6 Virtual Work

The methods used in chapter 4 for the complete analysis of trusses and frames
involved successive applications of the conditions for equilibrium either for a
particle or for a rigid body. In this chapter we consider a further interpretation of
the state of equilibrium that has important implications. In particular, a method
is provided for enabling selected unknown forces in connected bodies to be deter-
mined without having to apply the conditions for equilibrium to each body
separately.

6.1 Work

Before going on to discuss the principle of virtual work it is necessary to define

the work of a force. In chapters 10 and 13 the discussion of work will be much
enlarged in the context of power and energy but for our present purposes the
basic definition which follows is sufficient.

6.1.1 Work of a Force

In figure 6.1 a a particle is moving along a path under the influence of a force F.

0 X

(a) (b)

Figure 6.1

The work of the force for a small displacement os of the particle from P to P' is
defined to be F cos a:os or Fsos where Fs = F cos a: is the component ofF in the
direction of the tangent to the path of the particle at P. The total work of the
force on the particle as ~t moves from position s 1 to position s 2 along its path is
symbolised by U1 _ 2 , and it follows that

(6.1)

Work is positive if Fs has the same sense as os; its unit is the joule (J), which is
equivalent to 1 N m.
92 BASIC ENGINEERING MECHANICS

It is easily demonstrated (see section 10.5) that the work of a force F can be
calculated by reference to its components in arbitrary x- andy-directions, since
F cos a: lis = F lis = F'x li x
8 + Fyli y
and

the initial and final positions of the particle being (x 1 , y.) and (x 2 , Y2 ).

6.1.2 Work of a Torque or Couple

The preceeding definition is sufficient to allow the total work of a set of forces
acting on a rigid body to be calculated. However, where torques or couples are
applied to a rigid body, it is convenient to be able to state the work of a couple
in terms of its moment. A couple is indicated in figure 6.1 b by two equal unlike
parallel forces F and F' a distanced apart such that the moment of the couple
M =Fd. It is required to determine the work of the couple as the body turns
through an angle l)(J about a point 0 so that the line AB moves to A'B', its
length remaining unchanged. If l)(J is small, AA' and BB' are both perpendicular
to AB, and make equal angles with the common direction ofF and F'. The total
work of the couple is then

l) u = F cos a: X AA' - F' cos a: X BB'

= F cos a: (AA' - BB')
= F cos a: (rA l)(J - r8 l>O)
= F l)(J x AB cos a:
= Fd liO
= M l>O

The total work of the couple as the body rotates from 0 1 to 0 2 is

(6.2)

This is positive if M and l)(J have the same sense. The unit is again the joule,
with (} measured in radians.
It is a simple matter to demonstrate that if the body moves in such a way that
the orientation of AB is unchanged, that is, the body does not rotate, the couple
does no work; the work of a couple or torque is therefore associated only with
rotation of the body.
 VIRTUAL WORK 93

6.2 Principle of Virtual Work

In chapters 3 and 4 the forces acting on the particles of a particle system were
broadly classified as external and internal, depending on their source relative to
the system boundary. For the purposes of the present discussion, different criteria
are adopted to classify the forces; they again fall into two categories, now
referred to as applied forces and forces of constraint. Constraints are geometrical
restrictions imposed on the motion of a system; constraint forces are those
external forces associated with such constraints when the system is subjected to
applied forces, and also those internal forces required to maintain the geometrical
configuration of the system particles. The distinction is brought out further in the
course of the discussion.
Suppose now a single particle subject to a given set of forces undergoes an
arbitrary, infmitesimally small displacement l>s whose effect on the magnitudes and
directions of the forces acting on the particle is negligible. The cause of the dis-
placement need not be questioned since it is arbitrary and is not necessarily
related to the forces acting. Such a supposed displacement is termed a virtual
displacement. Arising from the displacement there will be work Fs l>s associated
with each individual force and the total work ~8 U = ~Fs l>s for all the forces can
in principle be calculated. Since the work arises from a virtual displacement it is
called virtual work.
If the particle is in equilibrium under the action of the force set, then the total
work is zero in a virtual displacement. This follows since the sum of the virtual
works of the forces is equal to the virtual work of their resultant, and the resultant
is zero if the particle is in equilibrium.
For a particle system the virtual work for the forces, both external and internal,
on all the particles can again, in principle, be calculated. The total virtual work is
not, in general, zero even if the system is initially in equilibrium, since the internal
forces in particular may change during the arbitrary displacements, which are, in
general, different for each particle.
Now we can limit the virtual displacements to those that are said to be consis-
tent with certain constraints. Thus if the system is a rigid body the distances
between the particles are unchanging; the total virtual work of the internal forces
taken in pairs is then zero. Further, the rigid body itself can be subject to con-
straints on its movement, which limit the number of possible virtual displacements;
if the work of a constraint force during such a displacement is zero then the
constraint is said to be a workless constraint. Typical examples of forces at work-
less constraints are
(1) the normal reaction at a sliding contact with a fixed smooth surface
(2) the normal reaction at a rolling contact
(3) the reaction at a smooth fixed pin
(4) the pair of equal and opposite reactions at a smooth pinned joint between
connected bodies.
It now follows that if a rigid body, or a system of rigid bodies connected by
smooth pins, is in equilibrium under a set of applied forces and forces of workless
94 BASIC ENGINEERING MECHANICS

constraints, then the virtual work of the applied forces is zero in a virtual dis-
placement consistent with the constraints, since the work of the constraint forces
is zero. If friction is present it is treated as an applied force.
The converse of this statement can be shown to be a condition for equilibrium.
It is then referred to as the principle of virtual work and can be stated as follows:
a rigid body or system of connected rigid bodies is in equilibrium if and only if
the work of the applied forces is zero in any arbitrary virtual displacement that is
consistent with workless constraints.
If Fapp,s is the component of an applied force in the direction of a virtual
displacement, magnitude 8s, of its point of application, then the condition for
equilibrium of the system can be stated in the form
L8 U = LFapp,s 8s =0 (6.3)
When applied couples or torques are present L8 U is understood· to include the
virtual work of such couples or torques.

6.3 Applications: Connected Bodies

The principle of virtual work, when expressed in equation form, can be used to
calculate unknown forces acting on systems that are known to be, or are required
to be, in equilibrium. For this purpose the virtual displacements at the salient
points are expressed in terms of the changes in those coordinates that fix the
configuration of the body or system of connected bodies. The number of such
coordinates represents the number of degrees of freedom of the system. For
example, in figure 6.2a the angle 8 fixes the configuration of the slider- crank

{a) {b)

Figure 6.2

mechanism, which accordingly has one degree of freedom. A small angular

displacement 88 of the link OC brings about a corresponding linear displacement
8xp at P; the relation between 88 and 8xp can be determined, and hence 8xp can
be expressed in terms of 88. Figure 6.2b represents a five-bar chain having two
degrees of freedom since it is necessary to specify two coordinates, such as 8 1
and 82 , to fix the configuration.
In the case of a truss supported on a roller and pin joint, or a framework pinned
to a support, it might be thought at first sight that no displacement is possible.
 VIRTUAL WORK 95

However, if one or other of the constraints is relaxed and replaced by a force

equivalent to the original constraint force then a virtual displacement is possible
in which the equivalent force, now regarded as an applied force, has virtual work
associated with it.
In order to set up the virtual-work equation it is again advisable to draw a
diagram of the isolated body or system. However, the forces of workless con-
straints should not be entered since they do not appear in the virtual-work
equation. The remaining applied forces are sometimes referred to as active forces,
and the diagram is then best referred to as an active-force diagram.

Worked Example 6.1

For the framework shown in figure 6.3a determine the force in the member CD
in terms of the load Wand the angle 8. All pins are smooth.

(a) (b)

Figure 6.3

Solution
The framework as shown is rigid. Now the member CD supplies equal and oppo-
site forces of magnitude Fat joints C and D. If the member is removed and the
same forces are applied at C and D the configuration of the frame can be arbitrarily
changed. Since the configuration of the frame can be determined by the angle 8
only, or by the length AB only, the system has one degree of freedom. An active-
force diagram is drawn as shown in figure 6.3b, the constraints at all the pins
being workless. Rectangular coordinate directions are indicated with origin at the
fixed pin A.
In terms of 8 the coordinates of C, D and B are respectively
xc =- L sin 8 Xo = L sin 8 YB = 8 L cos(}
96 BASIC ENGINEERING MECHANICS

The change ox in a typical coordinate x due to a small change o8 is given by

ox= (dx/d8~8. The virtual displacements at C, D and B corresponding to a
virtual angular displacement 08 are thus respectively
oxc - (L cos 8)08
ox 0 = (L cos 8)o8
oz 8 = - (8L sin 8)o8
Applying the principle of virtual work, and using equation 6.3, (note that the
force at Cis in the negative x -direction)
(- F)oxc + Fox 0 + Woz 8 = 0
therefore
(-F) x (- L cos 8)o8 + F x (L cos 8)88 + W x (-8L sin 8)o8 =0
and
F = 4Wtan8
In the above example the relaxation of a constraint in order to make a virtual
displacement possible had the effect of converting an otherwise rigid frame into a
mechanism. The principle of virtual work is thus directly applicable to mechanisms
to determine the relation between input and output forces and torques; a velocity
diagram (as described in chapter 11) for the mechanism is then the most conven-
ient method of relating displacements at the salient points.

6.4 Connected Bodies: Friction and Elastic Members

In the application of the virtual-work principle to connected bodies, the forces

considered to be active forces were so chosen as to make certain constraints work-
less. If external friction were present at a constraint then it was to be treated as
an active force. A difficulty arises here since the magnitude and direction of such
a friction force is usually not known; even if it were known to be limiting friction
then it would depend on the normal reaction, which would have to be determined
first, usually by separation of the members. The main advantages of the virtual-
work method are then lost. The same remarks would apply to problems involving
friction at internal constraints. Worked example 6.2 illustrates a case in which an
initial assumption has been made on the magnitude of the friction force at an
internal constraint. The essential fact is that the net work of the pair of equal
and opposite friction forces at a connection at which relative movement is taking
place, is always negative because the frictional force always opposes the relative
motion.
Suppose the system contains an elastic member. By this we mean one whose
deformation o is proportional to the magnitude F of the force exerted by it, such
that F = ko, where k is termed the elastic constant, with units N/m. If this elastic
member, for example a spring having undeformed length L 0 , has length L then its