Lesson 5: Types of Plate Boundaries

What is a tectonic plate boundary?

● It is the border between two plates that are moving slowly and constantly in many
directions. Tectonic plate boundaries are grouped into three main types based on the
different movements.

Three types of Plate Boundaries

CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY is a plate boundary that occurs when two tectonic plates push
together towards each other.

DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY is a plate boundary that occurs when two tectonic plates are
spreading apart.

TRANSFORM-FAULT PLATE BOUNDARY occurs when two tectonic plates grind and slide past each
other in a horizontal motion. The plates do not slide smoothly, but build tension and release it in the
form of an earthquake.

The fracture zone that forms a transform plate boundary is known as a transform fault. Most
transform faults are found in the ocean basin and connect offsets in the mid-ocean ridges.

WHAT CAUSES ROCK TO DEFORM?

There are 3 types of stresses: tensional stress, compressional stress, and shear stress.

Tensional stress - when rocks are being pulled in opposite directions.

Compressional stress - when rocks are squeezed or shortened.
Shear stress - when a body of rock is distorted.

Lesson 6: Convergence of Oceanic Plates and Continental Plates

GEOLOGIC FEATURES/LANDFORMS

● refers to any physical feature of the earth's surface or of the rocks exposed at the surface
that is formed by a geologic process.
GEOLOGIC PROCESSES

● refers to dynamic actions or events that occur at the Earth's surface due to application of
natural forces.

A continental crust curves upward on top of the oceanic crust due to its lesser density. The oceanic
crust, due to its greater density, subducts and stays below.

SUBDUCTION
- an event/ process in which a slab of rock thrusts into the mantle
- It occurs where one tectonic plate sinks into the mantle underneath the other plate.

EARTHQUAKES
- refers to the vibration of the Earth due to the rapid release of energy.

Types of Earthquakes

● Shallow Earthquake: with 60 km focal depth and contributes 85% of the total energy
released by earthquakes
● Intermediate Earthquake: wity 60-300 km focal depth and contributes 12% of the total
energy released by earthquakes
● Deep Earthquake: With 300-700 km focal depth and contributes 3% of the total energy
released by earthquakes

TSUNAMI
- It refers to a series of long high ocean waves with very long wavelengths (typically
hundreds of kilometer) caused by large-scale disturbances of the ocean.
- It is a Japanese term which means "harbor wave".

TRENCH
- It is a depression in the seafloor produced by the subduction process.

VOLCANIC ARCS
- are volcanoes formed in part by igneous activity associated with subduction of oceanic
lithosphere beneath a continent.
- It is a chain of volcanoes, hundreds to thousands of miles long, that forms above a
subduction zone
- Examples: Cascade Volcanoes

Convergence of OCEANIC and CONTINENTAL Plates

GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS/LANDFORMS
* Trench
* Volcanic Arcs

GEOLOGIC PROCESSES

* Subduction
* Earthquake
* Tsunami
* Volcanic Eruption

Lesson 7: Convergence of Two Oceanic Plates

In the convergence of two oceanic plates, the older oceanic plate subducts under the other because it
is denser and cooler than the other.

Marianas Trench
● It is the deepest trench in the world.
● It is located in the western Pacific east of the Philippines
● It is 11,034 meters (36,201 feet) deep, which is almost 7 miles.

Volcanic Island Arc

● Are chains of volcanoes that are formed in an ocean basin via ocean-ocean subduction.
● it is formed parallel to a trench
● Examples: Aleutian Islands off the coast of Alaska, Lesser Antilles south of Puerto Rico

How was the Philippine Island Arc formed?

- An archipelago is an area of a group or chain of islands surrounded by bodies of water

- Palawan Microcontinental Block (PMB): Studied have shown that Palawan
Microcontinental Block rifted away from mainland Asia.
 - Philippine Mobile Belt is formed due to the collision of Eurasian plate, Philippine plate, and
Indo- Australian plate.

The Philippine Volcanic Island Arc is a result of the convergence of two oceanic plates (Eurasian
Plate and Pacific Plate).

The Philippine Trench, East Luzon Trough, and volcanic island arc in the Philippines are products
of the subducting Philippine Sea Plate beneath the archipelago.

Volcanic chain from Taiwan to Mindoro which includes the Mt. Pinatubo and Taal Volcano are
results of the subduction of West Philippine Sea plate along the Manila Trench.

● Majority of the Philippine archipelago are part of the Philippine Mobile Belt.
● Other parts of the Philippines such as Palawan, Mindoro, and Zamboanga Peninsula are part
of the Sundaland Block (Palawan Microcontinental Belt) of Eurasian Plate
● The collision of the Sundaland Block and Philippine Mobile Belt resulted to the formation
of the Manila- Negros-Cotabato Trench System, ad Sulu Trench.

Lesson 8: Convergence of two continental plates

GEOLOGIC FEATURES LANDFORMS

● Mountain Ranges
● Folds
● Faults

GEOLOGIC PROCESSES
● Shallow Earthauakes

Converging continental crusts or plates result in a

collision zone, which could cause shallow earthquakes and forms a crack called fault.

Convergence of two continental plates cause no subduction since the two plates have the same
densities and are too buoyant to subduct. There would be no volcanoes formed, no tsunamis.

Convergence of two continental plates will result in a group of high landforms that we call
mountain ranges.
 Lesson 9: Divergent Plate Boundaries

It is a boundary/ fault where the two tectonic plates are moving away from each other or are
spreading apart.

RIFT VALLEY
- It is a gap at divergent boundaries where molten material rises to build new crust.

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge was formed due to the separation of tectonic plates on both sides of the
ocean.

How is the rock pulled at Divergent Boundaries?

- Rock gets THIN in the middle as it is pulled apart. This STRESS is called Tension

What happens when the rock SNAPS from the Stress of Tension?
- Normal Fault is formed. (fault is a break in Earth's crust)
- Rock drops down as it breaks.
- Normal Faults

What happens next at Divergent Boundaries?

● A geologic feature or event...may form RIFT VALLEYS on continents and...

SEA-FLOOR SPREADING in the ocean

Lesson 10: Transform Fault Plate Boundaries

TRANSFORM-FAULT Plate Boundary

- It is a boundary/ fault where the two tectonic plates grind and slide past each other in
opposite directions.

How is the rock broken at Transform-Fault Boundaries?

● Rock is pushed in two opposite directions (orsideways, but no rock is lost).

 ● This stress is called SHEAR Stress.

What happens next at Transform Boundaries?

● It may cause shallow earthquakes when the rock snaps from the pressure.
● Example of a transform fault plate boundary is the San Andreas Fault in California.

San Andreas is the "master" fault of an intricate fault network that cuts through rocks of the
California coastal region. The entire San Andreas fault system is more than 800 miles long and
extends to depths of at least 10 miles within the Earth.

The Pacific Plate (on the west) moves northwestward relative to the North American Plate (on the
east), causing earthquakes along the fault.

Lesson 11 Hotspot

HOT SPOT
- It is an area on Earth over a mantle plume.
- It is a concentration of heat in the mantle capable of creating magma.

MANTLE PLUME is area under the rocky outer layer of Earth (lithosphere) where there is a
concentration of heat and causes the melting and thinning of the crust and widespread volcanic
activity.

HOTSPOT FACTS:
- Hot spot volcanoes occur far from plate boundaries.
- Hot spot is an area on Earth over a mantle plume where magma is hotter than surrounding
magma.
- As the plates move, the hot spot does not, and may create a chain of volcanoes on the
Earth’s surface.
- The magma plume causes melting and thinning of the rocky crust and widespread volcanic
activity.

- UNIT 2
LESSON 1: SEISMIC WAVES

EQUILIBRIUM – (rest position) the undisturbed position of particles or fields when they are not
vibrating.
CREST - the highest point above the rest position.
TROUGH - the lowest point below the rest position.
AMPLITUDE (A)- the maximum displacement of a point of a wave from its rest position.
WAVELENGTH - distance covered by a full cycle of the wave. It is measured in meters.
PERIOD (P) - the time taken for a full cycle of the wave. It is measured in seconds.
FREQUENCY (f) - the number of waves passing a point each second. It is measured in hertz Hz.

LONGITUDINAL WAVE
Longitudinal waves are those waves in which the particles of the medium move parallel to the
propagation of the wave. For example, sound waves are longitudinal waves

TRANSVERSE WAVE
Transverse waves are those waves in which the particles of the medium move perpendicular to the
direction of the propagation of the wave. For example, ripples formed on the surface of the water, is
a transverse wave.

TYPE OF SEISMIC WAVES

- P wave
- S wave
- Rayleigh Wave
- Love wave

RICHARD OLDHAM
- A British geologist who made the first clear identification of the separate arrivals of P-
waves, S-waves, and surface waves on seismograms in 1897.

SEISMIC WAVES are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or
an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.

P - waves (Primary wave / Compressional Wave)

● Travel through the Earth's body.

● A type of body wave that pushes & pulls rock and liquid in the same direction as the wave
moves
● It is a type of longitudinal wave in which the particles in a medium travels in the same
direction (parallel) as the wave travels.
● The fastest kind of seismic wave.
● Arrives at recording stations first (Primary).
● It can move through solid, liquid, and gas.
● It shakes the ground back and forth as it travels.

S - Waves (Secondary wave / Shear Wave)

● Travel through the Earth's body.

● A type of body waves that move rock up and down.
 ● It is a type of transverse wave in which the particles in a medium travels perpendicular to its
wave motion.
● It is slower than a P-wave.
● Arrives at recording stations second (secondary).
● can only travel through solid rock

Love waves

● Travel at the surface of the crust.

● A type of surtace waves that move the ground from side-to-side.
● It is a type of transverse wave in which the particles in a medium travels perpendicular to its
wave motion.
● Fastest surface waves but slower than P and S waves
● Arrives at recording stations after S-waves

AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE is a British mathematician who predicted the existence
of Love waves mathematically in 1911.

Rayleigh waves
● Travel at the surface of the crust.
● A type of surface waves that causes the ground to shake in an elliptical motion, with no
transverse or perpendicular motion.
● It moves the ground in a rolling circular motion,the same wav ocean waves move.
● Slowest surface waves

JOHN WILLIAM STRUTT (lord rayleig) is a British physicist who first mathematically
demonstrated Rayleigh wave existence in 1885.

LESSON 2 LAYERS OF THE EARTH

The Crust
- The Earth's crust is the outermost surface.
- It is a very thin layer of solid rock. It is the thinnest layer of the Earth.
- The crust is 5-35km thick beneath the land and 1-8km thick beneath the oceans.
- The crust of the Earth is broken into many pieces called plates.The movement of these
plates causes earthquakes.

The Lithosphere
- On your mantle layer, draw a dotted line around the very edge of the circle. This is the
lithosphere.
 - The lithosphere is composed of part of the crust and the upper part of the mantle (the top
100 km).
- It is composed of hard, brittle rock.

The Asthenosphere
- The asthenosphere is the part of the mantle underneath the lithosphere. Draw a dashed line
about an inch under your dotted line.
- It is made of molten rock and metal so that it "flows" like hot asphalt.
- The asthenosphere is the part of the mantle that moves and causes the tectonic plates of the
crust to move as well.

The Mantle
- The mantle is the largest layer of the Earth. It is 2900 km thick.
- It includes the lithosphere and asthenosphere.
- It is relatively flexible-it flows like very viscous liquid
- It is very hot-1600°F at the top and4000°F towards the centre of the Earth.

The Core
- The core of the Earth is like a ball of very hot metals. The core is divided into 2 layers-
Outer and Inner.
- The core is SO hot and has SO much pressure that if you were to go there-you would be
squished into something even smaller than a marble.

The Outer Core

- The outer core is liquid metal iron and nickel with 10% sulfur and/or oxygen.
- It is very hot 4000-9000°F.
- The outer core is 2.250 km thick.

The Inner Core

- The inner core is solid metal due to the extreme heat and pressure.
- It is composed of iron and nickel. It is responsible for the magnetic field the Earth
generates.
- The inner core is 800 km thick and is 9000°F.

LESSON 3: Continental Drift Theory

PANGAEA
Greek word which means "All Earth" or "All Land".
A supercontinent that incorporated almost all landmasses on Earth during the Permian Period.
Alfred Lothar Wegener
Proponent of the Continental Drift Theory

Continental Drift Theory states that all continents were once one large landmass called
PANGAEA that broke apart into pieces and moved slowly to its current location.

Evolution of Pangaea
Permian (250 million years ago)
Triassic (200 million years ago)
Jurassic (145 million years ago)
Cretaceous (65 million years ago)
Present Day

Discontinuities Inside the Earth

- Conrad discontinuity: transition zone between upper and lower crust
- Mohorovicic discontinuity: transition zone between crust and uppermantle
- Repiti discontinuity: transition zone between upper and lower mantle
- Gutenberg discontinuity: transition zone between lower mantle and outer core
- Lehmann discontinuity: transition zone between outer and inner core
-

LESSON 4 EVIDENCES of CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

Continental Fit
- The Eastern edges of South America and Western edges of Africa can be fitted like a jigsaw
puzzle.

Fossil Evidence

🟧 Fossil remains of the Triassic land reptile Cynognathus.

🟫 Fossil evidence of the Triassic land reptile Lystrosaurus.
🟩 Fossils of the fem Glossopteris.
🟦 Fossil remains of the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus.
 - Fossilized leaves of an extinct plant Glossopteris were found in 260 million years old rocks
located in the continents of Southern Africa, Australia, India, and Antarctica, which are
now separated from each other by wide oceans.

- Fossils of Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus (Triassic land reptiles), and Mesosaurus

(freshwater reptile were also found in different continents.

Matching Rocks and Rock Formations

● Rock formations in South America (Santa Catalina system) line up with Africa (rock strata
of Karroo System) as if it was a long mountain range.
● The Ghana mountain ranges also line up with Brazil. Rocks samples from different
continents were also found to have the same age and composition which suggest that they
were of the same origin.
● Mountain belts that are separated by oceans have rocks that match in age and composition.
● Appalachians match range in Newfoundland

COAL DEPOSITS

- COAL forms from the compaction and decomposition of swamp plants in tropical areas.
- Coal deposits were found in Antarctica which suggests that it once had a warmer climate.
- Since the South Pole has never had a tropical climate, it must have been in a warmer
location than it is now. Antarctica must have been situated in a different location on the
planet.

Ancient Climates
- The discovery of coal deposits and glacial markings in some continents suggest that
although those areas are very far part now, they once had a very similar climate which are
different from now.

Glacial Markings/Striations

Ancient Climates:
- Glacial deposits were found in South America, Africa, India, and Australia. These
continents are presently not in cold climates, therefore must have been in a colder climate in
the past and the continents later moved to the positions they are presently in today.

Although " Wegener's theory was rejected by scientists because he could not explain what force
pushes or pulls continents.

What was the problem?

 - He could not find the force that was causing the continents to drift. Because of this, he
could not convince anyone that continents could move. He died in Greenland on an
expedition. At the time of his death, no one believed his hypothesis!

LESSON 5: SEAFLOOR SPREADING

HARRY HAMMOND HESS
- was a geologist and Navy submarine commander during World War II. Part of his mission
had been to study the deepest parts of the ocean floor in which he used

SONAR
In 1946 he had discovered that hundreds of flat-topped mountains, perhaps sunken islands, shape
the Pacific floor.

SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging)

• It is helpful for exploring and mapping the ocean with the use of sound waves.

Harry Hess and his team carefully examined maps of the mid-ocean ridge system.

SEAFLOOR SPREADING
is a geologic process in which tectonic plates (large slabs of Earth's lithosphere) split apart from
each other.

HARRY HAMMOND HESS, In 1960, American geophysicist. Harry Hammond Hess proposed that
the drifting continents were caused by spreading of seafloor that is why the continents drifted apart,
this what we know as Seafloor Spreading Theory.

Seafloor Spreading Theory

states that "new ocean crust is being created at mid-ocean ridges (which are large underwater
mountain chains) and destroyed in deep sea trenches."

According to Seafloor Spreading Theory

* Hot, less dense material below the Earth's crust rises towards the mid-ocean ridge.
* Magma flows sideways carrying seafloor away from the ridge, and creates a crack in the crust.
* The magma flows out of the crack, cools down and becomes the new seafloor.
* Overtime, the new ocean crust pushed the old oceanic crust far from the ridge and subducted.

Evidences of Seafloor Spreading

* Oldest rocks are found far from the mid-ocean ridge.
* Seafloor spreading and new crust is being created at the mid-ocean ridge.
* Sediments near the ocean ridge are thinner and progressively thickens as you move away.
Evidence of Seafloor Spreading The age, density, and thickness of oceanic crust increases with
distance from the mid-ocean ridge.

How Seafloor Spreading disproves Continental Drift Theory?

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

- Continents moved through unmoving oceans.

SEAFLOOR SPREADING THEORY

- The ocean itself is a site of tectonic activity.

• Seafloor spreading is a geologic process that occurs at divergent plate boundaries in which oceanic
crusts split apart and magma from the mantle to form new seafloor.

• The Earth doesn't expand in relation to seafloor spreading but rather the oldest part of the seafloor
usually undergoes subduction process and melts as it reaches the mantle in the subduction zone.

• The continuous process of seafloor spreading process caused the continents to drift apart providing
an explanation to continental drift theories mechanism.

Did you also know that…

- Seafloor spreading and subduction keeps the shape of the Earth.

- Seafloor spreading creates new crust while subduction destroys old crust.

- Seafloor spreading and subduction roughly balance each other, so the shape and diameter of the
Earth remain constant.

LESSON 6: Rate of Seafloor Spreading and MAGNETIC

REVERSAL
MAGNETIC REVERSAL
- It happens when the North Pole is transformed into the South Pole, and the South Pole
becomes the North Pole because of the changing direction of the flow of materials in the
Earth's liquid outer core.
- It is also called a magnetic 'flip' of the Earth.
By 1963, geophysicists realised that Earth's magnetic field had reversed polarity many times, with
each reversal lasting less than 200,000 years.

Curves of either side of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge showed a symmetrical pattern of alternating polarity
stripes.

Rocks of the same age in the seafloor crust would have taken on the magnetic polarity at the time
that part of the crust formed.

The crystalized irons in rocks found in the seafloor act as a magnetic compass that can tell the
Earth's magnetic field direction.

Seafloor spreading was strengthened with the discovery of the magnetic rocks near the ridge.

Rate of Seafloor Spreading Formula

RATE = DISTANCE/TIME

CONVERSION FACTOR
1 My = 1,000,000 yr.
1 km = 100,000 cm.

- If subduction is faster than seafloor spreading, the ocean shrinks.

- If seafloor spreading is faster than seafloor spreading, the ocean widens.

What do you think will happen to the size of the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean millions of
years from now?
The Atlantic Ocean will be bigger than the Pacific Ocean due to the divergence of plates in its
location.

LESSON 7 Earth's Mechanisms and Plate Tectonics Theory Earth's

Mechanisms

1. MANTLE CONVECTION CURRENT

 - It is a heat transfer process that occurs in the lower mantle where magma tends to rise as it
expands and sinks as it contracts due to the differences in the temperature and densities of
the magma.

Convection current happens in the mantle because of the heat generated by the core. The heat is
produced by the decay or breakdown of radioactive elements.

The temperature difference between the upper and lower mantle requires heat transfer
(CONVECTION CURRENT) to occur.

● The hot, less dense magma near the core slowly moves upward. Relatively cooler magma
from higher in the mantle slowly sinks toward the mantle.

● As the warmer magma rises, it also cools, eventually pushed aside by warmer magma and
sinking back toward near the core.

Mantle Convection Current Process

1. The magma in the mantle is heated by the decomposition of radioactive elements in the core.
2. Hot less dense magma rises beneath the crust and moves sideways.
3. As the magma cools down, it becomes denser and sinks towards the mantle.
4. With hot rising currents and cool sinking currents are regularly repeated and become a cycle, it
creates a convection current due to difference in temperature and densities of magma.

Plate Tectonics provides an explanation for Wegener's Continental Drift Theory.

The convection movement in the mantle moves the asthenosphere, carrying along the lithospheric
plates and drives plate motion.

2. SLAB PULL

- It is the pulling force exerted by a cold, dense oceanic plate plunging into the mantle due to
its own weight and gravity.
- As the slab is pulled down into the mantle, it drags the rest of the plate along with it causing
TECTONIC PLATE MOVEMENT .

3. RIDGE PUSH
- Lithosphere Gravitational force that causes a plate to move away from the crest of an ocean
ridge, and into a subduction zone.

Earth's Mechanism that Drives Plate Motion

- Convection current
 - Slab pull
- Ridge push

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

states that the Earth's solid lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates that move over the
asthenosphere slowly and results in the formation of geologic features and processes.

The Theory of Plate Tectonics helps explain the formation and destruction of the Earth's crust and
its movement over time. Scientists believe that the plates' movement is due to heat from the core
that resulted in convection currents in the mantle.

Continental Drift Theory Lacks an explanation on the causes of continental drift.

Seafloor Spreading Theory explains the causes of continental drift through seafloor spreading
process and magnetic reversal.

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY (Unifying Theory)

Explains the causes of plate movement through convection currents, slab pull, and ridge push.

How Seismic Waves Led to the Discovery of Earth's Layers?

DID YOU KNOW THAT...

Unlike surface waves, body waves can travel through the Earth’s inner layers. They are used by
scientists to study the Earth’s interior because of its high frequency.

Andria Mohorovicic (moh-haw-rohvuh-chich)

Yugoslavian Seismologist
- He found out that the velocity of seismic waves changes and increases at a distance of about
50 km below Earth's surface seismic waves
- P-waves are detected on the other side of the Earth opposite the focus.
- A P-wave shadow zone exists from 103° to 142°
- Since P-waves are detected until 103°, disappear from 103° to 142°, then reappear again,
something inside the Earth must be bending the P-waves
- The P-waves pass through the core and are detected on the far side of the Earth.

Indirect signals received in the P-wave shadow zone suggest that there is a solid inner core
deflecting some waves.

The discovery of Andrija Mohorovicic also led to the idea that....there is a difference in density
between the Earth's outermost layer (crust) and the layer that lies below it (mantle). The boundary
between these two layers is called Mohorovicié discontinuity in honour of Mohorovicic, and is short
termed as MOHO.
Beno Gutenberg (gu: t a n bErk)
German Seismologist

- According to him, the existence of a shadow zone could only be explained if the Earth
contained a core composed of a material different from that of the mantle causing the
bending of the P-waves.

● From the epicenter, S-waves are detected until 103°, from that point, S- waves are no longer
detected.

● That portion inside the Earth that does not conduct the propagation of S-wave is known as
the S-wave shadow zone which suggests that it must be made of liquid, thus the outer core.

The S-waves do not travel through liquids.

We know that the outer core is liquid because of the shadow it casts in S-waves.

To honor Beno Gutenberg, mantle-core boundary is called Gutenberg discontinuity

DR. INGE LEHMANN

Danish Seismologist
- She was known for her discovery of the Earth's inner core in 1936 by using seismic wave
data.

2ND QUARTER UNIT 1

LESSON 1: Electricity and Magnetism

ELECTRICITY - is the presence and motion of charged particles. Electricity is often described as
being either static (electrons are at rest) or dynamic (electrons are in motion).
MAGNETISM - is the study of magnetic fields and their effect on materials
MAGNETS - are objects capable of producing magnetic field and attracting unlike poles and
repelling like poles.
- A magnet can attract, or pull, some objects.
- A magnet will only attract objects made of iron or nickel. Magnets can attract objects
through solids, liquids and gases.
- The pull of a magnet gets weaker as it gets farther from an object.

Facts about magnets

• When a bar magnet is broken into smaller places, each small piece will have its own north and
south pole.

A bar magnet cut into halves always makes new, complete magnets with both a north and a south
pole. The poles always come in pairs. You can not separate a pair into single poles.

Properties of Magnet
- Attractive and repulsive force is maximum at the ends of the magnet. These ends are known
as magnetic poles
- Magnetic poles always exist in pairs.
- Magnet always points towards north-south direction.
- Pole pointing towards geographic north is known as the North Magnetic Pole and the pole
pointing towards geographic south is known as the South Magnetic Pole.
- Like poles repel while unlike poles attract.
- The magnetic force between the two magnets is greater when the distance between these
magnets are lesser.

A permanent magnetic produces its own magnetic field. Magnetism is an example of a non-contact
force. A force that the effects are seen without touching

Magnets and magnetic materials

Magnets attract objects made of magnetic materials. Magnetic materials include the elements iron,
nickel, cobalt, alloys containing some of these such as steel and some of their compounds.

Two types of Magnets:

1. Permanent Magnets
- Objects that are artificially magnetized.
- Exhibit strong magnetic properties.
2. Temporary Magnets
- They are made by stroke and electric methods.
- Loses their magnetic properties for a short time.

KEY CONCEPTS
• Magnets exert either a force of repulsion or attraction.
• If a force of attraction only is possible between an object and a magnet, then the object interacting
with the magnet contains a ferromagnetic substance and is considered naturally magnetic.
• If a force of repulsion is also possible between an object and a magnet, then the object interacting
with the magnet may also be a permanent magnet or a temporarily magnetized ferromagnetic
material.
ELECTRIC FIELD
ELECTRIC FIELD
A region around a charged particle or object within which a force would be exerted on other
charged particles or objects.
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
Electric field lines are an excellent way of visualizing electric fields.
- The electric field lines of an electric charge always start from a positive charge and end at a
negative charge.
- The electric field lines are closest and strongest near the electric charges.
- The electric field lines are directed away from the positive charge.
- The electric field lines are directed toward the negative charge.

MAGNETIC FIELD
● The space or region around a magnet (or a current carrying wire) within which its influence
can be felt (or magnetic force is experienced by another magnet
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
● The path (straight or curve) along which unit north pole moves in a magnetic field (if free to
do so)

Magnetic field lines are highest at the magnetic pole. The higher the magnetic field lines, the
stronger is the magnetic force.

MAGNETIC FLUX
● Magnetic Flux is a measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given
point.

The higher the magnetic field lines, the higher the magnetic flux.

The HIGHER the Magnetic Field Lines, the HIGHER the Magnetic Flux, and the
STRONGER the Magnetic Force.

MAGNETIC FIELD LINES AROUND A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR

Hans Christian Oersted

- A Danish physicist and chemist who discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields.
- He discovered that the magnetic needle of a compass deflects and aligns itself
perpendicularly to current- carrying wire.
A straight current-carrying conductor is held in exactly vertical direction with the magnetic field
lines surrounding it in concentric circles.

An electric coil, or electromagnetic coil, is an electrical conductor that contains a series of

conductive wires wrapped around a ferromagnetic core that is cylindrical, toroidal, or disk-like.

A solenoid is just one coil of wire, usually wound around an iron core, often used as an
electromagnet in a relay.
RIGHT - HAND GRIP RULE
- Direction of current It is used to determine the direction of the magnetic field ines around a
current-carrying conductor.

INDUCED MAGNETISM
INDUCED MAGNETISM
● An induced magnet only becomes a magnet when it is placed in a magnetic field.
● The induced magnetism is quickly lost when the magnet is removed from the magnetic
field.
MAGNETIZATION PROCESS
● The method of developing the properties of a magnet in a magnetic substance is known as
magnetization
DEMAGNETIZATION PROCESS
● Hitting a magnet heavily by hammer.
● Heating a magnet at high temperature.
● Placing two magnets with same poles facing each other.
ELECTROMAGNETISM
It is a process where a magnetic field is created by introducing the electric current in the conductor.
As the negative charges move in a current-carrying wire, it produces the magnetic field along the
wire.
ELECTROMAGNET
It is a kind of magnet where the magnetic field is created by an electric current.

Electromagnets can be considered as a temporary magnet that functions with the help of an electric
current.

The magnetic strength of an electromagnet can be easily altered by varying the amount of electric
current and its polarity can be changed by varying the direction of the electric current.

Examples of Electromagnet Applications:

- Electric Doorbells
 - Electric Locks
- Loudspeakers
- Earphones

Electric Motor
A device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy usually through the rotation of an
electromagnet in the field of stationary magnet.

BASIC PARTS OF AN ELECTRIC MOTOR

STATOR
It consists of field magnet that helps produce torque on the rotating armature.
ARMATURE /ROTOR
It is the rotating part of an electric motor which consists of coils of wire.
Split-Ring COMMUTATOR
It is the rotating interface of the armature that reverses electric current.
BRUSHES STATOR
It conducts electric current to the commutator.
TERMINALS
it connects the electric motor to the power source.
POWER SOURCE
It supplies DC electric current to the armature or field coils.

Uses of an Electric Motor

• Drills
• Water Pumps
• Hard Disc Drives
• Washing Machines
• Industrial Equipment

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

MICHAEL FARADAY

● An English scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and

electrochemistry.
● His main discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction,
diamagnetism and electrolysis.
● He experimented by wrapping two insulated coils of wire around an iron ring.
GALVANOMETER
- A galvanometer is a device that is used to detect and measures small amount of electric
current.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
- Electromagnetic Induction is a current produced because of voltage production
(electromotive force) due to a changing magnetic field.
- This either happens when a conductor is placed in a moving magnetic field (when using an
AC power source) or when a conductor is constantly moving in a stationary magnetic field.

GENERATOR
• It is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
TRANSFORMERS
• Transformer is a device that changes AC electrical power at one voltage level into AC electrical
power at another voltage level through the action of magnetic field, but with a proportional increase
or decrease in the current ratings without a change in frequency.
STEP-UP TRANSFORMER
• A step-up transformer is a transformer that increases step up transformer the voltage from the
primary coil to the secondary coil while managing the same power at the rated frequency in both
coils.
• It converts low voltage & high current from the primary side to the high voltage & low current on
the secondary side of the transformer.
STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER
• A step-down transformer is a type of transformer that converts the high voltage (HV) and low
current from the primary side of the transformer to the low voltage (LV) and high current value on
the secondary side of the transformer.

TRANSFORMER EQUATION

Vp/Vs = Np/Ns

Vp = Voltage in primary coil

Vs = Voltage in Secondary Coil
Np = Number of turns of wire in primary coil
Ns = Number of turns of wire in secondary coil

UNIT 2
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY
Developement of Electromagnetic Wave Theory
HANS CHRICTIAN OERSTED showed how current-carrying wires oenaves live magnet
ANDRE MARIE AMPERE
Demonstrated the magnetic effect on the direction of electric current
MICHAEL FARADAY
formulated the principle benind electromagnetic induction
JAMES CLERCK MAXWELL
contributed in developing the theory that showed the relationship of electricity and magnetism
HEINRICH HERTZ
showed experimental evidence of electromagnetic waves and its link to light

ELECTROMAGNETIE WAVE THEORY

"Any acceleration of an electric charge
change in magnetic field produces
electromagnetic waves."

Basic Principles of Electromagnetic Wave Theory

1. Many natural phenomena exhibit wave - like behaviors. All of them, water waves,
earthquake waves, and sound waves require a medium. to propagase. pnese are exámples of
meenapical waves
2. light can also be described as a wave. a wave of changing electric and magnetic field that
propagate outward from their sources. these waves, however, do not require a medium to
propagate.
3. They propagate at 300,000, 000 meter per second through a vacuum.
4. Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. In simple terms. the changing electric and
magnetic fields oscillate perpendicular te each other and to the direction of the propagating
wave. These changing electric and magnetic fields generate each other. w Faraday's Law of
Induction and Ampere' Law of Electromagnetism. These changing fields dissociate from
the oscillating charge and propagate out into space at the speed of lignt:
5. When the oscillating charge accelerates, the moving charges electric fields change, too.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES are produced by accelerating electrons. It has electric field and
magnetic fields that oscillate perpendicular to each other and
to the direction of propagating wave.

Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric field couples with a magnetic field
PROPERTIES of Electromagnetic Waves

1) All EM waves are transverse waves.

2) They travel at the speed of light in a vacuum at 300, 000, 000 meters per second.
3) They can travel in a vacuum (do not require a medium)
4) Obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
5) They differ from each other in wavelength, frequency, energy, and size.

Wavelength is the distance between two successive crests.

Frequency is the number of waves within a given period of time.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM is the continuum of all electromagnetic waves that are

arranged based on frequency, wavelength, and energy.

There are 7 forms of EM waves. These includes:

- radio waves,
- microwaves,
- infrared,
- visible light,
- Ultraviolet,
- X-rays
- gamma rays

Electromagnetic wave are arranged in an electromagnetic spectrum according to the decreasing

wavelength, and increasing frequency and photon energy.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES HAVE DIFFERENT

WAVELENGTHS AND FREQUENCIES

• Radio Waves have the longest wavelength, lowest frequency, lowest energy
• Gamma Rays have the shortest wavelength, highest frequency, highest energy

RADIO WAVES

➢ Longest EM wave
➢ With lowest frequency and energy
➢ Discovered by Hertz
Uses:

• TV broadcasting
• AM and FM radio broadcasting • Cell phone communication
• MRI imaging

Before Heinrich Hertz discovered radio waves, the communication solely depends on the electric
current that travels through wires.

Modulation and Demodulation

• Modulation is the process of influencing data information on the carrier, while demodulation is the
recovery of original information at the distant end of the carrier.
• A modem is an equipment that performs both modulation and demodulation.
• Both processes aim to achieve transfer information with the minimum distortion, minimum loss,
and efficient utilization of spectrum.

RF Carrier Wave Modulation

- AM amplitude modulation
- FM frequency modulation

AM RADIO
- In AM, amplitude changes but frequency does not.
- AM frequencies range from 540,000 Hz to 1,6000,000 Hz usually listed in kHz.

FM RADIO
- In FM radio stations transmit broadcast information by changing the frequency of the
carrier wave. The strength of FM waves is always the same and is in megahertz.
Mega=million

Did you know that...

FREQUENCY is an important characteristics of radio wave. AM broadcast frequency is about

1,000,000 cycles per second (Hertz). For example, when you tune in to your favorite AM radio
station at 630 on the dial, the radio is tuning to the radio wave with the frequency of 630,000 cycles
per second! On the other hand, FM radio operates on 100,000,000 cycles per second. So, when you
turn to 101.1 FM, your radio is tuning to 101,100,000 cycles per second frequency.

Radio Wave Reception

Radio frequency signal passes through a demodulator that separates the amplitude frequency and
radio frequency from the carrier wave. Electronic devices like radio and TV have a receiving
antenna that receives radio waves from the transmitting antenna of a station.

Radio Frequencies

- AM and FM radio broadcasts, Wi-Fi signals, cell phones, amateur radio, television and
airport security scanners use radio frequency (RF) waves. This type of non-ionizing
radiation is absorbed throughout the body. The effects of RF waves on the body are similar
to MW radiation in terms of heat generation.

- Exposure to electromagnetic fields in this frequency range can warm up exposed tissues
because these absorb the radio wave and convert these into heat. The frequency level
determines the depth of penetration into the body. For example, using a cell phone causes
the ear and/or head to get warm. Warming up by this radiation is the most dangerous for the
brain, eyes, genitals, stomach, liver and kidneys.

- Like MW radiation, RF waves are divided into categories: high frequency (HF), medium
frequency (MF), low frequency (LF) and very low frequency (VLF). There is no scientific
proof that RF non-ionizing radiation increases the risk of cancer or causes any harmful
effects on the body.

Television
● Uses radio waves to send electronic signals in a carrier wave.
● Sound is sent by FM; color and brightness is sent at the same time by AM signals.
●
TV Broadcasting
● A video signal causes the electron beams to focus on a screen coated with fluorescent
materials.

Telephones
Sound waves -> microphone -> electric signal -> radio waves - transmitted to and from microwave
tower - receiver -› electric signal -> speaker -> sound wave

HOW DO CORDLESS PHONES WORK?

• Cell phones and cordless telephones are transceivers, device that transmits one signal & receives
another radio signal from a base unit.
• You can talk and listen at the same time because the two signals are at different frequencies.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

MRI uses short wave radio waves with a magnet to create an image.
Guglielmo Marconi
1874-1937
He invented the wireless telegraph, the first device that uses EM waves and Morse code to transmit
messages.

MICROWAVES
• Wavelengths from 1 mm to 1 m
• Shorter wavelength, and greater frequency and energy than radio waves

Uses:
• Microwave ovens
• Bluetooth headsets
• Broadband Wireless Internet
• Radar
• GPS
Used in microwave ovens.
Waves transfer energy to the water in the food causing them to vibrate which in turn transfers
energy in the form of heat to the food.

RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)

Used to find the speed of an object by sending out radio waves and measuring the time it takes them
to return.

Communication Satellites
• A radio or TV station sends microwave signals to the satellite which amplifies the signal and sends
it back to a different place on Earth.
• Satellite uses different frequencies to send & receive.

Global Positioning System

• GPS is a system of 24 satellites, ground monitoring stations and portable receivers that determine
your exact location on Earth.
• GPS receiver measures the time it takes for radio waves to travel from 4 different satellites to the
receiver.
• The system is owned and operated by the US Dept of Defense, but the microwaves can be used by
anyone.

INFRARED
• Wavelengths in between microwaves and visible light
• Greater frequency and energy than microwave.
* Uses:
• Night vision goggles
• Remote controls
• Thermal scanner

Infrared waves

• Invisible electromagnetic waves that are detected as heat.

• Can be detected with special devices such as night goggles.
• Used in heat lamps
• Higher energy than microwaves but lower than visible light.

Thermogram is a picture that shows regions of different temperatures in the body. Temperatures are
calculated by the amount of infrared radiation given off.

VISIBLE LIGHT
● Shorter wavelength than Infrared
● Higher frequency and energy
● Visible light is the only EM wave that can be seen by our naked eyes.

Visible Light Uses:

• allows for seeing the world
• used in photosynthesis
• photography

ULTRAVIOLET
- Shorter wavelengths than visible light but higher frequency and energy

Examples:
- Sun
- Black lights
- Tanning beds
- UV sterilizers
- Security images on money

Ultraviolet Uses:
• Identification of counterfeit banknotes
• Treatment of skin complaints
• Energy-efficient lamp
• Kill bacteria in food and surgical instruments
• Helps in the production if Vitamin D and absorption of calcium
 - Used to kill bacteria. (Sterilization of equipment)
- Causes your skin to produce vitamin D (good for teeth and bones)
- Too much can cause skin cancer.
- Use sun block to protect against (UV rays)
UVA
• Ultraviolet A (315 to 400 nanometers) gets through our atmosphere
• Leads to premature aging of skin
• Can lead to some types of cancer
• Nickname: "UV Aging"

UVB
• Ultraviolet B (280 to 315 nanometers) is partly absorbed by the atmosphere
• UVB helps our bodies produce Vitamin D. And
Vitamin D is good for us.
• But too much UVB can cause sunburn, damage to our eyes and is the most common cause of skin
cancer
• Nickname: "UV Burning"

UVC
• Ultraviolet C (100 to 280 nanometers) is completely absorbed by the atmosphere
• is very dangerous to us
• but since none gets through to us from the Sun it is not a problem

X-RAYS
• Shorter wavelength than Ultraviolet but with higher frequency and energy.
• It can penetrates flesh but not bones and teeth.

> Too much exposure to x-rays can damage healthy living cells and cause cancer.
> Discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen

X-RAYS Uses:
-Medical imaging (X-ray machine)
-Airport security

Bones and teeth absorb X-rays. (The light part of an x-ray image indicates a place where the x-ray
was absorbed)

Too much exposure can cause cancer (lead vest at dentist protects organs from unnecessary
exposure)
X-ray is used by engineers to check for tiny cracks in structures. The rays pass through the cracks
and the cracks appear dark on film.

GAMMA RAYS
> Shortest wavelength
> Highest frequency
> Highest energy
> Emitted by starts, sun, and other radioactive substances.
> Can only be blocked with lead and concrete.

GAMMA RAYS Uses:

• Sterilizes medical equipment
• Cancer treatment to kill cancer cells
• Radiation therapy

- Gamma ray is used in radiation treatment to kill cancer cells.

- Can be very harmful if not used correctly.

SUMMARY (EM WAVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS/USES)

RADIO WAVES
Radio and television communication

MICROWAVES
Satellite communication, terrestrial communications, RADAR, microwave oven

INFRARED
Remote control, infrared scanner, night-vision google, autofocus camera, thermogram

VISIBLE LIGHT
Photosynthesis, artificial lighting, optical fibers in medical uses, screen of electronic devices

ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
Sterilization of water from drinking fountain, check signatures on a passbook, used to identify fake
banknotes

X-RAYS
Medical use, engineering applications
GAMMA RAYS
Medical treatment, radiotherapy, nuclear reactions

IONIZING AND NON-IONIZING RADIATION

IONIZING RADIATION
- is characterized with shorter wavelength, higher frequency, and higher energy. It has a
frequency of 3 x 1016 Hz and above
- It includes X-ray, Gamma ray
- Excessive exposure can cause severe damage to living organisms.
- It can alter the molecules within the cells and may cause cell damage, cancer, and death.

NON-IONIZING RADIATION
- is characterized with longer wavelength, lower frequency, and lower energy. The frequency
range for this is from 3x10^9 Hz to 3x10^16 Hz.
- It includes Radio wave, Microwave, Infrared, Visible light and Ultraviolet ray.
- It does not have enough energy to remove electrons from atoms and molecules.
- Its effect to humans is generally thermal damage.

UNIT 3
MIRRORS
Reflection of light occurs when a ray of light approaches a smooth polished surface and the light
ray bounces back.

Mirrors
It is made of glass which is coated with a uniform layer of a highly reflective material such as
powder. This reflective surface reflects almost all the light incident on it uniformly.

IMAGE -› a visual representation or projection of an object in front of a mirror which is a result of

reflection.

LAWS of REFLECTION:

• The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal line all lie in the same plane
• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Types of Reflection of Light

• Regular reflection / Specular reflection
• Irregular reflection / Diffused reflection
• Multiple reflection

Multiple reflection of light is the reflection of light back and forth through reflecting surfaces
several times.

Multiple Reflection
As the angle between two mirrors decreases, the number of images formed increases. Parallel
mirrors produce infinite number of images

Number of images = 360° / angle between mirrors — 1

Image Formation by a Plane Mirror

What you see when you look into a plane (flat) mirror is a virtual image, which appears to be behind
the mirror.

Characteristics of Image Formed by a PLANE MIRROR

• Virtual image
• Upright/erect image
• Same size So = Si (The size of the object is equal to the size of the image.) The distance of the
image from the mirror is equal to the distance of the object from the mirror.
do = di
• Laterally inverted / Left-Right reversal

Left-Right Reversal / Lateral Inversion

The phenomenon of the left side appearing right side and the right side appearing left side on
reflection in a plane mirror.

Spherical Mirrors

Spherical mirrors are shaped like sections of a sphere, and may be reflective on either the inside
(concave) or outside (convex).

Characteristics of Images formed by a CONVEX Mirror

At any locations of object, the image formed in a convex mirror is always virtual, upright/erect, and
smaller.

Uses of Concave Mirrors

• Concave mirrors are used in torches, search lights and head lights of vehicles to get parallel beams
of light.
• They are used as shaving mirrors to see larger image of the face.
• They are used by dentists to see larger images of the teeth.
Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces.

Uses of Convex Mirrors

• Convex mirrors show a wide range of view with their smaller virtual image
• Used in:
• Security mirrors
• Side-view mirrors in cars
LENSES
A lens is a piece of transparent glass which concentrates or disperses light rays when passed
through them by refraction.

Light rays passing through a lens always bend toward the thickest part of the lens

REFRACTION is the bending of light as it passes from one transparent substance into another.
(Refraction of light occurs in lenses)

3RD QUARTER
Coordinated Functions of the Nervous, Endocrine, and
Reproductive Systems

GONADS
● The male gonad is the pair of testes which secretes the hormone testosterone. This is
responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics in males. The female gonad consists of
a pair of ovaries. They secrete two hormones estrogen and progesterone. Both of these
regulate secondary sexual characteristics in females.

Hormonal Imbalance
● It happens when a person have much or too little of one or more hormones. It can result to
different hormone-related conditions and hormonal disorders.

Hormonal Disorder
● It occurs when a gland produces too much or too little of a hormone. It can be caused by
many things including being exposed to certain chemical in the environment.
Growth Hormone
• Oversecretion of growth hormone:
- Gigantism in childhood and acromegaly in adults (bones of face, hands and feet enlarge)
• Undersecretion of growth hormone:
- Dwarfism in childhood

OSTEOPOROSIS
● Parathyroid hormone (PTH) has a significant effect on bone metabolism, triggering both
bone resorption and bone formation, depending on which cell-types are activated and the
temporal pattern of activation.

Iodine deficiency in your diet results in goiter (enlargement of thyroid gland)

GOITER
● Can occur in a gland that is producing too much thyroxin (hyperthyroidism), too little
thyroxin (hypothyroidism), or the correct amount of hormone (euthyroidism). A goiter
indicates that there is a condition present which is causing the thyroid to grow abnormally.

OBESITY
● Are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to health.

Adrenaline Hormone
● Undersecretion of adrenaline results in the inability to deal with stress.

Blood Sugar Regulation

• Oversecretion of insulin results in low blood sugar
• Undersecretion of insulin results in high blood sugar
- This can lead to a condition known as diabetes.

Diabetes-Type 1
Type 1- Usually found in children and young adults; the body doesn't make enough insulin

Diabetes-Type 2
Type 2- Either the body doesn't produce enough insulin, or the cells ignore it.

Endocrine System Control

Regulated by feedback mechanisms

Male Reproductive System Testes

● The testes are organs within the scrotum each about 4-5 cm long and are composed of cone-
shaped lobules that contain seminiferous tubules, in which sperm cells develop.
Scrotum
● It consists of skin. In cold temperatures, the scrotum becomes firm and wrinkled, reducing
the overall size of the scrotum.

Epididymis.
● It is a tightly coiled series of thread-like tubules that form a comma-shaped structure on the
posterior side of the testes. The sperm cells continue to mature along this tube.

Vas deferens
● Fromthe epididymis, the sperm moves to this tube up to the ampulla of the ductus deferens.
The wall of this tube is composed of smooth muscles.

Ejaculatory Duct
● The ejaculatory duct connects into the prostate gland and ends by joining the urethra within
the prostate gland.

Urethra
● It is a pathway for both urine and male reproductive fluids but these do not exit the urethra
at the same time.

Penis
● It is the organ for copulation and it functions in the transfer of sperm cells from the male to
the vagina of the female.

Spermatozoa / Sperm Cell

● The head of the sperm contains the DNA, which when. combined with the egg's DNA, will
create a new individual. The tip of the sperm head is the portion called the acrosome, which
enables the sperm to penetrate the egg. The midpiece contains the mitochondria which
supplies the energy the tail needs to move.

Semen
● is composed of sperm cells and seminal fluids. The seminal fluids protects and nourishes
the sperm cells.

Testosterone: The Male Sex Hormone

● Moreover, testosterone is responsible for a male's muscular strength. This is why some
athletes take steroids that contain testosterone or other similar compounds. However, taking
steroids have been. proven to produce harmful effects and it may even result to mental
problems.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Ovary
● It acts as the main female sex organs that produce the female gamete and various hormones.

Oviduct/ Fallopian Tube

● They are enclosed in small projections called fimbriae that swipe over the ovaries to pick up
released ova and deliver them to the infundibulum for supplying the uterus.

Uterus
● A uterus is also called the womb. It is a muscular, inverted pear-shaped organ of the female
reproductive system.

Cervix
● It is the lower constricted part of the uterus that is divided into two portions. The cervical
canal along with the vagina creates the birth canal.

Vagina
● It is a muscular and elastic tube that connects the cervix to the external body. It functions as
the receptacle for the penis in sexual intercourse and delivers sperm to the fallopian tubes
and uterus.

External Genitalia
● It contains the vestibule and its surrounding structures. Vestibule is the space into which the
vagina and urethra open. A pair of thin, longitudinal skin folds called the labia minora
borders the vestibule. A smal erectile structure called the clitoris is located in the anterior
margin of the vestibule. The two labia minora unite over the clitoris to form a fold of skin
called the prepuce skin.

HORMONES
● Chemical messengers that the endocrine glands produce and are released directly into the
bloodstream, which carries them to organs and tissues of the body to exert their functions.

SEX HORMONES
● Chemical messengers that control sexual development and reproduction. It is produced by
the gonads, testes in males and ovaries in females.

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)

● hormone passes in the urine of a pregnant woman. It is the same hormone detected in
pregnancy tests. If the embryo is abnormal or if it dies, HCG will drop and the endometrium
will disintegrate causing a woman to have a miscarriage.

PUBERTY
 ● The time when one's body goes through many changes - growing both physically and
emotionally from a child into a teenager and eventually into an adult.

MENSTRUATION
● A normal vaginal bleeding that occurs as part of a woman's monthly menstrual cycle in
preparation for pregnancy.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
● This cycle occurs every month from the first onset of menstruation (menarche) which could
happen when a female is between 10 to 13 years old (puberty stage). The monthly cycle
continues for about 40 years old until it stops (menopause) due to decreased amount of
female sex hormones.

MENSTRUAL PHASE
● Menstrual fluid flows out from the uterus to the vagina due to the breakdown of the
endometrium of the uterus.

Menstrual cramps
• is caused by the contraction of the uterine lining (endometrium) during menstrual cycle.

FOLLICULAR PHASE
● The release of gonadotropins (GnRH) from the hypothalamus increases the LH and FSH
secreted by the pituitary gland. This causes follicular growth in the ovaries and the growing
follicles to produce estrogen from ovaries.

OVULATION PHASE
● The Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating hormone (FSH) are at their peak in
the middle of the cycle (14th day), and cause the rupture of the Graffian follicles (matured
follicle) to release ovum.

LUTEAL PHASE
● Endometrium thickens and develop more blood vessels to prepare for a fertilized egg.

Menstrual fluid
● is composed of uterine lining, blood,unfertilized egg, and vaginal fluid.

MENOPAUSE
● It occurs if a woman has gone through 12 consecutive months with no menstrual period.
The ovaries lose their sensitivity to FSH and LH and the female reproductive cycles slow to
a stop.

FEEDBACK MECHANISM
 ● is the process through which the level of one substance influences the level of another
substance.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK
● is the rate of process to produce and increase the production of certain hormones that
causes. the secretion of the other hormones.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
● is the process that prevents or controlled the accumulation of the product, this means that it
decreases the hormones release in the positive feedback.

HOMEOSTASIS
● any self-regulating process by which an organism tends to maintain stability while adjusting
to conditions that are the best for its survival.
● a process through which the level of one substance influences the level of another
substance.

UNIT 2
Contraceptive Measures

Contraception
It is the intentional prevention of conception through the use of various devices, sexual practices,
chemicals, drugs, or surgical procedures. Hence, any device or act that prevents a woman from
becoming pregnant can be considered a contraceptive.

Traditional or Natural Contraception Methods

1. Rhythm (calendar) method: Women monitor their pattern of the menstrual cycle (includes
fertility awareness-based methods, periodic abstinence).
2. Withdrawal (coitus interruptus): Man withdraws his penis from his partner's vagina and
ejaculates outside the vagina, keeping semen away from her external genitalia.

Advantages of the traditional method:

1. It is free.
2. Does not involve the use of drugs or any medical procedure.
Disadvantages:
1. Offers no protection against sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).
2. It is not very effective in preventing pregnancy.
3. It requires keeping track of the female's menstrual cycle.
4. The withdrawal method requires self-control and patience. (Brian & Christa, 2012).

Modern methods of contraception are ways in which a person uses a hormonal or non-hormonal
product or undergoes a medical procedure to hinder or prevent reproduction from sexual
intercourse
(Hubacher & Trussell, 2015).

Male condom: This is a sheath or covering that fits over a man's erect penis. It also protects against
sexually transmitted infections, including HIV.

Female condom: This is a plastic pouch-like device inserted in the vagina before sex that offers
clitoral stimulation.

Oral contraceptive pill: Contains either estrogen and progestogen, or progestogen-only. They are
to be taken daily, preventing the release of eggs from the ovaries.

Intrauterine devices (IUD): They are small flexible plastic devices containing copper sleeves or
wire inserted into the uterus. Some devices steadily release small amounts of levonorgestrel each
day. This is usually inserted and removed by healthcare providers. It can be used for 3-5 years
depending on the implant.

Implant: They are small, flexible rods or capsules placed under the skin of the upper arm of a
female; it contains either estrogen and progestogen, or progestogen-only. It is inserted and removed
by healthcare providers. It can also be used for 3-5 years depending on the implant.

Injectable: These are injected into the muscle or under the skin every 1, 2 or 3 months, depending
on the type of product. The injection contains a synthetic version of the hormone progestogen. It is
given into a woman's buttock or the upper arm, and over the next 12 weeks the hormone is slowly
released into your bloodstream.

Emergency Contraception Pill (The 'Morning After' Pill)

It can be used to prevent pregnancy after intercourse if contraception wasn't used or a woman has
been sexually assaulted. The sooner it is taken, the more effective it is. This pill contains special
doses of female hormones.

Contraceptive Ring
It is a flexible plastic ring that constantly releases hormones when placed in the vagina. The ring
releases the hormones estrogen and progestogen. These are the same hormones used in the
combined oral contraceptive pill, but at a lower dose. It stays in place for three weeks.

Diaphragm and Spermicides

It is a soft cap silicone dome-shaped cap that is fitted into the vagina to cover the cervix. It prevents
sperms from entering the uterus and must be left for about 6 hours after sexual intercourse. This
method is much more effective when used in combination with a spermicidal cream which
inactivates the sperm.

Male Sterilization
Permanent contraception done to block or cut the vas deferens tubes that carry sperm from the
testicles to the penis (also known as vasectomy).

Female sterilization
This is a permanent contraception method that is done to block or cut the fallopian tubes (also
known as tubal ligation).

Each ovary still releases an egg but since it cannot travel through the fallopian tube to meet the
sperm, it will be already be absorbed by the body. The tubal ligation procedure doesn't affect
menstrual cycle. The woman still keeps having menstrual periods until menopause.

Advantages of the Modern Contraceptive Measures

1. Female and male condoms offer protection against

STDs and are very easy to purchase.
2. Condoms can be used alongside other birth control methods.
3. Contraceptive pills are quite effective in preventing pregnancies and do not interrupt sexual
activities.
4. IUDs are long-lasting and may reduce menstrual cramps and flow.
5. Male and female sterilization is highly effective.
6. Implants are also very effective and can prevent pregnancy.

Disadvantages of the Modern Contraceptive Measures

1. Condoms may not be as effective as other birth control methods.
2. Contraceptive pills must be taken daily and do not offer protection against STDs.
3. Pain is experienced when inserting and removing IUDs and it may slip out of place.
4. Male and female sterilization requires surgery which is costly and cannot be reversed.

Effects of Contraceptive Use

1. Irregular bleeding
2. Breast tenderness.
3. Change in appetite or weight gain:
4. Depression
5. Hair loss or increased hair on face or body
6. Headache/migraine
7. Nausea
8. Change in sexual desire
9. Irritation of the vagina

Advantages of Contraception
• Prevents unintended pregnancies
• Achieve healthy spacing of births
• reduces the need for unsafe abortion and reduces
HIV transmissions from mothers to newborns
• benefit the education of girls and create opportunities for women to participate more fully in
society
• Preventing HIV / AIDS

Contraceptive information and services

are fundamental to the health and
human rights of all individuals.

Teenage pregnancies are a global issue but most often occur in poorer and marginalized
communities. Many girls face considerable pressure to marry early and become mothers while they
are still children themselves.

Teenage pregnancy increases when girls are denied the right to make decisions about their sexual
and reproductive health and well-being.

Girls must be able to make their own decisions about their bodies and futures, understand the
effects of teenage pregnancy, and have access to appropriate healthcare services and
comprehensive sexuality education.

What causes teenage pregnancy?

• Lack of information about sexual and reproductive health and rights.
• Inadequate access to services tailored to young people.
• Family, community and social pressure to marry.
• Sexual violence.
• Child, early and forced marriage, which can be both a cause and a consequence.

UNIT 3
 EVOLUTION
Paleontology
is the study of the history of life on Earth. It focuses on fossils, which are the remains of plants,
animals, and other living things that have been replaced by rock material or whose impressions have
been preserved in rock.
Paleontologist
is a scientist who studies the fossilized remains of all kinds of organisms and is interested in
knowing the history of organic life

ARTHUR HOLMES
A British geologist who published the first geologic time scale that included absolute dates in 1913.

Geologic Time Scale

> shows the major events in earth history and the appearance of various kinds of an organism in a
particular Period and Era.
> scientists develop the geologic time scale out of the examination of layers of rocks and dating
fossils

Fossil
are traces of organisms that lived in the past and
were preserved by natural process or catastrophic events They can be remains of organisms which
include bones, shells, teeth, Feathers. eaves and feces
embedded in rocks, peat, resin, and ice

EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

Fossil Record
It is a group of fossils which has been analyzed and arranged chronologically and taxonomically.

Comparative Anatomy
It is the study of the similarity and dissimilarity of the structure of different species.

Homologous Structure
It is an example of an organ or bone with similar underlying anatomical features found in different
animals. These structures support the idea that the different animals descend from a common
ancestor and serve as evidence of evolution.

In evolution, they are body parts of species that have similar features, indicating a common ancestor
or same developmental origin.
Analogous Structure
are structures that are similar in unrelated organisms. The structures are similar because they
evolved to do the same job, not because they were inherited from
a common ancestor. For example, the wings of bats and birds

Convergent Evolution
An evolutionary process in which unrelated organisms evolve structures, traits, or morphological
features that have the same function

Embryological Development
Embryology is the study of the anatomy development of an organism to its adult form.

Structures that are absent among adults of some groups often appear during their embryonic forms.

An embryo is an early stage of development among organisms. As such, embryonic development

includes stages such as blastula. gastrula, and organogenesis.

Genetic Information
is an evidence of evolution which organisms basic
have the heredity units for all life that consists of similar nucleotides and proteins.

Cytochrome C is a respiratory enzvme located inside the mitochondria.

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
(1744-1829)

● He was a French naturalist who worked in the vertebrate animal collection of the Natural
History Museum of Paris.
● Using fossil records as his reference, he developed three theories namely: theory of need,
the theory of use and disuse and the theory of acquired characteristics

Lamarck's Theories of Evolution

1. Theory of Need
2. Theory of Use and Disuse
3. Theory of Acquired Characteristics

Charles Darwin
(1809-1882)
• He established a theory of evolution based on variation, competition, and survival in the living
world by studying careful observations made on a sailing trip around the world.

"The Origin of Species"

(1859)
- In his book, "The origin of species, Darwin presented his Theory of Evolution based on
Natural Selection.

Evolution is a change in a population over time. The alteration in an organism's population was
explained by natural selection, the mechanism for evolution. It includes the influence of the
environment on the collection of useful inheritable characteristics known as adaptation as well as
the struggle for existence.

Proponents of Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

● Charles Darwin
● Alfred Russel Wallace

"It is not the strongest of the species that survive, nor the most intelligent, but rather the one
most adaptable to change.”

UNIT 4
ECOSYSTEM

ECOSYSTEM

- An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as
weather and landscape, work together to form bubble of life.

Ecosystems contain biotic or living parts, as well as abiotic factors or nonliving parts. Ecosystems
can be very large or very small.

BIODIVERSITY
• refers to the variety and extent of differences among living things found in a place on Earth. Also
called biological diversity

TYPES of BIODIVERSITY
Genetic diversity
variety of genes and traits available within a species
Species diversity
variety of species within an ecosystem
Ecological diversity
variety of habitats, ecosystems, communities

Species biodiversity - refers to the variety of species present in a particular area. habitat ecosystem

Ecological Stability - can be described as the resilience to withstand changes that may occur in the
environment. Capability of a natural system to apply self-regulating mechanisms so as to return to a
steady state after an outside disturbance

Adaptation - evolutionary process wherein organisms become well suited to live in a particular
habitat

BIODIVERSITY VALUES
1. DIRECT ECONOMIC VALUE - id their products are sources of food, medicine, clothing,
shelter and energy.
2. INDIRECT ECONOMIC VALUE - if there are benefits produced by the organism without using
them.
3. AESTHETIC VALUE - if it provides visual or artistic enjoyment, like a forested landscape and
the calming beauty of a natural park.

Adaptation and
Survival of Organisms in Changing Environment

THREE KINDS OF ADAPTATION

1. Structural Adaptation - these are the physical adaptations or the physical changes in an animal.

Examples: Giraffe's long neck helps them reach tall trees, skunk's body releases spray when
threatened, and some plants have thick leaves to store water.

2. Physiological Adaptation - internal and/or cellular features of an organism that enable them to
survive in their environment

Example: Snakes produce poisonous venom to ward off predators and capture prey.

3. Behavioral Adaptation - involves the wav an animal acts or behaves to survive in their biome

Examples: The white-tailed antelope squirrel lives in an underground burrow to stav cool.
RELATIONSHIP OF BIODIVERSITY TO STABILITY
The diversity-stability hypothesis states that ecosystems with greater species diversity are more
stable. Increased alpha diversity (the number of species present) generally leads to greater stability,
meaning an ecosystem that has a greater number of species is more likely to withstand a disturbance
than an ecosystem of the same size with a lower number of species

Population Growth and

Carrying Capacity

Population Growth
A change in the size of a population over time. It can be either positive or negative depending on the
balance of births and deaths

Carrying Capacity
The maximum number of individuals (of that species) that the environment can carry and sustain,
considering its geography or physical features.

ECOLOGICAL STABILITY
The capability of a natural system to apply self-regulating mechanisms so as to return to a steady
state after an outside disturbance.

By 2050, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) aims for everyone to live in a world where
"biodiversity is valued, conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services,
sustaining a healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for all people."

"HUMANS must realize that in order to survive, we must handle the NATURE with care."

4TH QUARTER
Properties of Gases
A gas is a collection of particles in constant, rapid, random motion (sometimes referred to as
'Brownian' motion).

Nature of Gases

There are five major phases of matter: solids, liquids, gases, plasmas and Bose Einstein Condensate.
All states of matter differ in their properties based on the arrangement of their particles. Solid
particles are tightly packed, usually in a regular pattern, liquid particles are close together with no
regular arrangement, while gas particles are well separated with no regular arrangement.
• Gases expand to fill any container.
• Gases are fluids (like liquids).
• Gases have very low densities.
• Gases can be compressed.
Gases undergo diffusion & effusion.

A. The monatomic gases

1. Не
2. Kr
3. Xe
4. Ne

B. The diatomic molecules

1. H2
2. N2
3. 02
4. F2
5. Cl2
6. 12;

C. The compound gases

1. CO2
2. NO
3. CHa
4. NOz
5. CO
6. NH3

Kinetic Molecular Theory

About 1860, Ludwig Boltzmann and James Maxwell, who were working in different countries, each
proposed a model to explain the properties of gases.
That model came to be known as the Kinetic Molecular Theory because all names of the model
refer to molecules. The word kinetic comes from a Greek word which means "to move". And so,
objects in motion have an energy called kinetic energy.

The kinetic molecular theory of gases explains the laws that describe the behavior of gases and it
was developed during the nineteenth century by Boltzmann, Clausius, and Maxwell.

Ideal Gas
An ideal gas is one that follows all the conditions of pressure and temperature. Kinetic molecular
theory assumes that the particles of an ideal gas have no volume and they are not attracted to each
other. This is not true for real gases.
Real Gases
Real gases can be condensed to form a liquid or even a solid at low temperature and high pressure
such as LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) or dry ice.

Properties of Gases

Gas is the state of matter that has particles that are freely moving and are far from each other, which
makes them highly compressible.
Gases have important fundamental properties that are measurable such as volume, pressure,
temperature, and the amount of the gas or the number of moles.
Volume

Volume, which is one of the measurable properties of gas, is denoted by the symbol V. It is the
amount of space occupied by a gas sample. Its SI unit is in liters (L). It can also be expressed in
millilitres (mL), cubic centimeter (cm3), cubic meter (m3), and cubic decimeter (dm3).

Pressure

Pressure is the next important measurable property of the gas, which is denoted by the symbol P.
Pressure of the gas is the force exerted by the gas per unit area. In equation:

Pressure (P) = force (F) / area (A)

The SI unit used for pressure is pascal (Pa), named after Blaise Pascal. This unit is equivalent to
force of 1 newton, acting on 1 square meter.

1 Pa = 1 N / 1 m

Other units of pressure are atmosphere (atm), millimetre of mercury (mmHg). Torr, bar, kilopascal
(kPa), and pounds per square inch (psi).

Temperature

The temperature is denoted by the letter T. The temperature of a gas depends on its kinetic energy.
Gases expand when the temperature is increased.
The temperature of gas is expressed in Fahrenheit (F), Centigrade or Celsius (°C), and Kelvin (K).

Though we often use the Celsius degree when dealing with temperature involving gases, we always
express it in Kelvin temperature. The unit Kelvin was named after Lord Kelvin, a Scottish physicist
who has identified the lowest attainable temperature known as absolute zero with a value of -273°C,
hence, the Kelvin temperature scale.
To convert Celsius to Kelvin, we use the equation K = °C + 273

Amount or Number of Moles

The amount of gas (or mass) is another measurable property of gas. The mass of the gas is related to
its number of moles and is generally expressed in kilogram (kg) or gram (g).

Number of moles = mass of the gas/ molar mass of the gas. In symbols, n = m /M

Gas properties can be modeled using math. Model depends on:

V = volume of the gas (liters, L)
T = temperature (Kelvin, K)
P = pressure (atmospheres, atm)
n = amount (moles, mol)

Gas Laws, a set of natural laws that describe the relationship of one physical parameter to another in
a gaseous system.

BOYLES’ LAW

Robert Boyle was an Anglo-Irish chemist who was able to investigate the relationship between
pressure and volume at constant temperature.

He used a J-shaped tube apparatus, which is closed on one end. He proposed Boyle's Law.

Boyle's Law

Robert Boyle, an English chemist was the first to investigate the relationship between the pressure
of a gas and its volume at a constant temperature. Based on his experiment made wherein he trapped
a fixed amount of air in a J-tube and changed the pressure at a constant temperature, he found out
that as the pressure increases, the volume decreases. He then concluded that the volume occupied by
the fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at a constant temperature.

"The volume of a fixed amount of gas held at constant temperature is inversely proportional to its
pressure".

CHARLES’ LAW
French physicist Jacques Charles determined the volume-temperature relationship in gases. From
his experiment on balloons, Charles observed that, at constant pressure, the volume of gas increases
with every increase in temperature.

Also, volume decreases as temperature decreases.

Charles' law states that the volume of a fixed amount of gas maintained at constant pressure is
directly proportional to its absolute temperature.

Kinetic Molecular Theory and Charles' Law

From the kinetic molecular theory, the average kinetic energy of gas particles is directly
proportional to the temperature of a gas. The particle's average kinetic energy is related to its speed.
When the temperature of the gas is increased, the particles move at higher speed. This results in
frequent collision of the particles with the walls of the container, so the gas particles exert a greater
force on the walls.

GAY - LUSSAC’S LAW

The person who is credited with the determination of the temperature-pressure relationship in gases
at constant volume is Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. He deduced that the pressure of the gas is directly
proportional to its temperature.

Gay-Lussac's Law states that, at constant volume, the pressure of a fixed amount of gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature.

COMBINED GAS LAWS

It describes the pressure-volume-temperature relationship of a constant amount of gas.
"The pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional to each other, but are both directly
proportional to the temperature of that gas"
 AVOGADRO’S LAW

- Amedeo Avogadro, an Italian chemist and physicist, formulated the Avogadro's Law.
- At constant temperature and pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its
number of moles

Ideal Gas Law

The equations representing the gas laws, Boyle's law, Charles' law, Gay-Lussac's law and
Avogadro's law may be combined to arrive at one equation that interrelates pressure (P), volume
(V), temperature (T) and the amount of gas (n). This combination gives the expression called Ideal
Gas Law.

UNIT 4
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Change is the only permanent thing in the world.

Changes in matter can either be physical or chemical.

Physical change occurs when the appearance of an object is altered without forming a new type of
substance.

Chemical change involves a transformation of one substance into a new type by altering its
chemical composition.

Chemical change is caused by chemical reactions. Though reactions occur at microscopic level
there are still some observations or physical changes which can be used as indicators that chemical
reactions are happening.
There are things that will help us to identify if a certain substance undergoes chemical reactions and
we call it evidences of chemical reactions.
• Production of light,
• Evolution of gas,
• Temperature change,
• Change in intrinsic properties (color, odor)
• Formation of precipitate.
Reactants: Substances that are destroyed by the chemical change
(bonds break).

Products: Substances created by the chemical change (new bonds form).

The arrow (-›) is read as "yields".

A chemical equation is a chemist's shorthand for a chemical reaction. The equation distinguishes
between the reactants, which are the starting materials and the products which are the resulting
substances. It shows the symbols or formulas of the reactants and products, the phases (solid,
liquid, gas) of these substances, and the ratio of the substances as they react.

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATION

• Count the number of atom/s of each element present in the reactant and product side.
• Apply the Law of Conservation of Mass to get the same number of atoms of every element on
each side of the equation.
• Balance chemical equations by placing the appropriate coefficients before the symbol or formula.
• Do not change the subscripts of the formula in an attempt to balance the equation as it will change
the identity of the components.

Law of Conservation of Mass

It states that "mass is conserved in a chemical reaction. The total mass of the reactants is equal to
the total mass of the products. No new atoms are created or destroyed, there was only grouping or
regrouping (rearrangement) of atoms".
For a chemical equation to conform to the Law of Conservation of Mass, it has to be balanced.
Chemical equations are balanced by placing the appropriate coefficients before the symbols or
formulas of reactants and products. Certain steps are observed in balancing reactions.

Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Synthesis reactions - A reaction when 2 or more reactants combine to form a single product.
The general formula for this reaction is :
A + B -> AB

2. Decomposition reactions - In this reaction, a single reactant breaks down into simpler ones (2 or
more products). This is the reverse of combination reaction.
The general formula for this reaction is:
AB > A + B
3. Single displacement reactions - This is when one element replaces another element from a
compound. The more active element takes the place of the less active element in a compound.
The general formula for this:
A + BC > AC + B

4. Double displacement reactions - This is when the positive ions (cations) and negative ions
(anions) of different compounds switch places, forming two entirely different compounds.
The general formula for this reaction is:
AB + CD -> AD + CB

5. Combustion reactions - This is when oxygen combines with a hydrocarbon (compound

containing hydrogen and carbon) to form a water and carbon dioxide. Example of which is the
burning of butane gas.

6.Acid Base Reaction - This is a special kind of double displacement reaction that takes place when
an acid and base react with each other. The H+ of the acid reacts with the OH- of the base forming
water. The other product is salt.

Example of which is:

HCI + NaOH => NaCI = H20

RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION

It is the speed at which reactants are converted into products. Some chemical reactions are nearly
instantaneous, while others usually take some time to reach the final equilibrium.

Example:
Wood combustion has a high reaction rate since the process is fast and rusting of iron has a low
reaction rate as the process is slow

Temperature
Increasing the temperature of the system increases the average kinetic energy of the constituent
particles.
This means that the particles will move faster resulting to the higher frequency of collisions per unit
of time and higher kinetic energy. With this, the reaction rate is said to increase with the increasing
temperature.
Conversely, the reaction rate slows down with decreasing temperature.

Concentration of Reactants
The rate of reaction increases with the increasing concentration of reactants in the same way that it
decreases with decreasing concentration. If there is little to no probability of contact, reaction is less
likely to occur.
Particle Size/Surface Area
To increase the rate of reaction for such reactants, there is a need to increase the surface area where
the collision between the reacting species will take place.

Presence of Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of chemical reaction by decreasing the activation
energy of the reaction (Britannica 2015). Catalysts are not consumed during the process and they do
not affect the net yield of products; hence, they are not included in the stoichiometry of the reaction
they catalyze. A catalyst can also increase the rate of reaction by providing an alternative pathway
that causes the activation energy of the reaction to decrease.