FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY CONTENT

- Structure of skeletal muscle

o Epimysium

o Fascicle

o Perimysium

o Muscle fibre

o Myofibril

- The role of myosin, actin and the sarcomere in sliding filament theory.

- The relationship between the velocity and duration of muscle contraction to the amount of force exerted by
the contraction.
o Force-velocity

o Force-length

- Function of the nerves, spinal cord, motor unit (dendrite, axon, neuron).

- Relationship between muscle contraction and nerve function.

- Characteristics of fast and slow twitch fibres and their relationship to physical performance types (sprint,
endurance).
o Type I

o Type IIa

o Type IIb
 STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
Each skeletal muscle is an organ, made up several kinds of tissues. Although skeletal muscle consists mainly of
muscle fibres, it also contains blood vessels, nerve fibres, and substantial amounts of connective tissue.

NERVE AND BLOOD SUPPLY

In general, each muscle is served by one nerve, an artery, and by one or more veins, all of which enter or exit near
the central part of the muscle and branch profusely through its connective tissue sheaths (described below). Unlike
cells of cardiac and smooth muscle tissues, which can contract in the absence of nerve stimulation, each skeletal
muscle fibre is supplied with a nerve ending that controls its activity.

Contracting muscle fibres use huge amounts of energy (ATP) which is provided via the three main energy systems
(ATP-PC, Anaerobic Glycolysis, Aerobic). This means each muscle requires a continuous delivery of oxygen and
nutrients via the arteries. Muscle cells also give off large amounts of metabolic wastes that must be removed
through veins if contraction is to remain efficient. Muscle capillaries, the smallest of the body’s blood vessels are
long and winding.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE SHEATHS

In an intact muscle, the individual muscle fibres are wrapped and held together by several different connective tissue
sheaths. Together these connective tissue sheaths support each cell and reinforce the muscle as a whole.
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Epimysium Connective tissue surrounding each muscle.

Fascicle A bundle of muscle fibres.

Perimysium The connective tissue that surrounds the fascicles.

Muscle fibre Forms part of the fascicles and are comprised of myofibrils. Innervated by motor neurons and
part of a motor unit.

Myofibril Within a muscle fibre, consist of a number of adjacent sarcomeres.

Sarcomere The contractile component of a muscle fibre. Comprised mostly of actin and myosin.

Actin A thin protein myofilament that attaches to a Z line. Surrounded by two other proteins called
troponin and tropomyosin.

Myosin A thick myofilament of the sarcomere. Contain ‘heads’ which when activated by an ATP, attach
to the actin filament. The heads have a flexible hinge region and a site for binding of ATP.
 STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATIONAL LEVEL OF MUSCLE
STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATIONAL LEVEL DESCRIPTION CONNECTIVE TISSUE WRAPPINGS
Consists of 100s – 1000s of Covered externally by the
muscle cells, plugs connective epimysium.
tissue wrappings, blood vessels
and nerve fibres.

Discrete bundle of muscle cells, Surrounded by a perimysium.

segregated from the rest of the
muscle by a connective tissue
sheath.

Elongated multinucleate cell; has Surrounded by endomysium.

a banded (striated) appearance.
Composed of myofibrils.
Between fibres are blood vessels.
Long cylindrical cells.

Rodlike contractile element of muscle.

Myofibrils occupy most of the muscle cell volume; appear banded,
and bands of adjacent myofibrils are aligned; composed of
sarcomeres arranged end to end.

The contractile unit, composed of myofibrils made up of contractile

proteins.

Contractile myofilaments are of two types – thick and thin:

Thick: contain bundled myosin molecules.
Thin: contain actin molecules (plus other proteins).
The sliding of the thin filaments past the thick filaments produces
muscle shortening. Elastic filaments maintain the organisation of the
A band and provide for elastic recoil when muscle contraction ends.

SARCOMERES
A segment of a myofibril which is the functional unit of muscle contractions.

Made up of myofilaments, thick and thin.

SARCOMERE COMSISTS OF:

- Z-Line.
- A-Band.
- H-Zone.
- I-Band.
- M-Line.
 STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Z-Lines A dark thin protein band found at either end of the sarcomere, which actin filaments are
attached to. Marks the boundaries between adjacent sarcomeres.

A-Band The area in the centre of the sarcomere, containing both actin and myosin filaments.
H-Zone Space between the actin filaments which contains myosin only.

I-Band The area of myofibril containing actin.

M-Line Found in the H-Zone and is the mid-point of the sarcomere.

Actin A thin protein myofilament that attached to a z-Line.

Myosin The thick filament of the sarcomere that interacts with the actin filaments.

Myosin head / Projection of myosin filaments that bind to actin.

cross bridge

MYOFILAMENTS
MYOSIN

- Dark bands
- Contain Globular heads arranged in both directions.
- Have both actin and ATP binding sites, and a flexible hinge region.

ACTIN

- Contain active sites (for crossbridge attachment).

- Surrounded by protein tropomyosin (covers the active site when the muscle is at rest) and troponin (where
calcium attaches due to nervous system innervation).
 STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The human nervous system consists of two major parts:

1. The central nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
2. The peripheral nervous system, which contains the nerves that transmit information to and from the CNS.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

BRAIN

- Sends a message to your muscles to contract and movement occurs.

- Interprets information and makes decisions based on sensory input.

SPINAL CORD

- Spinal cord relays information from the brain to the body and relays messages from the body back to the
brain.
- Part of the CNS that connects with the peripheral nervous system. Contains pathways for motor information.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

SENSORY NEURONS

- A sensory neuron is a nerve that conveys nerve impulses back to the spinal cord or brain.
- Sensory neurons receive information or stimuli from sensory receptors found in various location in the body,
for e.g. the eyes, ears, tongue, skin.

MOTOR NEURONS

- Motor neurons move impulses away from the CNS and take information or responses from the brain to
muscles.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF A MOTOR NEURON
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Dendrites Short branched fibres which receive a neural impulse and carries it towards the cell body.
Cell body Directs the neuron’s activities.

Axon Transmits the message away from the cell body towards the muscle fibres.
Axon terminal Distal branches of the axon.

Motor end plates Where axon terminals attach to the muscle fibres.
Muscle fibre Contains a number of myofibrils.

Motor unit Contains the motor neuron and the muscle fibres it innervates.

Motor neuron consists of a cell body, axon and dendrites, this allows it to transmit an electrochemical impulse form
the spinal cord to the muscle. This impulse eventually travels towards the
terminal (end) branches at the motor end plate.

PATHWAY OF AN IMPULSE THROUGH THE MOTOR NEURON

Information enters a motor neuron through the dendrites – which act as a

branch to pick up the impulse.

Dendrites then passes message into the cell body, which directs neurons
activities.

From here it is sent down through the axon (transmits the message to the
muscle away from the cell body) until it reaches the axon terminals.

Where a motor neuron connects with a muscle fibre is called the motor end
plate.
A MOTOR UNIT
- Consists of the motor neuron and the specific muscle fibres it
stimulates.
- Muscle action results from the individual and combined actions
of motor units.
- Each muscle fibre generally receives input from only one
neuron, yet a motor neuron may innervate many muscle fibres.

A motor unit contains only one specific muscle fibre type (i.e. type I,
type II [a/b])

WHY?

Muscle fibres illicit contradictory responses. If you need to produce fast, powerful movement, trying to innervate
different fibre types with the same impulse would make no sense.

Your preferentially recruit the motor unit which innervate specific fibre types
based on the outcome/ response the brain desires.

- The number of muscle fibres within each motor unit varies.

o The muscles of the thigh might have 1000 fibres in each unit
whilst the muscles of the eye might have only 10.

In general;

- The smaller the motor unit (i.e. innervates a small number of muscle
fibres) the more precise the action of the muscle.
o E.g. the eye.
- The larger the motor unit (i.e. innervates a large number of muscle fibres)
usually results in the recreation of gross motor skills.
o E.g. the muscles of the quadriceps when kicking a ball.

NERVOUS SYSTEM CONTROL OF MUSCULAR FUNCTION

COMPONENT FUNCTION IN MOVEMENT
Sensory neuron Sensory neuron receives information and pass information to the cell body of the sensory
neuron/brain.
Brain Interprets/decides on the information and sends signals/impulse/action potential for
movement to occur.
Spinal cord Transmits electrical messages from the brain to parts of the body.

Motor neuron Transmits electrical information/signals from the CNS to the muscle fibres.
Motor unit The motor unit consists of the neuron and the muscle fibres it innervates. Therefore, the motor
unit receives signals and innervates/stimulates the associated muscle fibres, causing
contraction.
 THE SARCOMERE
Sarcomeres lie adjacent to each other across the length of the myofibril. Makes up the contractile unit of the muscle fibre.

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Z-Lines A dark thin protein band found at either end of the sarcomere, which actin filaments are
attached to. Marks the boundaries between adjacent sarcomeres.
A-Band The area in the centre of the sarcomere, containing both actin and myosin filaments.

H-Zone Space between the actin filaments which contains myosin only.
I-Band The area of myofibril containing actin.

M-Line Found in the H-Zone and is the mid-point of the sarcomere.

Actin A thin protein myofilament that attached to a z-Line.

Myosin The thick filament of the sarcomere that interacts with the actin filaments.
Myosin head / Projection of myosin filaments that bind to actin.
cross bridge

ACTION OF THE

SARCOMERE DURING MUSCLE CONTRACTION

The following describes the sequence of events when looking at the role of the sarcomere in muscular contraction;

1. Stimulus delivered by a motor nerve.

2. Myosin heads activated by an ATP molecule, as the active sites are made available on actin.
3. Myosin heads form cross-bridges attach to actin.
4. Actin filaments are pulled in – the I-band and H-zone get smaller.
5. Z-lines are pulled closer together – sarcomere gets smaller.

SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION – SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY

The sarcomere (a segment of the myofibril) shortens (concentric)/lengthens (eccentric) when actin slides over the
myosin causing the muscle to contract.

SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY

STAG EXPLANATION
E
1. Nerve impulse is transferred to the axon terminals where it meets the motor end plate. Acetylcholine is
released over the synaptic cleft.

2. Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

3. The presence of Calcium makes the binding sites on actin available.

4. ATP activates myosin head causing it to attach to actin filaments creating a cross-bridge.
5. Breakdown of ATP releases energy to stimulate cross-bridges causing the cross-bridges/myosin heads to
pull on the actin.
6. The sarcomere/muscle fibre shortens as actin filaments move closer together.

7. Z-line is pulled closer together/actin and myosin overlap causing I-band and H-zone to decrease in
size/disappear.

8. As the muscle relaxes – Ca2+ returns to sarcoplasmic reticulum, myosin crossbridge detaches from actin
via an ATP molecule and the sarcomere returns to relaxed state.
FIBRE RECRUITMENT
The force of muscle action varies from slight to maximal and can be explained by fibre recruitment.

- Increased number of motor unit recruited – due to increased impulses from the brain (stronger impulse =
more motor units activated and the more muscle fibres contract).
- Increased frequency of motor unit discharge – greater the frequency of arrival of nerve impulses = greater
FORCE produced by muscle.

A muscle generates considerable force when activated by all of its motor units. Blending recruitment of motor units
and modification of their firing rate allows for a variety of muscle actions.

- E.g. the delicate touch of fine movements compared to maximal effort of throwing a ball for distance.

PREFERENTIAL FIBRE RECRUITMENT

The intensity of the task will determine which muscle fibre types are ‘recruited’.

- IMMEDIATE and RAPID response  fast twitch fibres recruited first.

- LOWER INTENSITY = slow twitch fibres recruited first.

A motor unit contains only one specific muscle fibre type (i.e. type I, type IIa, type IIb).

- Fast/slow twitch fibre have different characteristics and are recruited depending on the desired movement
outcome.
o E.g. fibre diameter, size on neurons they are innervated by, speed of nerve impulse.
- If you want to exert a forceful contraction, recruiting slow twitch fibres would not be beneficial to producing
this large force (vice versa).
- If a motor neuron innervated both types, this would be a contradictory response!

ALL OR NOTHING PRINCIPLE

When an electrical impulse reaches a certain THRESHOLD, all of the muscle fibres of that motor unit will contract at
the same time and as forcefully as possible. Until the threshold is reaches, none of the fibres will contract.

- When a motor unit is activated, all of its fibres contract.

- To increase the strength of contraction, the brain simply sends more signals resulting in the recruitment of
more motor units.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLE FIBRE TYPES

MUSCLE FIBRE TYPES
SLOW-TWITCH FAST-TWITCH FAST-TWITCH
CHARACTERISTIC
Type I Type IIa Type IIb
Contraction speed Slow Fast Very fast
Contraction
Force capacity Low High Very high
characteristics
Fatigue resistance High Medium/low Low

Motor neuron / Size of motor neuron Small Large Very large

fibre structure Fibre diameter Small Medium Large
Aerobic enzymes High Medium Low
Enzymes
Anaerobic enzymes Low Medium High
Fuel source Phosphocreatine stores Low Medium/low High
 Glycogen stores Some Lots A little
Triglyceride stores High Medium/low Low

Myoglobin content High Medium Low

Structures Mitochondria density High Medium Low

Capillary density High Medium Low

Colour Colour Red White/red White

Performance Performance conditions Aerobic Partially aerobic Purely anaerobic

Key characteristics of slow twitch fibres that enhance aerobic performance:

SLOW TWITCH FIBRES – Type I

CHARACTERISTIC EXPLANATION
High capillary density Large blood supply, large transfer of oxygen to working
muscles
High mitochondrial density and oxidative enzymes Leads to large release of energy under aerobic
conditions.
High triglyceride stores Preferred fuel source under submaximal aerobic
conditions.

Key characteristics of fast twitch fibres that enhance anaerobic performance:

FAST TWITCH FIBRES – Type II

CHARACTERISTIC EXPLANATION
High Phosphocreatine PCr stores (IIb) The quickest source of energy under anaerobic
conditions.
High glycogen stores (IIa) Preferred fuel during near maximal efforts calling upon
the lactic acid system.
High anaerobic enzymes Speed up the breakdown of anaerobic fuels during
high-intensity efforts.

MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A MUSCLE

Force/tension developed in a muscle depends upon:

- The number of fibres recruited and their firing rate.

- The relative size of the muscle – tension is proportional to the physiological cross-sectional area of the
muscle.
- The mechanical properties of the muscle, as expressed by the force-length and force-velocity relationships.
In order to understand the mechanical properties of a muscle, it is important to know that force can only be
produced when myosin cross-bridges are attached to actin.

** therefore, the more cross-bridges attached, the greater the force.

FORCE-LENGTH
The force-length relationship explains how muscle tension varies at different muscle lengths.

** force-length essentially looks how the length of the sarcomere changes as a joint moves through its range of
motion.

- The optimal muscle length and angle is different for each part of the body.
- Maximum force is produced when the greatest number of myosin cross-bridges are attached (often near the
middle of a joints range of motion/resting length.

BEGINNING OF CONCENTRIC CONTRACTION  stretched.

The muscle is fully lengthened (the sarcomere is on stretch) cross-bridge attachment is impaired.

- This is because there is insufficient overlap of the myofilaments. Thus, force production is reduced because
decrease in the number of available binding sites on the actin.

RESTING LENGTH  mid-range motion.

As the muscle moves through the contraction and reaches mid-range motion (approximately) i.e. resting length.\

- There is optimal overlap of the myofilaments. This maximises cross-bridge attachment. Therefore, force
production is at its greatest.

MUSCLE REACHES END OF ITS ROM  fully contracted.

The sarcomere is fully shortened and there is too much overlap of the myofilaments which means cross-bridge
attachment is impaired. Thus, force production is reduced.

FORCE-VELOCITY
The amount of force produced by a muscle depends upon the velocity of muscle contraction.

** this relationship does not imply that it is impossible to move a heavy resistance at a high speed.

ECCENTRIC ISOMETRIC CONCENTRIC

Maximum force (resisted) is The most force is produced. Maximum force (created) is
achieved at maximal velocities. achieved at minimum velocities.

All three muscle contractions (isometric, eccentric and concentric are

reflected in this relationship.

APPLICATION

Training can shift this curve upward. Heavy weight training shifts the curve up for
isometric and slow concentric actions, while power training improves muscle forces
at high concentric speeds.
EXPLANATION AT MYOFILAMENT LEVEL

It takes time for muscular contraction to occur (~0.1sec).

If a contraction is required rapidly, it may not allow sufficient time for sarcomere to fully contract.

- i.e. when lifting, pushing or pulling something heavy, your movements re much slower as this gives time for
all the sarcomeres to contract and therefore, produce much greater forces.

The greatest amount of force can be developed during an isometric contraction.

- Although determined by ROM at that point!

** this is because there is no movement in the muscle and all the actin and myosin myofibrils are attached i.e.
greatest number of cross-bridges attached.

If an isometric contraction produced the most amount of force, then why does the graph demonstrate greater force
in an eccentric contraction?

Maximum eccentric strength is estimated to be between 1.5 – 2 times maximum concentric strength.

During an eccentric contraction, the muscle lengthens while under tension.

The greater overall amount of force is resisted force not force produced by the muscle.

Myofilament AND connective tissue/tendons all assist in resisting force (whereas only the myofilaments can produce
force in a concentric force).

During an eccentric action some cross-bridges are forcibly detached (OUCH=DOMS) due to the stretching of the
muscle fibre, thus using less ATP. This results in sarcomere strain or damage referred to as exercise-induced delayed
onset muscle soreness (DOMS).

- Decreased rate of cross-bridge detachments results in an increased PERCENTAGE of cross-bridges remaining

attached = greater force.