfarm implements. They can be controlled by terracing or
ploughingoperations. Thesides of these types of gullies can be stabilized by
creating vegetative growth on them.
LARGE GULLIES: Large gullies are those which have gone beyond their
reclaimablestage and where for reclamation of the cropping system or meadow
42
is freely adopted.For controlling such gullies tree planting is done for an
effective result. This is the class/stage which the study area is, at the moment.
43
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
The study method used in this research work involves a sequential process
which includes the selection of study area, desk studies, field work, and data
processing
3.1 DESK STUDY
This study simply involves the process of assembling specific and relevant
informationfor the initiation of the project from previous works by other
authors in the same studyarea, which serve as a reference point in the execution
of this project.
The materials were gathered from the Department of Geosciences FUTO and
thepersonal library of Dr. Alex I. Opara,Department of Geosciences FUTO
3.3DESK STUDY MATERIALS
 Academic publications, journals, research journals and project works
related tothis topic.
 Topographic Map of the study area(Scale, 1:100,000 and 1:250,000)
 Geologic Map of the study area
 Existing land use/land cover maps and socio – economic data
 Existing forest classification
 Gully erosion maps of the study area
 High resolution satellite imagery of the area
3.3FIELD STUDY
The field study reconnaissance survey of the selected gully erosion sites on
11& 13July,2014 supervised by Sir,Dr.A.I. Opara.
The reconnaissance survey involves a multiple stops at the individual gully
sites,observations, visual analysis of outcrops were visually analyzed and
lateralmeasurements done at intervals of 10 m (except gully with less than 20
m length) usingmeasuring tape and leveling staff, for length, width and depths,
44
respectively. Mean gullydepths measured at gully shoulders were obtained at
the beginning, middle and end ofcross-sections.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to measure the coordinates
from whichaveraged area for each catchment was computed. The catchment of
each gully wasdelineated in the field based on the slope gradient and the gully
pattern.
For each gully, the measured cross sectional area were calculated.
3.2.1 Field Equipments
 Location map for direction
 GPS for taking coordinates and for measuring the longitude, latitude,
directionalazimuths and altitude of the study area.
 Omega 500 machine for azimuthal/ resistivity determination
 Brutton compass for direction and measurement of strike and dip
 Measuring tapes for linear measurements
 Hand Auger for collection of unweathered samples
 Field note and writing materials for taking records
 A topographic map of the study area was used forthe geological
mapping. Other basic field instruments used were:
 Geological hammer
 Tape for measuring the spacing distance of electode and length of gully
 Broton Compass for measuring the angels of dip relative to the
horizontal
3.4GULLY CHARACTERIZATION
The most fundamental way of characterizing erosion is in terms of the basic
propertiesand elements of the erosional features such as length, width, side
slopes etc. which aredetermined by precise survey measurements of the
individual gully erosion sites.
45
3.3.1 Site Locations
Location 1: Okwelle/Urualla Rd. – Nwa-Afor/Nkwerre
Coordinates;
 Latitude: N 05o 47ꞌ.372"
 Longitude :E 07007ꞌ.705"
 Time/date: Elevations: 152 meters.
 Width: 30 meters
 Depth: 20 meters
 Orientation of the gully: NE - SW
Location 2: Afor Ukwu – Afor Nta
Coordinates;
 Latitude: N 05°47ꞌ.283"
 Longitude: E 07°07ꞌ.878"
 Time/date: Elevations: 155 meters
 Width: 50 meters
 Depth: 30 meters
 Orientation of the gully: NE – SW
Location 3: Okwelle/Urualla – T0 the Erosion site
Coordinates;
 Width: ND
 Depth: ND

Location 4: Owerri/Orlu Rd. – Okwodor Erosion site
Coordinates;
46
 Width: ND
 Depth: ND
Location 5: Njaba River – Njaba H/Quarter
Coordinates;
 Width: ND
 Depth: ND
Location 6: Umueshi Ideato South L.G.A
Coordinates;
 Latitude: N 05°49ꞌ44.4"
 Longitude: E 07°06ꞌ37.7"
 Width: ND
 Depth: ND
Location 7: Umueshi Ideato South L.G.A

Coordinates;
 Latitude: N 05°49ꞌ50.9"
 Longitude: E 07°06ꞌ34.8"
47
 Width: ND
 Depth: ND
The vertical electrical sounding method was adopted to integrate electrical
resistivity measurement in the evaluation of soil structural features that may
have the potential to initiate and enhance the process of gullying in the study
area. Firstly, a detailed geological mapping of the study area was carried out
followed a direct current resistivity survey using the aforementioned.
3.4 GEOLOGIC MAPPING
The geologic mapping of the study area involved the use of geologic
map,topographic map and physical investigation to acquire geological
information of the areaand is also to describe the rock succession. This is
because geologic mapping is a veritable tool for evaluation of hydrological and
hydrogeological parameters. Similarly,information may be revealed from
surface exposure of outcrops. Geomorphological activities such as weathering,
erosion processes and denudation were also observed during field mapping
3.5. THE ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
As resistivity is a fundamental electrical property of rock materials closely
relatedto their lithology, the determination of the subsurface distribution of
resistivity from measurements on the surface yields useful information on the
structure or composition of buried formations. Therefore, vertical Electrical
Sounding (VES) was used for this purpose.
VES furnishes information concerning the vertical succession of different
conductive zones and their individual thickness and resistivities. For
homogeneous andhorizontally stratified earth, VES results represent only
resistivity variation across the layers up to the maximum depth of probe.
Practically, as the spacing between the current electrodes is increased about a
48
center, the total volume of earth included in the measurement also increases
both vertically and horizontally (Telford, et al 1990).
3.5.1 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)
Vertical electric sounding (VES) employs collinear arrays designed to output a
1-Dvertical apparent resistivity versus depth model of the subsurface at a
specific
Observationpoint. In this method a series of potential differences are acquired
atsuccessively greater electrode spacing while maintaining a fixed central
referencepoint. The induced current passes through progressively deeper layers
at greater electrode spacing. The potential difference measurements are directly
proportional to the changes in the deeper subsurface. Apparent resistivity
values calculated from measured potential differences can be interpreted in
terms of overburden thickness,water table depth, and the depths and
thicknesses of subsurface strata. The two most common arrays used for VES
are the Wenner array and the Schlumberger array.
Typical vertical electrical sounding design using schlumberger array is shown
infigure below.During resistivity sounding surveys, electrodes are distributed
along a line,centered about a midpoint that is considered the location of the
sounding. Schlumberger array is widely used in Geophysical exploration
because; it is an efficient means of collecting a larger number of data points,
most time effective in terms of field work. For a Schlumberger survey, the two
current electrodes A and B and two potential electrodes M and N are fixed,
placed in line with another and centered on some location, but the potential and
current electrodes are not placed equidistant from one another. The geometry
scheme for this array is shown below.
To acquire the resistivity data in the field, current is introduced into the
groundthrough current electrodes and the potential electrodes are then used to
quantitativelymeasure the voltage pattern on the surface resulting from current
49
flow pattern of the firstset of electrodes. The array is achieved by knowing the
distance of the potential of MN as (a) and the distance of AB equals (2s).
The distance between the different electrode are shown and from the
figurebelow. The value ‘K’ which is called the Geometric factor is calculated
from the
appropriate distances between the electrodes and for certain electrode
configuration.“R” is the resistance responds to the resistance of the volume of
ground between the potential electrodes. Voltage and current are converted in
millivolts andmill-amperes respectively with distances in meters to obtain the
apparent resistivity measured in Ohm-meter.
3.6 DATA ACQUISITION
The method of data acquisition that was applied in this study is the already said
vertical electrical sounding.
3.6.1 Vertical Electrical Sounding
Vertical electrical sounding using the Schlumberger array with
maximumelectrode separation of 500m was used in acquiring the resistivity
data. The Omega 500 machine used which transmits a well-defined and
regulated square wavethat minimizes induction effects and attenuation. In the
resistivity surveying mode, it comprises an inbuilt transfermer powered with
four input channels, deep penetration resistivity meter.
Other accessories used were:
 Two(2) potential electrodes
 Two(2 )current electrodes
 Four (4) electrical cable rims, two each for the potential and current
electrodes.
 Two(2) 100m tapes
 Four (4) geological hammers
 GPS for measuring Co-ordinates and Altitude
50
Plate 3.1: Typical Vertical Electrical Sounding Using Schlumberger Array Display
51
.
Plate 3.2: Walking down to another station: forResistivity field acquisition using the Schlumberger
array display
Plate 3.3: Hammering of Electrode during Vertical Electrical Sounding Using Schlumberger Array Display.
52
Plate 3.4: Taking readings during Vertical Electrical Sounding Using Schlumberger Array Display.
The Schlumberger configuration is preferable to the Wenner array for depth

soundingbecause the field procedure is quicker and simpler and master curves
and software are more readily available for result analysis. The data obtained is
usually plotted as agraph of apparent resistivity against half electrode spacing.
The electrode spacing at which inflection occurs on the graph provides an idea
of the depth of probe. A useful approximation is that the depth of probe is
equal to two thirds (2/3) of the spacing at which the point of inflection occurs
(Vingoe, 1972;).This approximation has found useful applications in computer
iterative modeling.
53
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTSPRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 Result Presentation

A comprehensive data processing and reduction was carried out on the vertical
electrical souding.
4.1.1 VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING

Date acquired from vertical electrical sounding
 RESISTIVITY SOUNDING CURVE
 ISO-RESISTIVITY
 GEOELECTRIC SECTION
 LITHOLOG
54
Table 4.1: SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF INTERPRETED LAYER PARAMETERS FROM THE STUDY AREA

NO OF CURVE
LAYERS TYPES
VES LAYER RESISTIVITY (Ohm-m) LAYER DEPTH (m) LAYER THICKNESS (m)
NO LOCATION
ℓ1 ℓ2 ℓ3 ℓ4 ℓ5 ℓ6 d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
OKWELLE/
URUALA RD.-
NWA-AFO
1 /NKWERRE 4 650 5460 2870 910 0 0 4.8 34.5 61.8 0 0 4.8 29.7 32.1 0 0
AFOR UKWU-
2 AFOR NTA 6 970 521 11600 3710 7330 25500 4.7 10.6 36.8 64.9 107 4.7 5.9 30.9 34 73
OKWELLE/
URUALA RD.-TO
THE EROSION
3 SITE 5 643 11200 2210 3700 11000 0 2.5 24.8 66.7 110 0 2.5 22.3 44.4 65.6 0
OWERRI ORLU
RD.-OKWODOR
4 EROSION SITE 5 597 12800 24900 6520 1020 0 0.9 16.8 53.6 78.7 0 0.9 15.9 37.7 41 0
NJABA RIVER-
NJABA L.G.
5 H/QUARTER 5 186 10000 1090 9500 44800 0 1.6 8.7 33.6 65 0 1.6 7.1 26.5 38.5 0
UMUESHI IDEATO
6 SOUTH L.G.A 3 179.22 3498.7 897.07 0 0 0 3.4263 90.66 0 0 0 3.4263 87.232 0 0 0
UMUESHI IDEATO
7 SOUTH L.G.A 6 61.168 471.34 1000.1 2999 2167 325.43 0.6106 1.544 2.843 14.822 105.57 0.61059 0.0933 1.2993 11.979 90.745
55
Fig.4.1: VES-Okwelle/Uruala Road-Nwa-Afor/Nkwerre
Fig.4.2: VES-Afor ukwu-Afor Nta
Fig.4.3: VES-Okwelle/Uruala Road-To the Erosion site
VES IV
Fig.4.4: VES-Owerri/Orlu Road-Okwudor Erosion site

VES V
Fig.4.5: VES-Njaba River-Njaba L.G.H./Quarters

VES VI
Fig.4.6: VES-Umueshi Ideato South L.G.A.

VES VII
Fig.4.7: VES-Umueshi Ideato South L.G.A.

Table 4.2: VES I (OKWELLE/URUALA RD-NWA-AFOR/NKWERRE)
Resistivity
VES of layers
S/NO (Ωm) Depth of layers (m) Thickness of layers Lithology
Top soil
(Reddish
1 650 4.8 4.8 )
Fine
sand
(Reddish
2 5460 34.5 29.7 )
Silty
3 2870 61.8 32.1 sand
4 910 − − Shale
Table 4.3:VES II (AFOR UKWU-AFOR NTA)
VES Depth of
S/NO Resistivity of layers (Ωm) layers (m) Thickness of layers Lithology
1 970 4.7 4.7 Top soil (Reddish)
2 521 10.6 5.9 Fine sand (Reddish)

Medium sand
3 11600 36.8 30.9 (unsaturated)
Medium-coarse sand
4 3710 64.9 34 (partially saturated)
5 7330 107 73 Silty sand
6 25500 − − shale
Table 4.4:VES III (OKWELLE/URUALA RD-TO THE EROSION STATE)
VES Resistivit Depth of layers Thickness of Lithology

S/N y of (m) layers
O layers
(Ωm)
3 11600 66.7 44.4 Medium sand (unsaturated)
4 3710 110 65.6 Silty sand
5 7330 − − Clay/shale
Table 4.5: VES IV (OWERRI/ORLU RD-OKWODOR EROSION SITE)
Resistivity of layers
VES S/NO (Ωm) Depth of layers (m) Thickness of layers Lithology
3 24900 53.6 37.7 Medium sand (unsaturated)
4 6520 78.7 41 Silty sand
Table 4.6: VES V (NJABA RIVER - NJABA L.G. H/QUARTER)

Medium sand
3 1090 33.6 26.5 (unsaturated)
4 9500 65 38.5 Silty sand
Table 4.7: VES VI (UMUESHI IDEATO SOUTH L.G.A)
1 179.22 3.4263 3.4263 Top soil (Reddish)
2 3498.7 90.658 87.232 Fine sand (Reddish)
3 897.07 − − Medium sand (unsaturated)
Table 4.8: VES VII (UMUESHI IDEATO SOUTH L.G.A)
1 65.168 0.61059 0.61059 Top soil (Reddish)
2 471.34 1.5438 0.93316 Fine sand (Reddish)
3 1000.1 2.843 1.2993 Medium sand (unsaturated)

Medium-coarse sand
4 2999.2 14.822 11.979 (Partially Saturated)
5 2167 105.57 90.745 Silty sand
6 325.43 − − Clay/shale
Table 4.9: ISO - RESISTIVITY (DOWNWARD CONTINUATION OF RESISTIVITY) DATA OF THE
STUDY AREA
Iso- Resistivity at the following points: AB/2 =10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,100,150,200,250,

VES AB/ AB/ AB/ AB/ AB/ AB/ AB/
NO LOCATION LONGITUDE LATITUDE AB/2=10 AB/2=20 AB/2=30 AB/2=40 2=50 AB/2=60 2=70 2=80 2=100 2=150 2=200 2=250
OKWELLE/URUALA RD-NWA-
1 AFOR NKWERRE 07˚07'705" 05˚47'.372" 1250 2000 2400 2900 3200 3200 3200 3200 3000 2500 1800 1700
2 AFOR UKWU-AFOR NTA 07˚07'.878" 05˚47'.283" 900 1300 1800 2100 2600 2900 3200 3500 4050 4800 6250 7000
OKWELLE/URUALA RD.-TO THE
3 EROSION SITE 07˚07'.740" 05˚47'.099" 2450 4000 4800 5000 5250 5250 5000 5000 5000 4600 4800 5000
OWERRI/ORLU RD.-OKWODOR
4 EROSION SITE 07˚00'.914" 05˚'43'.160" 10350 10500 10600 10700 10700 10700 10700 10700 10500 9500 5100 3400
NJABA RIVER-NJABA L.G.
5 H/QUARTERS 07˚00'.695" 05˚43'.207" 1000 1850 2250 2350 2450 2550 2650 2800 3200 4000 5400 6250
6 UMUESHI IDEATO SOUTH L.G.A 007˚06'37.7" 05˚49'44.4" 500 900 1100 1400 1600 1800 2000 2000 2200 2200 2200 2000
7 UMUESHI IDEATO SOUTH L.G.A 007˚06'34.8" 05˚49'50.9" 700 1100 1400 1650 1850 1850 1850 1900 1900 1650 1450 0
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
1000 Ωm
500 Ωm
0 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
1000 Ωm
500 Ωm
Fig. 4.8: Iso-resistivity values (at AB/2 = 10) of the vertical electrical sounding
data of the study area
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
1000 Ωm
500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
1000 Ωm
Fig. 4.9: Iso- resistivity values (at AB/2 = 20) of the vertical electrical sounding
11000 Ωm
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
1000 Ωm
500 Ωm
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
1000 Ωm
11000 Ωm
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
1000 Ωm
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
11000 Ωm
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
Fig. 4.12: Iso-resistivity values (at AB/2 = 50) of the vertical electrical sounding
11000 Ωm
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
11000 Ωm
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
11000 Ωm
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
of the study area
10500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
10000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
9500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1500 Ωm
9000 Ωm
8500 Ωm
8000 Ωm
7500 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6500 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5500 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4500 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3500 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2500 Ωm
2000 Ωm
Fig. 4.17: Iso- resistivity values (at AB/2 = 150) of hte vertical electrical sounding
6200 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5800 Ωm
5600 Ωm
5400 Ωm
5200 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4800 Ωm
4600 Ωm
4400 Ωm
4200 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3800 Ωm
3600 Ωm
3400 Ωm
3200 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2800 Ωm
2600 Ωm
2400 Ωm
2200 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1800 Ωm
1600 Ωm
1400 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5800 Ωm
5600 Ωm
5400 Ωm
5200 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4800 Ωm
4600 Ωm
4400 Ωm
4200 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3800 Ωm
3600 Ωm
3400 Ωm
3200 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2800 Ωm
2600 Ωm
2400 Ωm
2200 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1800 Ωm
1600 Ωm
7000 Ωm
6800 Ωm
6600 Ωm
6400 Ωm
6200 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5800 Ωm
5600 Ωm
5400 Ωm
5200 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4800 Ωm
4600 Ωm
4400 Ωm
4200 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3800 Ωm
3600 Ωm
3400 Ωm
3200 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2800 Ωm
2600 Ωm
2400 Ωm
2200 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1800 Ωm
1600 Ωm
6800 Ωm
6600 Ωm
6400 Ωm
6200 Ωm
6000 Ωm
5800 Ωm
5600 Ωm
5400 Ωm
5200 Ωm
5000 Ωm
4800 Ωm
4600 Ωm
4400 Ωm
4200 Ωm
4000 Ωm
3800 Ωm
3600 Ωm
3400 Ωm
3200 Ωm
3000 Ωm
2800 Ωm
2600 Ωm
2400 Ωm
2200 Ωm
2000 Ωm
1800 Ωm
Legend
Fine sand Silty sand Shale
Medium sand Top soil Clay/shale
Medium-coarse sand
VES III VES VI VES VII

VES I (UMUESHI (UMUESHI
DEPTH VES II (OKWELLE/URUALA RD-
(OKWELLE/URUALA RD- IDEATO SOUTH L.G.A) IDEATO SOUTH L.G.A)
(m) (AFOR UKWU-AFOR NTA) TO THE EROSION SITE)
NWA-AFOR/NKWERRE)
0 650Ωm 970Ωm 634Ωm 179.22 65.168Ωm
Ωm 471.34Ωm
521Ωm 1000.1Ωm
10 2999.2Ωm
11200Ωm
20 5460Ωm
11600Ωm
30
40
11600Ωm 3498.7
2870Ωm Ωm
50 3710Ωm
60 2167Ωm
70 910Ωm
80
7330Ωm
3710Ωm
90
100 897.07
Ωm
110
25500Ωm 325.43Ωm
7330Ωm
120
120
Fig. 4.20: Geo-Electric Section

Legend
Clay Medium sand Top soil
Clayey Sand Medium-coarse sand Shale
Fine sand Silty Clay Clay/shale
Lignite Silty sand
DEPTH VES IV VES V
(m) (OWERRI/ORLU RD- (NJABA RIVER - NJABA LITHOLOG
OKWODOR EROSION SITE) NJABA L.G. H/QUARTER)
0 5970Ωm 186Ωm
10000Ωm
10 12800Ωm
20 1090Ωm
30
24900Ωm
40
50 9500Ωm
60
6520Ωm
70 44800Ωm
80
1020Ωm
90
100
110
120
130
Fig. 4.21: Geo-Electric Section of Njaba and litholog of the area

4.1.2 Data processing and Result interpretation
A total of seven (7) vertical electrical sounding positions were occupied using the
Schlumberger electrode array. The locations of the sounding points are shown on
figure1.4. Electrical resistivity profiles were aligned along footpaths and open
fields providing reasonable profile lengths. It is on account of this that most of the
soundings were performed in the northern and southern part of the study area. In
the depth sounding mode, a series of measurements were made with increasing
electrode separation, to a maximum current electrode spacing (AB) of 500m. The
apparent resistance for each electrode spacing was multiplied by a geometric factor
to give the apparent resistivity. The instrument used was the OMEGA500Machine.
Current and potential electrodes were made of non polarisable stainless steel. The
observed field data were therefore curves of apparent resistivity against current
electrode spacing plotted on log-log papers and constituted the depth sounding
curves. Quantitative interpretation was by use of auxiliary diagrams (Zohdy, 1965,
1974) and computer iterative modelling using a program (OFFIX 3.1), Golden
software strata 4 and Golden software suffer 12.
All field data were processed by using the appropriate constants and analysed
using (OFFIX 3.1) COMPUTER PROGRAM to process the measured apparent
resistivity data and compute the inverse model of resistivity variation with depth
(Vander Velpen and Sporry 1993). This program can accomplish three tasks:
(i)smoothing of noisy field data, (ii) accurate computationof apparent resistivity
models, and (iii)inversion of resistivity data. The output is theinverse resistivity
model providing layer-wise distributionof resistivity value (ρn) and thickness(h) of
the corresponding layer.Data smoothing forSchlumberger array includes single
point correctionand vertical curve branch shifting. The verticalcurve branch
shifting consists of a linearshift of one or more branches to correct mistiesbetween
the branches. The correction of themisties is indicated by the amount of the
differencebetween two apparent resisitivity observationswith the same current
electrode distance (AB),but with different potential electrode separation(MN). An
equal correction (on the logarithmicscale) is applied to all points of a selected
branch.This leads to a shift in the apparent resistity levelof that branch without
changing its shape. For computation of inverse resistivity model,AB/2 values and
the corresponding measuredapparent resistivity is uploaded into an input fileof the
(OFFIX 3.1)computer program. Based on the nature ofmeasured resistivity curve,
datasets of an initialinverse resistivity model which include numbers oflayers,
resistivity values and thickness of all thelayers (except of last layer) are fed into the
program.Based on the given input parameters ofthe initial inverse model, the
program will computeapparent resistivity values for all AB/2 values.Then,
computed resistivity curve based on the initialmodel parameters is compared with
the measuredresistivity curve. Comparison is displayed onthe computer screen. In
case of mis-match betweenthese two sets of apparent resistivity values, theprogram
will continue to make necessary changesin the numerical values of the parameters
of theinitial resistivity model till a good match betweenmeasured and computed
values of apparent resistivityis achieved. This process is accomplishedby iteration
procedures. The resistivity model forwhich good agreement between computed
andmeasured apparent resistivity values is achievedin the desired inverse resistivity
model.
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION/ RECOMMENDATION
5.1 DISCUSSION
The geoelectric model section was generated from the model curve, the computer
program, indicating the presence of 3 to 6 layer distinct characteristics of the
subsurface conditions. These curves characterize the thick nature of the layers of
the sediments.
The geoelectric sections of the first layer shows variation in resistivity, but lies
within the range of 650-5400. It consists of a bit fine to silty sand and shale. The
second layer consists of high resistive substratum of about 11600-25500 within
certain depth. It consist of a bit fine, but mostly medium – coarse and silty sand
and shale.The third layer consist of fine – medium sand and little of clay/shale. A
combination of the interpreted sounding results of the fourth and fifth together with
information from an already existing lithological log in the study area were used to
arrive at the conclusion that the two geoelectrical sections constitute lateritic
overburden. The upper segment of the overburden contains mainly fine – medium
sand while the lower segment of this overburden contains lateritic silty sand. The
sixth consist of fine – medium sand only, while the seventh also show restivity
variations and consist of largely lateritic silty sands with medium – coarse sand and
clay/shale.
Depth sounding curves for the measurements aligned approximately normal to the
of the gully recorded increase in apparent resistivity with current electrode spacing.
The geo-electric model summarizes the probable subsurface geology and
information on subsurface condition in the study area.
Expectedly there is a loss of strength on saturation as is exhibited in the manner
ofcollapse, attributable to the low plasticity of the samples and hence the high
susceptibility of the soils to erosion gullies. This supports the assertion of
Akpokodje etal. (1986) that plasticity is the main factor that affects the loss of
strength of a soil uponremolding with a given amount of water.
As is observed from the results, most of the samples lack fines (silt and clays) that
cement theparticles together and this is known to constitute part of the causative
agents of erosiongullies and subsequent development among other factors. The soil
within the sites allowinsignificant infiltration due to their lithological structure, and
more channel surfacerunoffs along structural and dipping trends down slope. This
explains why these areascontain gullies of alarming magnitude.
5.2 CONCLUSION
The evidence from available geophysical data and from the erosion/drainage map
of Southeastern Nigeria, the area of high tosevere erosion intensities appear to be
aligned in two directions NW-SE and NE-SW;the NW-SE direction is the more
prominent while that of NE-SW is just perceptible.It isinteresting to note that the
initial rifting of the Southern Nigeria Continental Margin in theMesozoic Era
produced two principal sets of faults trending NE-SW and NW-SE.Whileno one
could reasonable deny the possible contributions of human activities to
thedevelopment of gully erosion, we are however of the view that the most
importantfactors to explain gully erosion in southeastern Nigeria are not human but
interplay ofendogenic and exogenic forces within the earth. The main contribution
of man to gullyinitiation and development is essentially one of complicating and
accelerating analready inherent problem rather than provoking it. This is because
the physicalcharacteristics of the environment are already disposed to the worst
kind of erosion.Contrary to the commonly held view that all erosion-prone areas of
SoutheasternNigeria ecological zone are homogeneous and porous, this study
shows that the part of Benin/AmekiFormation is very heterogeneous (heterolithic)
and variably porous and permeable.Both porosity and permeability of the
individual units are different and cannot justifiablybe regarded as homogenous .
This situation encourages both water and gravity erosion.The sand units are porous
and permeable and have less “fines” than theclay/shale units. Water infiltrates
percolates and flows through the top soil and the sandunits readily but gets trapped
in the sand/shale interface. The clay/shale units serve asbarriers to downward water
flow and therefore confine water to certain sand units. Thepresence of these
clay/shale barriers creates two undesirable conditions, namely:excess overland
flows (runoffs) and high pore water pressure build-up in the sands.This excess
overland flow (runoffs) subject the thin soil horizon of the study area tostress and
sooner or later breaks the thin and fragile soil horizon thereby initiating
soilerosion. This results to rill and channel formations and undercutting of the
varioussedimentary layers. The entrapped water in the porous and permeable loose
sands (lowin “fines” which ordinarily serve as cementing material) leads to high
pore waterpressure build-up. This in turn leads to low shear strength of the
interface and reducethe shear resistance at this boundary and cause the surface to
be slippery. This finallyresults in the sliding and slumping of the sand units and
hence gravity erosion. Theauthors believe that the main and real cause of erosion
in southeastern Nigeriaespecially in the present study area is geological and in
particular the stratigraphy of thearea. It is the interplay of the porous and
permeable sands with non-porous andimpermeable clay/shale units that reduces or
almost bars the vertical downwardpercolation and flow of water into deeper
aquifers that lead to excessive overland flowsand the attendant water erosion, as
well as gravity erosion.
5.3 RECOMMENDATION
Based on the results of this study and investigations by previous authors, I
recommendthe following control measures for gully erosion control in the
study area.
 Surface and subsurface flows and drainage should be controlled by
directingwater through concrete channels into lined artificial reservoirs or
straight into thelakes or river plains.
 The gully walls and bottom should be stabilized through engineered
structures,grouting and bolting.
 Human activity and agricultural practices should be controlled and their
effectsreduced to a minimum.
 As a general rule of thumb, 70% groundcover is needed to protect soil in
areas ofhigh water flow this needs to be thicker, up to 100% cover. In areas
above a gullywhere rain is likely to fall, a higher percentage of groundcover
will help reducerun-off and prevent erosion.
 The complete removal of stock from the gully area and run-off area above
thegully is preferred. If stock have uncontrolled access to these areas then
carefulstock management is required. Plants will regenerate more
successfully andquickly if grazing pressure is removed, which will lead to
faster stabilization of thegully.
 Deep-rooted perennial grasses are recommended for planting in and on
thesides of the gullies and ephemeral waterways that have the potential to
becomegullies.
 Trees and larger shrubs should be planted further away from the gully to
take upgroundwater.
 Since the groundwater is slightly acidic, acid resistant construction
materialsshould be used.
 Major dewatering schemes at strategic locations (especially the
Umueshi)the pumped water could be treated for use. The dewatering should
be on acontinuous basis.
 After execution of the above projects, the affected areas should be
reclaimed byextensive afforestation and other agricultural programmes.
5.3.1 POST-CONTROL MEASURES
 An Environmental Monitoring Centre should be set up at Umueshi or Afor
Ukwu tomonitor the control measures and collect relevant information for
future analysis.
 An International Workshop on Erosion and Gullying in the Tropics should
besponsored Imo State government to focus moreinternational attention on
the environmental disaster that is now devastating thearea. The workshop
would provide more ideas for long-term control of theproblem.
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Application of Vertical Electrical Soundings in Gully Erosion Studies

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APPLICATION OF VERTICAL ELECTRICAL

SOUNDINGS IN GULLY EROSION STUDIES: A CASE

INWEREGBU, JOHN CHUKS

A RESEARCH PROJECTSUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

1.0 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

1.1AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROPOSED STUDY

 To carryout a detailed literature review as well as regional geology of the

1.2 GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE STUDY AREA

1.2.1 Regional Geology

In Anambrabasin, the strongly folded Albianconiacian succession (pre –

Ajali sandstone (Maastrichtian)overlies mamu formation (Reyment,1965 and

Figure 1.1 Structural setting of South Eastern Nigeria.

Fig. 1.3: Topographical/Location of Map of the Study Area

1.4 STRATIGRAPHIC SETTINGS OF THE STUDY AREA

The stratigraphic setting of Southern Nigeria comprises sediments of three

The second phase, which commenced in the pastSantonian period, is

Geologic Age Geologic Formation Lithologic Description

Pleistocene Alluvium and Unconsolidated freshwater

Beach Ridges Fine grained greyish white

Oligocene-Pilocene Coastal Plains Sands Coarse to medium grained

Oligocene- Ogwasi- Asaba Gritty clays and pebbly

Eocene Bende-Ameki Sandstone and shale sequence

Paleocene Imo Shale Group Grey calcareousshales and

Campanian Enugu/Nkporo Dark grey shales and soft

Coniacian Awgu-Ndeaboh shale Shales with thin limestone

New Netim marl Thick marl unit with

Turonian Amasiri sandstone High bioturbated fine to

Ezillo formation Dark gray shales with fine

Eze-Aku Formation Alternating shales, siltstones

Cenomanian Ekenkpon shale Thick black highly fissile

Albian Asu River Group Poorly bedded sandyshales

Mamfe formation Cross bedded coarse to

Mfamosing formation Massive bedded grey chalky

Aptian - Awi sandstone Fluvio-deltaic clastics

1.5REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK

a) Climate, especially rainfall intensity and duration.

2.3.2 Sheet Erosion

2.3.3 Geologic Occurrence of Erosion

2.3.5 Water Erosion

Plate 2.2: AforUkwu-Afor Nta gully erosion site

Plate 2.3: A shallow (small) gully.

2.6.1 Gully Development

Plate2.4:A four meter deep gully advancing into grazing land

Plate 2.5.AforUkwuUmuaghobe gully erosion site

2.9 GULLY CLASSIFICATION

Location 7: Umueshi Ideato South L.G.A

The Schlumberger configuration is preferable to the Wenner array for depth

RESULTSPRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Result Presentation

4.1.1 VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING

Fig.4.4: VES-Owerri/Orlu Road-Okwudor Erosion site

Fig.4.5: VES-Njaba River-Njaba L.G.H./Quarters

Fig.4.6: VES-Umueshi Ideato South L.G.A.

Fig.4.7: VES-Umueshi Ideato South L.G.A.

Table 4.3:VES II (AFOR UKWU-AFOR NTA)

1 970 4.7 4.7 Top soil (Reddish)

2 521 10.6 5.9 Fine sand (Reddish)

5 7330 107 73 Silty sand

Table 4.4:VES III (OKWELLE/URUALA RD-TO THE EROSION STATE)

VES Resistivit Depth of layers Thickness of Lithology

Table 4.5: VES IV (OWERRI/ORLU RD-OKWODOR EROSION SITE)

1 5970 0.9 0.9 Top soil (Reddish)

2 12800 16.8 15.9 Fine sand (Reddish)