remote sensing
Article
Spatio-Temporal Variability Analysis of Vegetation Dynamics
in China from 2000 to 2022 Based on Leaf Area Index:
A Multi-Temporal Image Classification Perspective
Tianchi Xu 1,2 , Kai Yan 1,2, * , Yuanpeng He 3 , Si Gao 2 , Kai Yang 2 , Jingrui Wang 2 , Jinxiu Liu 2 and Zhao Liu 4
Citation: Xu, T.; Yan, K.; He, Y.; Gao,
S.; Yang, K.; Wang, J.; Liu, J.; Liu, Z.
Spatio-Temporal Variability Analysis
of Vegetation Dynamics in China
from 2000 to 2022 Based on Leaf Area
Index: A Multi-Temporal Image
Classification Perspective. Remote
Sens. 2023, 15, 2975.
https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15122975
Academic Editor: Izaya Numata
Received: 10 May 2023
Revised: 24 May 2023
Accepted: 2 June 2023
Published: 7 June 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15122975
1 Center for GeoData and Analysis, State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Faculty of Geographical
Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; xutianchi@cugb.edu.cn
2 School of Land Science and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China;
gaosi_2021@email.cugb.edu.cn (S.G.); kaiyang@email.cugb.edu.cn (K.Y.);
jingruiwang@email.cugb.edu.cn (J.W.)
3 Key Laboratory of High Confidence Software Technologies, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China;
heyuanpengpku@gmail.com
4 School of Linkong Economics and Management, Beijing Institute of Economics and Management,
Beijing 100102, China
* Correspondence: kaiyan@bnu.edu.cn
Abstract: Leaf Area Index (LAI) is one of the most important biophysical parameters of vegetation,
and its dynamic changes can be used as a reflective indicator and differentiation basis of vegetation
function. In this study, a VCA–MLC (Vertex Component Analysis–Maximum Likelihood Classifica-
tion) algorithm is proposed from the perspective of multi-temporal satellite LAI image classification
to monitor and quantify the spatial and temporal variability of vegetation dynamics in China since
2000. The algorithm extracts the vegetation endmembers from 46 multi-temporal images of MODIS
LAI in 2011 without the aid of other a priori knowledge and uses the maximum likelihood classifica-
tion method to select the categories that satisfy the requirements of the number of missing periods,
absolute distance, and relative distance for the rest pixels to be classified, ultimately dividing the vege-
tation area of China into 10 vegetation zones called China Vegetation Functional Zones (CVFZ). CVFZ
outperforms MCD12Q1 and CLCD land cover datasets in the overall differentiation of vegetation
functions and can be used synergistically with other land cover datasets. In this study, CVFZ is used
to cut the constant vegetation-type pixels of MCD12Q1 during 2001–2022. The results of the LAI mean
time series decomposition of each subregion using the STL (Seasonal-Trend Decomposition based
on Loess) method show that the rate of vegetation greening ranges from 9.02 × 10−4 m2 m−2 yr−1
in shrubland subregions to 2.34 × 10−2 m2 m−2 yr−1 in savanna subregions. In relative terms, the
average greening speed of forests is moderate, and savannas tend to have the fastest average greening
speed. The greening speed of grasslands and croplands in different zones varies widely. In contrast,
the average greening speed of shrublands is the slowest. In addition, CVFZ detected grasslands
with one or two phenological cycles, broadleaf croplands with one or two phenological cycles, and
shrublands with no apparent or one phenological cycle.
Keywords: leaf area index; remote sensing; vegetation dynamics; image classification; STL; annual
and intra-annual LAI fluctuations
1. Introduction
Vegetation plays a significant role in the terrestrial–atmospheric water cycle by tran-
spiring and has a considerable impact on energy flow and carbon cycles in the Earth’s
system [1]. The Leaf Area Index (LAI) is a crucial biophysical parameter of vegetation [2].
It is an essential input parameter for vegetation dynamics, phenology monitoring, crop
yield estimation, and climate model [3–6], and LAI can also detect changes in climate and
land use/cover [6,7].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 2 of 21

In recent decades, numerous studies have been conducted using satellite LAI to ex-
amine vegetation’s response to climate change [8,9]. Studies by Vremec et al. [10] and
Cook et al. [11] confirmed that CO2 primarily affects vegetation by modifying its stomatal
resistance, resulting in fertilization effects and increased evaporation. Lawal et al. [12] and
Zhang et al. [13] studied vegetation dynamics (recovery, migration, and extinction) under
drought and varying climatic conditions, rainfall, and altitude. Simultaneously, these stud-
ies identified that these drivers have diverse effects on vegetation dynamics at the regional
scale. Jiao et al. [14] and Holm et al. [15] studied the distinct effects of drought on species
composition and carbon sink storage in the central and western Amazon forests, revealing
that deep rooting is a leading cause of greening during severe drought. Yang et al. [16]
and Qiu et al. [17] identified different driving patterns of vegetation climate under vari-
ous altitude gradients of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, and vegetation growth in relatively
high-altitude areas is determined by growing season precipitation and atmospheric CO2
concentrations, while relatively low altitudes are dominated by growing precipitation.
Climate change has a profound impact on vegetation dynamics, hydrological cycles, and
ecosystem productivity globally [18,19].
Consequently, changes in vegetation dynamics have a biophysical effect on the lo-
cal and even global climate, resulting in positive or negative feedback on the climate
system [20]. An increase in vegetation LAI has the potential to affect soil moisture, pre-
cipitation, and increase global terrestrial carbon sinks [21,22]. Furthermore, it can alter
surface albedo and evapotranspiration, leading to increased warming in northern regions
and slowed warming in local tropical regions [23,24].
Numerous studies have reported a nearly 50% increase in greening trends for global
vegetation since the 1980s [25–27]. Moreover, the greening differences among various
vegetation species have been widely studied. Caracciolo et al. [28] and Andela et al. [29]
found that forests, which have access to deeper aquifers and dominate over grasslands
in bare landscaping, exhibit the main climatic factor in mixed forests, evergreen needle-
leaf forests, and deciduous broadleaf forests as temperature, while grasslands are more
impacted by precipitation, temperature, and solar radiation [30]. The differences between
grasslands and forests in mountainous or polar regions have also received attention in
recent greening [2,31]. Shrublands and tundra at high latitudes have been prioritized
over forest greening [32] in which the annual carbon increase in tundra greening is asso-
ciated with water loss at the weakest; yet, it has produced positive feedback on Arctic
warming [33,34].
Most vegetation-to-vegetation difference studies rely on land cover maps [30,32,35].
The main land cover products to date have used random forests, decision trees, and some
machine learning methods to achieve high classification accuracy and efficiency [36–39].
They usually distinguish only vegetation types or provide the proportion of major vegeta-
tion types [40,41].
However, there is a lack of research on the differences between vegetation in the
corresponding vegetation functional areas. For instance, the adaptive ability of low-latitude
functional vegetation during migration is relatively inferior to that of high-latitude func-
tional vegetation and exhibits greater LAI variability [31]. Nonetheless, low-latitude
functional vegetation, especially in tropical monsoon and rainforest climate areas, has
generally higher forest biomass densities in tropical rainforest climate zones than high-
latitude functional vegetation [42]. Moreover, the study showed forests and grasslands
with different vegetation functions had high spatial heterogeneity in the four vegetation
parameters of gross primary productivity (GPP), net primary productivity (NPP), LAI,
and vegetation cover (FVC). This was manifested by different rates of vegetation recovery,
vegetation productivity, and ecosystem stability [43]. Mainly influenced by climatic drivers,
the differences in urban forest functions are also reflected in many aspects such as green
density, green intensity, and biodiversity [44]. Linking vegetation characteristics obtained
from remote sensing to vegetation functions can effectively improve spatial distribution
ecological modeling and assessment [45].
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 3 of 21

Hence, it is essential to utilize zoning specifically for vegetation functions to investigate

the spatio-temporal variability of vegetation dynamics and further explore the correlation
between the vegetation dynamics and the underlying drivers. Since the dynamic change of
LAI can be used as a reflection index and differentiation basis for vegetation function [46],
this study suggests a new approach to divide vegetation pixels into distinct vegetation
functional areas. The algorithm used in this study is an algorithm extended in hyper-
spectral image classification to multi-temporal image classification. The implementation
process takes China as an example, and the derivative product is named China Vegetation
Functional Zones (CVFZ).
Furthermore, several prior studies have only been conducted at a single-pixel or small-
area scale [47–49]. However, given that most long-term changes in vegetation dynamics
are nonlinear, non-stationary, and complex [50,51], analysis focused solely on a single-pixel
or small-area scale may inaccurately reflect or even underestimate vegetation’s response
mechanism to climate change [52,53]. To accurately analyze vegetation behavior that is
difficult to detect using terrestrial methods [54,55], studies carried out at large-scale spatial
scales for ecosystems and biodiversity and considering the importance of diagnosing and
responding to global climate change are necessary.
In this study, we investigate the spatio-temporal variability of vegetation dynamics in
China from 25 June 2000 to 25 June 2022, as reflected by satellite LAI, through the classification
perspective of multi-temporal images. The average LAI in China during this period was
1.04 m2 m−2 with a standard deviation of 1.00 m2 m−2 (Figure 1). Our study is divided into
two main parts. The first part involves the production and validation of CVFZ, which is
based on Vertex Component Analysis–Maximum Likelihood Classification (VCA–MLC). The
vegetation pixels in China are divided into 10 regions through CVFZ, and cross-validation with
other land cover classification maps indicates the need for the functional zoning of vegetation.
In the second part, we conduct a large-area scale analysis, using CVFZ to refine other land
cover classification maps (we use MCD12Q1 as an example in this paper) and obtain a more
detailed land cover classification map (MCD-CVFZ) that can distinguish vegetation functions.
Finally, we extract the subregion LAI mean time series according to the MCD-CVFZ and
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
separately analyze the annual and intra-annual fluctuations of vegetation dynamics 4 of 23 through

Seasonal-Trend Decomposition based on the Loess (STL) method.

Figure 1. Temporal average of MODIS LAI in China, 25 June 2000 to 25 June 2022.
Figure 1. Temporal average of MODIS LAI in China, 25 June 2000 to 25 June 2022.
The rest of our paper is arranged as follows: In Section 2, we introduce the datasets
and methods used in this study, including the VCA–MLC algorithm, three validation in-
dicators of the vegetation functional area, and the STL method. In Section 3, we present
the results of the production, evaluation, and application of CVFZ. We discuss the poten-
tial advantages of CVFZ and the spatial variability of vegetation dynamics revealed by
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 4 of 21

The rest of our paper is arranged as follows: In Section 2, we introduce the datasets
and methods used in this study, including the VCA–MLC algorithm, three validation
indicators of the vegetation functional area, and the STL method. In Section 3, we present
the results of the production, evaluation, and application of CVFZ. We discuss the potential
advantages of CVFZ and the spatial variability of vegetation dynamics revealed by CVFZ
in Section 4. Additionally, we discuss the connection between vegetation dynamics and
other drivers in Section 4.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Satellite Data
The research analysis was based on the C61 version of the MODIS product, which
is similar in format to the C6 product. However, the C61 version has been improved by
satellite calibration and polarization methods, making it more advanced than the previ-
ous C6 version. Our analysis relied on LAI from the MOD15A2H dataset provided by
NASA EOSDIS LP DAAC (https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/products/mod15a2hv061, accessed on
14 February 2023). This dataset provides eight-day maximum synthesis of LAI and FPAR
products from 2000 years ago to the present, with a spatial resolution of 500 m [56,57]. The
sources of uncertainty in the MOD15A2H dataset are mainly reflectance data, canopy aggre-
gation effects, and inversion models [58]. However, it has undergone more comprehensive
and extensive validation among many LAI products, and its use to study LAI time series
over a 22-year period is motivated by considerations of ensuring data consistency and con-
tinuity [59,60]. Land cover datasets come from MCD12Q1 provided by NASA EOSDIS LP
DAAC (https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/products/mcd12q1v061, accessed on 16 February 2023),
and CLCD (Annual China Land Cover Dataset) were provided by the team of professors
Yang Jie and Huang Xin of Wuhan University (https://zenodo.org/record/5816591, ac-
cessed on 21 February 2023). MCD12Q1 provides a global land cover map with a spatial
resolution of 500 m for six different land cover legends for each year from 2001 to the
present [41]. The annual LAI classification scheme specified in the LC type3 band was used
to divide the land cover into 8 types, which is commonly used with MOD15A2H [61,62]. In
this study, only natural ecosystems with an unchanged vegetation type between 2001 and
2022 were preserved (MCD-unchanged) as the object cut by CVFZ. Changes in vegetation
type can significantly affect the degree of response of plants to climate change [63]; there-
fore, preserving the unchanged vegetation type is important. CLCD provides year-to-year
land cover data from 1985 to the present, with a spatial resolution of 30 m [64]. CLCD from
2011 (CLCD-2011), MCD12Q1 from 2011 (MCD-2011), and the MCD-unchanged were used
in cross-evaluation with CVFZ. All rasters were resampled to 2000 m and reprojected to
the same coordinate system to ensure they were of the same size, which was 2884 × 3743.

2.2. Extraction and Selection of Vegetation Endmembers for China

VCA (Vertex Component Analysis) is an endmember extraction algorithm that has
been utilized for hyperspectral remote sensing image classification [65–68]. The compu-
tational complexity of VCA is the lowest among the methods for endmember extraction,
and the performance also tends to be optimal compared to non-intelligent optimization
algorithms such as N-FINDR and PPI [69]. This study employed VCA to extract Chinese
vegetation endmembers. Vegetation endmembers were extracted from C61 MODIS15A2H
LAI using 46-phase multi-temporal images of vegetation pixels only from 2011 produced
by the main algorithm (called MOD-2011), thus effectively preserving a substantial portion
of information on annual vegetation dynamics over 2000–2022 while conserving comput-
ing and storage resources. First, the set of all pixels in MOD-2011 was combined into a
monomorphic body resulting in
n o
Sx = x ∈ Rm : x = Mα, 1T α = 1, α ≥ 0 (1)
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 5 of 21

where M is the confusion matrix of all endmembers, 1 is an all-one vector of L × 1 dimen-

sions, and α is the abundance transpose vector containing the fraction of each endmember.
Assuming the existence of pure pixels, the endmembers are located at the vertices of the
monomorphic body. Sx is projected into the hyperplane xT u = 1 to obtain a monomorphic
body in the direction of an orthogonal subspace, where u is to ensure that there are no
observation vectors orthogonal to the hyperplane.
n x o
S p = y ∈ Rm : y = T , x ∈ Sx (2)
x u
Next, the observation data are projected to Sp , and the pixel with the largest projection
distance value is calculated as the endmember. Iterative calculations are then performed
until all vegetation endpoints are found. Due to the randomness inherent in the projection
process, there is a degree of variation in the extraction results for each vegetation end
element beyond the first. To reduce this randomness, the extraction process was repeated
1000 times. Each cycle resulted in only 2 vegetation endmembers with no missing phases.
Table 1 shows that the final endmembers are selected with a probability of occurrence
(Poccurrence ) greater than 1%.

Table 1. Extraction results of vegetation endmembers. The locations of endmembers are accurate to
the province, and vegetation types are defined based on the MCD12Q1 type3 band.

Poccurrence Row Column Location Vegetation Type

100.0% 1689 1724 Yunnan Evergreen Needleleaf Forests
3.9% 1802 2707 Taiwan Savannas
3.7% 2090 2125 Hainan Savannas
2.2% 1828 2707 Taiwan Savannas
1.8% 1131 2117 Shaanxi Deciduous Broadleaf Forests
1.6% 1165 2070 Gansu Deciduous Broadleaf Forests
1.5% 752 2754 Liaoning Grasslands
1.2% 1288 2178 Henan Grasslands
1.1% 1738 2556 Fujian Evergreen Broadleaf Forests
1.1% 1063 2198 Shanxi Deciduous Broadleaf Forests

2.3. Creating China Vegetation Functional Zones (CVFZ) Based on the Selected Endmembers
After selecting the vegetation endmembers, pixels in MOD-2011 with more than
20 periods missing were filtered out to determine the category of the rest pixels, which
removed 6.13% of the total number of pixels. The n-dimensional vector expression of each
pixel position in the coordinate system is obtained:

X = [ x1 , x2 , · · · x m ] T (3)

The distance (D) between two multi-temporal pixels was characterized using a com-
pound distance constructed by combining the Euclidean distance and the spectral shape
angle cosine. The spectral shape angle cosine is independent of the gain coefficient of the
LAI multi-temporal image and ranges between 0 and 1, reflecting the similarity of the
two multi-temporal pixels. This helps to address the limitation of using only Euclidean
distance, which cannot fully reflect the change in the pixel LAI time series. By combining
the two spectral characteristics of time phase amplitude and time phase shape, the accuracy
of similarity measurement between multi-temporal pixels is improved [70,71]. D can be
expressed as follows:
s  
2
∑im=1 ( xi − x 0 i ) ∑im=1 xi x 0 i
D= ∗ 1 − q (4)
 
q
m

m m 0 2
∑ i =1 x i 2 ∑ i =1 x i
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 6 of 21

where 1 minus the angular cosine of the spectral shape is used to unify the increase or
decrease in the two distance indicators, further obtaining the absolute distance DA and the
relative distance DR .  
D A = D pixel −zeros − Dendmember−zeros  (5)
 

DR = D pixel −endmember (6)

where zeros is an all-one vector of 1 × 46 dimensions. DA represents the absolute distance
between the pixel to be classified and the endmember, and DR represents the relative
distance between them.
The MLC (Maximum Likelihood Classification) algorithm achieves the effect of classi-
fication by substituting the image to be classified into the determined classification function
on a pixel-by-pixel basis [72]. This algorithm builds upon Xu et al. [73] by using the idea of
equidistant loss to adjust the distance between samples with relative distance constraints.
Thus, absolute distances are added to intervene in the classification process of vegetation
pixels. The algorithm calculates the DR of each pixel to 10 endmembers in turn. If DR is the
smallest and DA is not greater than the Threshold, the pixel belongs to the category. The
existence of a Threshold results in not all pixels being classified. The above classification
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 23
process is called the VCA–MLC algorithm (Figure 2). The derivative product is called the
Chinese Vegetation Functional Zones (CVFZ).

Figure 2. VCA–MLC algorithm flowchart. The process of extracting vegetation endmembers was
Figure 2. VCA–MLC algorithm flowchart. The process of extracting vegetation endmembers
conducted 1000 times for the sample of MOD-2011, which was also used as the sample for subse-
was conducted 1000 times for the sample of MOD-2011, which was also used as the sample for
quent MLC.
subsequent MLC.
2.4.Optimization
2.4. Optimization and and Validation
Validation of
of the
the Created
Created CVFZ
CVFZ
As there is no identifiable vegetation functional
As there is no identifiable vegetation functional area area endmember
endmember to to reference,
reference, it isit dif-
is
difficult to evaluate the performance of the VCA–MLC algorithm using indicators
ficult to evaluate the performance of the VCA–MLC algorithm using indicators such as root such as
root mean
mean square–Signature
square–Signature AngleAngle Error (rms–SAE).
Error (rms–SAE). Therefore,Therefore, the algorithm’s
the algorithm’s perfor-is
performance
mance is indirectly evaluated by assessing the discrimination effect of CVFZ
indirectly evaluated by assessing the discrimination effect of CVFZ on vegetation function, on vegetation
function,
with the key with the key for
indicators indicators for evaluating
evaluating image classification
image classification accuracy
accuracy being being
interclass inter-
distance
class distance and in-class distance [74]. Missing rate (MR), interclass distance
and in-class distance [74]. Missing rate (MR), interclass distance (D1 ), in-class distance (D2 ),(D 1), in-

classdiscrimination
distance (D2), (Dand) discrimination (D3) are proposed to optimize and validate CVFZ.
and 3 are proposed to optimize and validate CVFZ. D1 , D2 , and D3 are
D 1, D2, and D3 are also used to evaluate MCD-2011, CLCD-2011, MCD-unchanged, and
also used to evaluate MCD-2011, CLCD-2011, MCD-unchanged, and MCD-CVFZ. These
MCD-CVFZ.
formulas These
are as formulas are as follows:
follows:
∑∑9k=
9 ck
0 𝑐𝑐𝑘𝑘
MR = 1 −
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 1 − c
𝑘𝑘=0
(7)
(7)
𝑐𝑐
∑9k 9=0 ∑9k9 =k +1 Dmeank −meank
D1 = ∑1𝑘𝑘1=0 ∑9𝑘𝑘2 2=𝑘𝑘11+19 𝐷𝐷𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘11 −𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘2 2 (8)
𝐷𝐷1 = ∑∑ (8)
k19=0 ∑k 9=k1 ++1
𝑘𝑘1 =0 ∑2𝑘𝑘2 =𝑘𝑘
1 11
1

∑9𝑘𝑘=0 ∑𝑐𝑐𝑗𝑗=1
𝑘𝑘
𝐷𝐷𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘−𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘
𝐷𝐷2 =
𝑗𝑗
(9)
∑9𝑘𝑘=0 ∑𝑐𝑐𝑗𝑗=1
𝑘𝑘
1

𝐷𝐷3 = 𝐷𝐷1 − 𝐷𝐷2 (10)

Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 7 of 21

c
∑9k=0 ∑ j=
k
1 Dmeank − pixel k j
D2 = (9)
9 ck
∑ ∑ j= 11
k =0

D3 = D1 − D2 (10)
where k is the category in which the pixel belongs to, ranging from 0 to 9 for a total of
10 classes. ck is the number of pixels in this class, C is the total number of pixels to be
classified after filtering, Dmean k1 -mean k2 is the D of the LAI mean vector between the k1 and
k2 categories, and Dmean k-pixelkj is the D between the LAI mean vector of the k category and
the pixel in it.
D1 measures the average difference between different vegetation functional areas. D2
measures the average difference between different pixels in the same vegetation functional
area. The larger D1 and the smaller D2 represent a better classification effect. D3 combines
D1 with D2 to directly characterize the degree of discrimination of vegetation functional
zones. The larger D3 , the better the classification effect.
Table 2 shows that adjusting the Threshold to optimize the classification results under
the VCA–MLC algorithm is essential. At a Threshold of 2.05, D3 reaches a maximum of
0.0516, indicating that the classification effect reached is the best. The MR at this time is
only 0.0318, meaning most of the pixels to be classified have already been classified.

Table 2. The adjustment of the Threshold of CVFZ induces a shift in the evaluation metrics (missing
rate (MR), interclass distance (D1 ), in-class distance (D2 ), and discrimination (D3 )). The identification
of the optimal Threshold is predominantly dependent on D3 .

Threshold 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08

MR 0.0769 0.0633 0.0477 0.0318 0.0205 0.0134 0.0087
D1 0.2581 0.2577 0.2571 0.2567 0.2562 0.2557 0.2553
D2 0.2068 0.2063 0.2057 0.2051 0.2046 0.2042 0.2039
D3 0.0513 0.0514 0.0514 0.0516 0.0515 0.0515 0.0514

2.5. Application at the Regional Scale

The application of CVFZ at a regional scale involves the extraction of the LAI mean
time series from different functional areas of the same vegetation, which requires superim-
posing it with other land cover products. In this paper, MCD12Q1 serves as an example,
and the resulting image is referred to as MCD-CVFZ. The zoning rule for MCD-CVFZ is
based on the reclassification of each pixel, where the single-digit number corresponds to
the legend of the pixel in the CVFZ, which is represented by a number from 0 to 9, and the
ten-digit aligns with the pixel value in the MCD12Q1 type 3 band. Specifically, 1 denotes
grasslands, 2 denotes shrublands, 3 denotes broadleaf croplands, 4 denotes savannas,
5 denotes evergreen broadleaf forests, 6 denotes deciduous broadleaf forests, 7 denotes
evergreen needleleaf forests, and 8 denotes deciduous needleleaf forests. Subregions com-
prising over 1000 pixels were retained for the analysis, while subregions in shrublands and
deciduous needleleaf forests comprising over 20 pixels were retained due to their small
areas. The discriminatory effect of CVFZ on vegetation function was studied from the
perspectives of LAI mean and time series.
We extracted the pixels’ LAI value in MOD-2011 according to the MCD-CVFZ, and
determined the LAI mean and LAI standard deviation averaging for time and region.
To compute the LAI time series, we averaged the LAI value of each subregion pixel
corresponding to 25 June 2000 to 25 June 2022. As the production of MCD-CVFZ is based
on high-quality pixels from the main algorithm, no filtering method was employed.
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 8 of 21

2.6. Separation of Annual and Intra-Annual Fluctuations in LAI Time Series

In the next step of analyzing LAI time series, we utilized the Seasonal-Trend Decom-
position based on the Loess (STL) method to analyze the trend and seasonal components
of the LAI time series separately for each subregion. By analyzing the trend component
alone, we were able to obtain the true greening speed of vegetation that is not affected by
seasonal fluctuations in LAI. The STL method decomposes a time series (Yt ) into trend (Tt ),
season (St ), and remainder (Rt ) components. This filtering process reduces the impact of
outliers and missing values on the trend and seasonal components [75,76].

Yt = Tt + St + Rt (11)

Since there is a close relationship between LAI and vegetation dynamics [77], the trend
component Tt represents the annual fluctuations of vegetation dynamics, while the seasonal
component St represents the intra-annual fluctuations of vegetation dynamics. Linear
regression analysis was performed on Tt and time (in years) to fit the LAI linearly, whose
slope reflects the trend and rate of greening or browning of vegetation dynamics. Multiple
experiments were conducted with different parameter values, while trying to ensure the
normal distribution of Rt so that the information of the sequence was decomposed into Tt
and St as much as possible [78]. Finally, the parameters in the STL method were defined
as follows:
• np = 46
• ni = 1
• no = 4
• nl = 47
• ns = + ∞
• nt = 69
np is the number of observations of seasonal components per period for MOD15A2H.
Since the period of all vegetation pixels is defined as one year, let np be 46. ni and no
are the number of iterations of the inner and outer loops, respectively. nl , ns , and nt are
smoothing parameters for the low-pass filter, seasonal component, and trend component,
respectively. The setting of ns is based on ignoring the annual variation of the seasonal
component, which only needs to be analyzed for one year. nl and nt are calculated directly
from a specific formula.

3. Results
3.1. Overview of China Vegetation Functional Zones and CVFZ
The map of the classification results is displayed in Figure 3, and the 10 vegetation
zones are named from 0 to 9 in order of increasing average LAI. The LAI mean values for
the 10 zones were 0.45, 0.49, 0.90, 0.93, 1.21, 1.28, 1.35, 1.62, 2.17, and 2.18, respectively. The
overall distribution of the zones showed a certain northeast-southwest pattern. Among
them, 0 types accounted for 34.7%, 4 types accounted for 15.9%, 1 types accounted for
15.1%, and 2 types accounted for 11.5%.

3.2. Enhanced Discrimination Compared to Land Cover Datasets

Figure 4 depicts the results of cross-validation for MCD-CVFZ and several land cover
products. The validation results of CVFZ in Figure 3 (D3 = 0.05) are better than MCD-2011
(D3 = −0.05), CLCD-2011 (D3 = −0.13), and MCD-unchanged (D3 = −0.03), highlighting
the necessity of differentiating vegetation function and emphasizing the effectiveness of
CVFZ in achieving this goal. The D1 of MCD-2011 and MCD-unchanged is slightly smaller
than D2 , and, correspondingly, D3 is slightly below zero. In other words, the closer D1 and
D2 are, the smaller the difference in LAI multi-temporal spectra between two vegetation
pixels from the same or different types tend to be and the smaller the ability to distinguish
vegetation functions. The evaluation results of MCD-unchanged were slightly better than
MCD-2011 (Figure 4a,c), indicating the need to use pixels with an unchanged vegetation
 the number of iterations of the inner and outer loops, respectively. nl, ns, and nt are smooth-
ing parameters for the low-pass filter, seasonal component, and trend component, respec-
tively. The setting of ns is based on ignoring the annual variation of the seasonal compo-
nent, which only needs to be analyzed for one year. nl and nt are calculated directly from 9 of 21
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975
a specific formula.

3. Results type for cutting. The proportion of savannas in MCD-unchanged increased from 13.7%
3.1. Overview of China Vegetation
to 27.3% compared Functional
to that ofZones and CVFZ
MCD-2011, while forested areas decreased from 25.7% to
13.8%, and broadleaf crops decreased from 8.9% to 5.1%, indicating recent degradation of
The map of the classification
forests results is
and loss of farmland displayed
in China inthe
during Figure 3, and
past few years,the 10 vegetation
which may be related to
zones are named from 0 to 9 in
the country’s order ofurbanization
large-scale increasingprocess.
averageTheLAI.
valueThe
of DLAI
3 in mean values
CLCD-2011 for−0.13
is only
the 10 zones were 0.45, 0.49, 0.90, 0.93, 1.21, 1.28, 1.35, 1.62, 2.17, and 2.18, respectively. into
(Figure 4b), which may be related to the fact that vegetation types are only divided
The overall distribution of or
four regions thethat
zones showed
the data a not
source is certain northeast-southwest
consistent with the LAI dataset.pattern.
MCD-CVFZ
obtained the best validation results with D1 = 0.30, D2 = 0.15, and D3 = 0.15, which may be
Among them, 0 types accounted for 34.7%, 4 types accounted for 15.9%, 1 types accounted
due to the distinction between vegetation function and vegetation type, simultaneously
for 15.1%, and 2 types accounted
(Figure 4d). for 11.5%.

Figure 3. China Vegetation Functional

Figure 3. China VegetationZones (CVFZ)
Functional Zonesand location
(CVFZ) of theofselected
and location vegetation
the selected vegetation end-
endmembers. The curve in the
members. Thelower
curve left corner
in the lower corresponds to the color
left corner corresponds to theof theofclassification
color chart.
the classification chart.

3.3. Performance of CVFZ on Distinguishing LAI Mean Value and LAI Time Series
3.2. Enhanced Discrimination Compared to Land Cover Datasets
In Figure 5, the performance of CVFZ in distinguishing between the mean and stan-
Figure 4 depicts
dardthe resultsofofLAI
deviation cross-validation
is presented. CVFZfordistinguishes
MCD-CVFZ and several
vegetation landfrom
functions coverthe LAI
products. The validation
mean in results
differentof CVFZ intypes,
vegetation Figure
and3 an
(Dincreasing
3 = 0.05) aretrendbetter than MCD-2011
is observed in the mean and
(D3 = −0.05), CLCD-2011
standard(D 3 = −0.13),
deviation and
of LAI MCD-unchanged
of each zone from 0 type(D to 39=type.
−0.03), highlighting
Fluctuations the mean
in the LAI
necessity of differentiating vegetation function and emphasizing the effectiveness of
are observed in deciduous broadleaf forests and deciduous needleleaf forests, which may
be attributed to the small area of these two vegetation covers.
CVFZ in achieving thisFigure
goal.6The D1 of MCD-2011 and MCD-unchanged is slightly smaller
demonstrates the performance of CVFZ in distinguishing LAI time series.
than D2, and, correspondingly,
The results show Dthat
3 is slightly below zero.
CVFZ effectively In othervegetation
distinguishes words, the closer D
functions 1 and
from the LAI
D2 are, the smallertime
theseries
difference
as well. in LAI
The LAImulti-temporal spectra
time series of a higher typebetween
in CVFZ are two vegetation
generally above that
pixels from the same
of a or different
lower types tend
type. Moreover, theto besequences
LAI and the smaller the ability
of shrublands to distinguish
with different functions are
vegetation functions. The 2evaluation
distinctly separated
−2
results of MCD-unchanged were slightly betterthe
(Figure 6b), with the 20-type LAI time series fluctuating in than
range of
2 −2
0.1–0.4 m m , while the 25-type LAI time series fluctuates in the range of 0.2–4.1 m m .

Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, x FOR PEER
Figure 5. The performance of CVFZ in distinguishing the LAI mean and LAI standard deviation of
MOD-2011.
color scheme is consistent with Figure 3 (some zones are not distributed in all vegetation types).
and loss of farmland in China during the past few years, which may be related to the
country’s large-scale urbanization process. The value of D3 in CLCD-2011 is only −0.13
(Figure 4b), which may be related to the fact that vegetation types are only divided into
four regions or that the data source is not consistent with the LAI dataset. MCD-CVFZ
obtained the best validation results with D1 = 0.30, D2 = 0.15, and D3 = 0.15, which may 10
beof 21
due to the distinction between vegetation function and vegetation type, simultaneously
(Figure 4d).
Figure 4. Validation results of CVFZ and several land cover products. The proportion of each vege-
Figure 4. Validation results of CVFZ and several land cover products. The proportion of each
tation type was calculated to provide more information. (a) MCD-2011, (b) CLCD-2011, (c) MCD-
vegetation
unchanged,type
andwas calculated (the
(d) MCD-CVFZ to provide
legend ofmore information.
Figure (a)areas
4d only shows MCD-2011,
with more(b) CLCD-2011,
than 10,000
(c)REVIEW
pixels).
MCD-unchanged, and (d) MCD-CVFZ (the legend of Figure 4d only shows areas 11 of 23 more
with
than 10,000 pixels).
3.3. Performance of CVFZ on Distinguishing LAI Mean Value and LAI Time Series
In Figure 5, the performance of CVFZ in distinguishing between the mean and stand-
ard deviation of LAI is presented. CVFZ distinguishes vegetation functions from the LAI
mean in different vegetation types, and an increasing trend is observed in the mean and
standard deviation of LAI of each zone from 0 type to 9 type. Fluctuations in the LAI mean
are observed in deciduous broadleaf forests and deciduous needleleaf forests, which may
be attributed to the small area of these two vegetation covers.
Figure 5. The performance of CVFZ in distinguishing the LAI mean and LAI standard deviation of
MOD-2011. The LAI mean for each vegetation type is represented by black dots, and the legend’s
TheisLAI
color scheme meanwith
consistent for each vegetation
Figure typeare
3 (some zones is not
represented
distributedby
in black dots, and
all vegetation the legend’s
types).
Figure 6 demonstrates the performance of CVFZ in distinguishing LAI time series.
The results show that CVFZ effectively distinguishes vegetation functions from the LAI
time series as well. The LAI time series of a higher type in CVFZ are generally above that
of a lower type. Moreover, the LAI sequences of shrublands with different functions are
distinctly separated (Figure 6b), with the 20-type LAI time series fluctuating in the range
of 0.1–0.4 m2m−2, while the 25-type LAI time series fluctuates in the range of 0.2–4.1 m2m−2.
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 11 of 21
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23

Figure 6. The performance of CVFZ in distinguishing LAI time series, 25 June 2000 to 25 June 2022.
Figure 6. The performance of CVFZ in distinguishing LAI time series, 25 June 2000 to 25 June 2022.
The legend’s color scheme is consistent with Figure 3.
The legend’s color scheme is consistent with Figure 3.
3.4.Analysis
3.4. Analysisofof Annual
Annual and
and Intra-Annual
Intra-AnnualLAI
LAIFluctuations
FluctuationsininDifferent Vegetation
Different Types
Vegetation Types
According to the results presented in Figures 7 and 8, the STL method
According to the results presented in Figures 7 and 8, the STL method is more is more effec-
effec-
tive in reflecting vegetation function specificity. The goodness of fit in Figure 7 indicates
tive in reflecting vegetation function specificity. The goodness of fit in Figure 7 indicates a
a high overall goodness of fit, except for two types of needleleaf forest vegetation. For the
high overall goodness of fit, except for two types of needleleaf forest vegetation. For the
same vegetation, the greening speed generally increases and then decreases with an in-
same vegetation, the greening speed generally increases and then decreases with an increase
crease in the corresponding CVFZ vegetation category, and the slope reaches its peak at
in the corresponding CVFZ vegetation category, and the slope reaches its peak at around
around 4–6 types, while the starting value of annual fluctuations shows an increasing
4–6 types, while the starting value of annual fluctuations shows an increasing trend of volatil-
trend of volatility. The greening speed of grasslands varies by up to 8 times −from 2.08 ×
ity. −3
The greening speed of grasslands varies by up to 8 times from 2.08 × 10 3 m2 m−2 yr−1
10 m2m−2yr −1 to 1.65 × 10−2 m2m−2yr−1 (Figure 7a). The starting value of the annual fluctu-
to 1.65 × 10−2 m2 m−2 yr−1 (Figure 7a). The starting value2 of−2the annual2 fluctuation of LAI in
ation of LAI in shrublands differs by up to 2 6−from
2 0.20 m2 m−2to 1.18 m m−2 (Figure 7b).
shrublands differs by up to 6 from 0.20 m m to 1.18 m m (Figure 7b).

Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975
Among the different vegetation, the initiation of LAI annual fluctuation was the larg-
est in evergreen broadleaf forests and the smallest in grasslands, at 2.95 m2m−2 and 0.34
m2m−2, respectively (Figure 7e). On average, all vegetation in subregions of MCD-CVFZ
showed varying degrees of greening. Savanna subregions had the fastest greening speed12 of 21
between 9.87 × 10−3 m2m−2yr−1 and 2.34 × 10−2 m2m−2yr−1, while shrubland subregions had
the slowest greening speed between 9.02 × 10−4 m2m−2yr−1 and 6.65 × 10−2 m2m−2yr−1.

Figure 7. LAI time series and linear regression results of annual fluctuations, 25 June 2000 to 25 June
Figure 7. LAI time series and linear regression results of annual fluctuations, 25 June 2000 to
2022. The legend’s color scheme is consistent with Figure 3.
25 June 2022. The legend’s color scheme is consistent with Figure 3.
Figure 8 illustrates that for the same type of vegetation, the CVFZ is capable of dis-
Among the different vegetation, the initiation of LAI annual fluctuation was the
tinguishing growth characteristics and phenological cycles of vegetation. A higher2 type of
largest in evergreen broadleaf forests and the smallest in grasslands, at 2.95 m m−2 and
CVFZ2 generally corresponds to a lagging phenological cycle and sometimes even an
0.34 m m−2 , respectively (Figure 7e). On average, all vegetation in subregions of MCD-
CVFZ showed varying degrees of greening. Savanna subregions had the fastest green-
ing speed between 9.87 × 10−3 m2 m−2 yr−1 and 2.34 × 10−2 m2 m−2 yr−1 , while shrub-
land subregions had the slowest greening speed between 9.02 × 10−4 m2 m−2 yr−1 and
6.65 × 10−2 m2 m−2 yr−1 .
Figure 8 illustrates that for the same type of vegetation, the CVFZ is capable of dis-
tinguishing growth characteristics and phenological cycles of vegetation. A higher type
of CVFZ generally corresponds to a lagging phenological cycle and sometimes even an
increase in the phenological cycle. For instance, the vegetation types 10, 11, 12, 13, and 15 in
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 13 of 21

Figure 8a represent grasslands with a phenological cycle that reaches its peak greenness on
Days 200 to 230, while 14, 16, 17, and 18 indicate grasslands with two phenological cycles,
and their greenness reaches a second peak on Days 210 to 240. Figure 8b shows shrublands
of vegetation type 20 with a not-so-obvious phenological cycle, and 21, 23, and 25 represent
shrublands with one phenological cycle. The same trend is observed in broadleaf crops,
where the vegetation types 30, 31, and 32 indicate crops with a phenological cycle, whose
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
greenness peaks on Days 210 to 225, while 34, 36, and 39 represent crops with two 15 pheno-
of 23
logical cycles, and their greenness reaches a second peak at around Day 225 (Figure 8c).

Figure 8. LAI time series of intra-annual fluctuations, 25 June 2000 to 25 June 2022. The legend’s
Figure 8. LAI time
color scheme series ofwith
is consistent intra-annual
Figure 3.fluctuations, 25 June 2000 to 25 June 2022. The legend’s color
scheme is consistent with Figure 3.
4. Discussion
Regarding the main phenological cycle, deciduous broadleaf forests have the earliest
4.1. Potential
peak greenness,Advantage of the Use
which occurs of CVFZ in Vegetation
at approximately Days Analysis and(Figure
150 to 250 Policymaking
8f), which is close
Furthermore, in addition to distinguishing vegetation functions, the screening of
highly representative and high-quality vegetation pixels could be a potential advantage
of CVFZ in vegetation analysis. As illustrated in Figure 9 with MCD-2011, after being fil-
tered by CVFZ, 81.3% of pixels were retained, and the D2 of different zones decreased,
except for the evergreen broadleaf forest. The average D2 value decreased from 0.2309 to
 Remote Sens. 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23

pixels of MCD-2011 exhibit higher similarity, which indicates potentially higher classifi-
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 14 of 21
cation accuracy. This is because the VCA–MLC process does not require any land cover
products as prior knowledge, thereby avoiding issues such as the misclassification of veg-
etation pixels in land cover products to some extent.
to thatFurthermore,
of shrublands CVFZ
with can also be usedcycle
a phenological in conjunction
(Figure 8b),with while other land cover
broadleaf cropsmapshave to
the
further
latest peakanalyze vegetation
greenness, which foroccurs
different at functions.
approximatelyIn thisDays
study,210MCD12Q1 was used
to 250 (Figure 8c).asPeak
an
example because
greenness the useneedleleaf
in deciduous of MODIS forests
products in classification
occurs from Daysand 190cutting
to 250,can andbetter ensure
the duration
the consistency
period of greenness of results
peaks is [62]. Additionally,
shorter and laterbecause
than that vegetation
of deciduous functions are distin-
broadleaf forests
guished8h).
(Figure at pixel
The scale, CVFZ can
intra-annual be utilized
greenness to analyze range
fluctuations the differences
most widely in vegetation in a
in deciduous
specific area,
broadleaf and between
forests, it has significance
−1.5 m2 mfor −2 scientific
and 2.5 m analysis in climatology,
2 m−2 , while in evergreen ecology, and
needleleaf
vegetation.
forests, they are the smallest, ranging between −0.8 m2 m−2 and 1.0 m2 m−2 (Figure 8g).
As a derivative
For evergreen broadleafproduct of the
forests, thehyperspectral
intra-annualimage classification
greenness fluctuationsalgorithm
rangeinbetween
multi-
−temporal
1.1 m2 m−image
2 and classification,
1.2 m2 m−2 , but CVFZtherehas
is noseveral
obvious areas that
peak could be(Figure
greenness improved. 8e). For in-
stance, the process of endmember extraction could incorporate more LAI time phases, and
4.the screening of LAI endmembers could introduce other prior knowledge. Additionally,
Discussion
thePotential
4.1. MLC process couldofbethe
Advantage combined
Use of CVFZ with inmachine
Vegetationlearning methods
Analysis [80–82].
and Policymaking
Furthermore, in addition to distinguishing vegetation functions, benefits
Ecosystem services bridge the gap between policymaking and actual by link-of
the screening
ing ecosystem characteristics as intermediate services and to human
highly representative and high-quality vegetation pixels could be a potential advantage well-being as the ul-
timate service [83]. Our research helps map ecosystem services
of CVFZ in vegetation analysis. As illustrated in Figure 9 with MCD-2011, after being and establish indicators of
the monitored ecosystems and final services, thus effectively mitigating
filtered by CVFZ, 81.3% of pixels were retained, and the D2 of different zones decreased, the negative cau-
sality between
except local ecological
for the evergreen change
broadleaf andThe
forest. economic
averagegrowthD2 value[84].decreased
In addition, fromwhere as-to
0.2309
pects such
0.2247. as agriculture
Notably, of crop,oflivestock,
the LAI average shrublands anddecreased
silviculturalfromproduction
0.53 to 0.32 and inenvironmen-
2011, which is
tal legislation
closer to Sang etfor sustainability
al.’s conflict [85],
research conclusions [79].CVFZ can serve as a that
This demonstrates directthebasis for conflict
remaining pixels
resolution. For example, lower zoning areas focus on agricultural
of MCD-2011 exhibit higher similarity, which indicates potentially higher classification development while
higher zoning
accuracy. This isareas focusthe
because onVCA–MLC
environmental protection.
process does not The variation
require any inlandvegetation expo-
cover products
sure reflected by zoning types also provides new perspectives for
as prior knowledge, thereby avoiding issues such as the misclassification of vegetation thinking about vegeta-
tion type,
pixels quantity,
in land and different
cover products spatial
to some scales of study [86].
extent.

Figure9.9.The
Figure TheLAI
LAImean
mean and
and DD2 (indicated
(indicated by
by the
the error
errorbar)
bar)in
inMCD-2011
MCD-2011andandMCD-CVFZ
MCD-CVFZininthe
the
2
same vegetation. The red curve represents the proportion of pixels remaining after MCD is cut.
same vegetation. The red curve represents the proportion of pixels remaining after MCD is cut.
4.2. Furthermore,
Spatial Variability of Vegetation
CVFZ can alsoDynamics Revealed
be used in by CVFZ
conjunction with other land cover maps to
furtherFigure 10 depicts
analyze the for
vegetation spatial variability
different in vegetation
functions. dynamics
In this study, captured
MCD12Q1 wasby CVFZ,
used as an
which reveals a large void in the central Sichuan region. The corresponding blank
example because the use of MODIS products in classification and cutting can better ensure region
in consistency
the the global topographic map
of results [62]. aligns well because
Additionally, with thevegetation
Chengdu functions
Plain, which is predomi-
are distinguished
nantly an urban area [87]. The blank region’s southwestern side corresponds
at pixel scale, CVFZ can be utilized to analyze the differences in vegetation in to the
a Heng-
specific
duanand
area, Mountains, where the
it has significance forCVFZ types
scientific are mainly
analysis 0 and 2, ecology,
in climatology, while the
andblank area’s
vegetation.
As a derivative product of the hyperspectral image classification algorithm in multi-
temporal image classification, CVFZ has several areas that could be improved. For instance,
the process of endmember extraction could incorporate more LAI time phases, and the
screening of LAI endmembers could introduce other prior knowledge. Additionally, the
MLC process could be combined with machine learning methods [80–82].
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 15 of 21

Remote Sens. 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 23

Ecosystem services bridge the gap between policymaking and actual benefits by link-
ing ecosystem characteristics as intermediate services and to human well-being as the
ultimate service [83]. Our research helps map ecosystem services and establish indicators of
northeastern
the monitoredside corresponds
ecosystems to the
and final Sichuan
services, Basin,
thus where mitigating
effectively the CVFZ the types are primarily
negative causal-
3, 4, and 5.
ity between local ecological change and economic growth [84]. In addition, where aspects
such as The vegetation
agriculture of types in the regions
crop, livestock, differ significantly
and silvicultural productionbased
andon MCD12Q1. Ever-
environmental legis-
green broadleaf forests cover only a small portion of the Chengdu Plain,
lation for sustainability conflict [85], CVFZ can serve as a direct basis for conflict resolution. while the Heng-
duan
For Mountains
example, lowerfeature
zoning grasslands
areas focus (represented
on agriculturalby MCD-CVFZ
development types
while10 higher
and 12)zoning
with a
greening speed of 2.08 × 10 −3 m2m−2yr−1 to 4.72 × 10−3 m2m−2yr−1, respectively. In contrast,
areas focus on environmental protection. The variation in vegetation exposure reflected by
the Sichuan
zoning types Basin is predominantly
also provides savannas
new perspectives for(represented
thinking about by MCD-CVFZ
vegetation type, types 43, 44,
quantity,
and different
and 45) with spatial
a greening
scalesspeed
of studyof 1.34
[86].× 10 m m yr to 1.56 × 10 m m yr , which is
−2 2 −2 −1 −2 2 −2 −1

nearly six times that of the Hengduan Mountains.

Although
4.2. Spatial the five
Variability vegetationDynamics
of Vegetation types share the same
Revealed phenological cycle of 1, the LAI
by CVFZ
intra-annual
Figure 10 depicts the spatial variability in vegetationtypes
fluctuation of the two grassland vegetation smoothly
dynamics rises before
captured by CVFZ,de-
creasing between −0.3 m 2m−2 and 1.1 m2m−2, peaking between Days 200 and 230. In con-
which reveals a large void in the central Sichuan region. The corresponding blank region in
trast,
the the three
global savanna
topographic vegetation
map aligns welltypes
withhave
the a volatilityPlain,
Chengdu between
which −1.1 m2m−2 and 1.9
is predominantly
mm
an 2 −2
urban, with
areapeaks
[87]. around
The blank Dayregion’s
210. Thesouthwestern
significant variability in potential
side corresponds vegetation
to the Hengduan dy-
namics between
Mountains, wheregeographically
the CVFZ typessimilar regions
are mainly 0 and illustrates the blank
2, while the value area’s
of CVFZ land use
northeastern
management
side corresponds in China.
to the Sichuan Basin, where the CVFZ types are primarily 3, 4, and 5.

Figure10.
Figure 10.Spatial
Spatialvariability
variabilityininvegetation
vegetation dynamics
dynamics revealed
revealed by by CVFZ:
CVFZ: a case
a case study
study ofHengduan
of the the Heng-
duan Mountains, the Chengdu Plain, and the Sichuan Basin.
Mountains, the Chengdu Plain, and the Sichuan Basin.

4.3. Drivers of Vegetation

The vegetation typesDynamics as Jointly
in the regions Explained
differ with Other
significantly based Studies
on MCD12Q1. Evergreen
The growth
broadleaf of vegetation
forests cover is influenced
only a small portion of bythe
various drivers,
Chengdu Plain,such
whileas climate change
the Hengduan
and humanfeature
Mountains activities [88]. Temperature
grasslands (represented is by
a major contributor
MCD-CVFZ typesto10the
and spatial anda temporal
12) with greening
changes
speed in vegetation
of 2.08 × 10−3 mgrowth dynamics nationwide, and human factors such as afforesta-
2 m−2 yr−1 to 4.72 × 10−3 m2 m−2 yr−1 , respectively. In contrast, the

tion, urbanization,
Sichuan and agricultural
Basin is predominantly practices
savannas also affectby
(represented vegetation
MCD-CVFZ growth
typesin43,
certain re-
44, and
gions
45) [89,90].
with This isspeed
a greening demonstrated
of 1.34 × by10−the
2 m2 m−2 yr−1 to 1.56 × 10−2 m2 m−2 yr−1 , which is
dramatic change in the proportion of vegetation
types found
nearly in this
six times thatstudy
of the(Figure
Hengduan 4a,d).Mountains.
Zhang et al. [91] found that the mean and standard
deviation
Although of China
the fiveLAI exhibited
vegetation a gradient
types share thefrom
same northwest
phenological to cycle
southeast,
of 1, thewhich was
LAI intra-
closely related to the temperature change pattern. This pattern is consistent with the ob-
annual fluctuation of the two grassland vegetation types smoothly rises before decreasing
m2 m −2 and 1.1 m2 m−2 , peaking between Days 200 and 230. In contrast,
servation−that
between 0.3 the CVFZ zone displays a northeast-southwest distribution pattern (Figure
2 m−2 and 1.9 m2 m−2 ,
3). Moreover,
the three savanna the vegetation
trends in vegetation
types havedynamics
a volatilityshow significant
between −1.1 mregional and seasonal
heterogeneity.
with peaks around Day 210. The significant variability in potential vegetation dynamics
betweenSouthern China is similar
geographically more affected by temperature,
regions illustrates the value while mostland
of CVFZ of the
use grasslands
management in
northern China are more influenced by precipitation. According to Piao et al. [92] and
in China.
Munier et al. [93], greening has been observed in most parts of China during this century,
4.3. Drivers of Vegetation Dynamics as Jointly Explained with Other Studies
while Inner Mongolia, dominated by winter crops and needleleaf forests, has experienced
The precipitation
reduced growth of vegetation is influenced
and consequent by various
browning drivers,due
of vegetation such
to as climatedroughts
frequent change
and human activities [88]. Temperature is a major contributor to the spatial
[82]. Additionally, Maimaitiyiming et al. [94] found that changes in precipitation in high- and tem-
poral changesand
temperature in water-scarce
vegetation growth dynamics
areas, such as thenationwide,
Aksu regionand human factors
of northwest China,such as
trigger
afforestation, urbanization, and agricultural practices also affect vegetation
the urban heat island effect by affecting urban green spaces. Tang et al. [95] studied the growth in
certain regions [89,90]. This is demonstrated by the dramatic change in the
vegetation greening in northern Xinjiang and browning in northeastern Inner Mongolia, proportion of
vegetation types found in this study (Figure 4a,d). Zhang et al. [91] found that the mean
and further revealed the significant impact of climate change on vegetation dynamics
from a phenological perspective.
Li et al. [96] and Huang et al. [97] have observed a trend in vegetation greening at the
average level on the Tibetan Plateau over the course of this century. This is mainly due to
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 16 of 21

and standard deviation of China LAI exhibited a gradient from northwest to southeast,
which was closely related to the temperature change pattern. This pattern is consistent with
the observation that the CVFZ zone displays a northeast-southwest distribution pattern
(Figure 3). Moreover, the trends in vegetation dynamics show significant regional and
seasonal heterogeneity.
Southern China is more affected by temperature, while most of the grasslands in
northern China are more influenced by precipitation. According to Piao et al. [92] and
Munier et al. [93], greening has been observed in most parts of China during this cen-
tury, while Inner Mongolia, dominated by winter crops and needleleaf forests, has expe-
rienced reduced precipitation and consequent browning of vegetation due to frequent
droughts [82]. Additionally, Maimaitiyiming et al. [94] found that changes in precipitation
in high-temperature and water-scarce areas, such as the Aksu region of northwest China,
trigger the urban heat island effect by affecting urban green spaces. Tang et al. [95] studied
the vegetation greening in northern Xinjiang and browning in northeastern Inner Mongolia,
and further revealed the significant impact of climate change on vegetation dynamics from
a phenological perspective.
Li et al. [96] and Huang et al. [97] have observed a trend in vegetation greening at
the average level on the Tibetan Plateau over the course of this century. This is mainly
due to increased precipitation, permafrost degradation, and a decrease in overgrazing.
The study also found significant changes in vegetation dynamics in most ecosystem areas
around 2007–2010. In this study, a significant decline in the annual fluctuation sequence
of LAI was found in most vegetation around 2010, with a decline as high as 0.2 m2 m−2
in evergreen broadleaf forests (Figure 9). Song et al. [98] reported a browning trend in
most vegetation dominated by alpine meadows in the high-altitude areas of Cocoxili. This
study further reported that the grasslands of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, dominated by
types 10 and 11 (Figure 4d), had a weak greening trend of 2.08 × 10−3 m2 m−2 yr−1 to
2.70 × 10−3 m2 m−2 yr−1 (Figure 7a).
Regarding urban areas, the impact of human activities on vegetation dynamics is het-
erogeneous, with greening occurring in some areas. Jiang et al. [99] and Huang et al. [100]
studied vegetation loss in the Beijing area from 2000 to 2015, which occurred mainly in the
area between the fourth and sixth ring roads, while vegetation restoration and increase
mainly occurred in the Beijing Plain. This is due to economic development and local
ecological restoration projects. Tong et al. [101] reported that ecological restoration projects
have led to the greening of vegetation in much of southwest China between 2001 and 2011.
Seasonally, changes in spring and autumn are mainly temperature-driven, while in
summer, precipitation in parts of northern China is slightly more predominant. Xu et al. [55]
and Liu et al. [102] have found a nationwide trend of an increased vegetation index driven
by rising average temperatures in spring and autumn, while precipitation has been in
decline in summer since the 1982 limits vegetation growth in parts of northern China, such
as northeastern Inner Mongolia.

5. Conclusions
This study presents an innovative approach that divides China’s vegetation area into
10 zones, forming a novel product termed China Vegetation Functional Zones (CVFZ). The
primary findings of this study are summarized below:
• Firstly, CVFZ outperforms MCD12Q1 and CLCD, exhibiting superior performance in
distinguishing vegetation with varying functions. Even in smaller zones, CVFZ can
also well distinguish vegetation with different functions from the angle of LAI mean
or the LAI time series. Although this study does not cover further measured tests, it
indicates that the use of the VCA–MLC algorithm provides some taxonomic value in
vegetation studies. The resulting CVFZ derivative product offers valuable information
for climate and ecological monitoring and management.
• Secondly, the speed of greening of vegetation ranges from 9.02 × 10−4 m2 m−2 yr−1 in
shrubland subregions to 2.34 × 10−2 m2 m−2 yr−1 in savanna subregions. In relative
Remote Sens. 2023, 15, 2975 17 of 21

terms, the average greening speed of forests is moderate, and savannas tend to have
the fastest average greening speed. The average greening speed of grasslands and
crops with different functions varies widely. In contrast, the average greening speed
of shrublands is the smallest.
• Thirdly, as the location of CVFZ shifts to a higher type within the same vegetation,
the greening speed generally increases and then decreases, with the slope peaking
around types 4–6, and the phenological cycle generally lags but tends to increase; for
example, CVFZ-detected grasslands with one or two phenological cycles, broadleaf
crops with one or two phenological cycles, and shrublands with one or not-so-obvious
phenological cycles.

Author Contributions: T.X.: formal analysis and writing—original draft preparation. K.Y. (Kai Yan):
conceptualization, methodology, writing—review and editing, funding acquisition, supervision, and
project administration. Y.H.: validation and software. S.G.: visualization. K.Y. (Kai Yang): formal
analysis. J.W.: investigation. J.L.: editing. Z.L.: resources. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China Major
Program (42192580) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42271356).
Data Availability Statement: The data used in the study is publicly available.
Acknowledgments: We thank the MODIS LAI & FPAR team for all their help and the team of Yang
Jie and Huang Xin of Wuhan University for support with the CLCD dataset. We also appreciate the
fruitful suggestions from the anonymous reviewers which made the work better.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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