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EXPRESSION OF BIOLOGICAL INFORMATION

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BY SYAKIRAH BINT I MUNIR MS2013172248 H8P01A

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 DIAGRAM 1 : CONCEPT OF CENT RAL DOGMA
What is Centr The ‘Central Dogma’ is the process by which the instructions in DNA are
converted into a functional product. It was first proposed in 1958 by Francis Crick, d

CONCEPT OF CENTRAL DOGMA

What is Central Dogma?
T he ‘Central Dogma’ is the process by which the instructions in DNA are converted into a
functional product. It was first proposed in 1958 by Francis Crick, discoverer of the structure
of DNA.
T he Central Dogma is one of the fundamental concept of molecular biology. It is explains the
flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to make a functional product, which is a
PROT EIN. (DNA makes RNA makes PROT EIN)
T he central dogma states that DNA contains the information needed to make all of our
proteins, and that RNA is a messenger that carries this information to the ribosomes.
T he ribosomes acts as factories in the cell where is the information is translated from a code
into the functional product (protein). T he process which is the DNA instructions are
converted into the product is called GENE EXPRESSION.
Gene expression has two stages, which is transcription and translation. 

Transcription : the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA.

Translation : the actual synthesis of a protein which occurs under the direction of
mRNA.
 DIAGRAM 2 : SEMI-CONSERVAT IVE MODEL
Meselson and Stahl experiment to test semi-conservative hypothesis of replication

DNA Replication
What is DNA Replication?
DNA carries coded genetic information in its sequences of organis bases. DNA replication is a
process synthesis of new DNA molecules during S phase (interphase) of cell division.
DNA replication is important for the transfer of genetic information during cell divisions.
DNA replication is a semi-conservative process, because when a new double-stranded DNA
molecule is formed. One strand will be from the original template molecule (old). One strand
will be newly synthesized (new).
 DIAGRAM 3

6 enzymes involved in DNA replication

DNA Helicase
Topoisomerase
DNA Primase
DNA Polymerase III
DNA Polymerase I
DNA Ligase

TABLE OF ENZYMES INVOLVED IN DNA REPLICAT ION AND IT S FUNCT ION

Referring to Semi-conservative model :
T he replication of DNA occurs in the nucleus in eukaryotic cells. Semi-conservative is the
original DNA molecules acts as template and producing 2 DNA molecules (each DNA consists
of one old and new strands).
First step of DNA replication is unwinding the double strands of DNA to separate the 2
strands of DNA catalyzed by DNA Helicase. Single strand binding protein binds to the single
stranded DNA and stabilize it until it is used as a template. Topoisomerase relieves over
winding strain ahead of replication forks by breaking, swiveling and rejoining DNA strands.
Each strands acts as a template. For start synthesizing a new strand, it will requires
formation of RNA primer (a short of RNA) catalysed by DNA Primase. T he RNA primer is
about 10 nucleotides long. T hen, DNA polymerases III catalyses the adding of DNA
nucleotides to the free 3' end of growing DNA strand. A new DNA strand elongates in the 5'
to 3' direction. After that, formation of leading and lagging strands.

Leading strand : formed continuously from 5' to 3' towards the replication fork

DNA polymerase I catalyses the degradation and replacement of RNA primer into DNA
nucleotides.

Lagging strand : formed discontinuously from5' to 3' away from the replication fork in
short segments called Okazaki fragments. Okazaki fragments then joined by DNA
ligase.

T wo new identical copies of the original DNA formed when replication completes. Each DNA
molecule has one old strands and one new complementary strand (semi-conservative).

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS - TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION

DIAGRAM 4 : STAGES OF T RANSCRIPT ION

STAGES OF TERMINATION
TRANSCRIPTION (DNA to mRNA)
STAGE 1 : INIT IAT ION
RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region and unwind the double helix DNA. Only one
strand (the antisense strand) of the DNA acts as template.

STAGE 2 : ELONGAT ION

RNA polymerase moves along the template to catalyse the addition of free RNA nucleotides
to the 3' end of the growing strand. RNA strand is complementary to the bases of the
template. T he elongation of the RNA transcript (mRNA) is in 5' to 3' direction.

STAGE 3 : T ERMINAT ION

Transcription proceeds until RNA polymerase transcribes a terminator sequence in the DNA.
mRNA is release from the template and DNA is then released.

DIAGRAM 5 : T RANSLAT ION

TRANSLATION
Translation is the process of translating the genetic code (codon) carried by mRNA to
synthesize protein.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers amino acid from cytoplasm to ribosome. T he ribosome adds
each amino acid carried by tRNA to the growing end polypeptide chain. Each tRNA arriving at
ribosome carriers a specific amino acid and has a specific nucleotide triplet, an anticodon at
the other.
Stages in Translation
 DIAGRAM 6 : INIT IAT ION IN T RANSLAT ION

Stage 1 : Initiation
Initiation brings together mRNA, a tRNA (with the first amino acid) and the two ribosomal
subunits. Firstly, a small ribosomal subunit bind with mRNA. T hen an initiator tRNA with the
anticodon UAC base pairs with the start codon AUG. Later, a large ribosomal subunit
completes the initiation complex.

DIAGRAM 7: ELONGAT ION IS T RANSLAT ION

Step 2 : Elongation
Elongation have 3 steps. T he steps continue codon by by codon to add amino acids until the
polypeptide chain is completed.
(i) Codon recognition
T he anticodon of an incoming aminoacyl tRNA base pairs with codon of mRNA in the A site.
(ii) Peptide bond formation
Peptidyl transferase the formation of peptide bond between amino acid in the A site and the
growing polypeptide in the P site. T his site removes the polypeptide from the tRNA in the P
site and attaches it to the amino acid on the tRNA in the A site.
(iii) Translocation
T he ribosomes translocate the tRNA in the A site to the P site. At the same time, the empty
tRNA in the P site is moved to E site, where it released.
T he mRNA moves along with its bound tRNAs bringing the next codon to be translated into A
site. Translocation ensures that the mRNA is read to 5' to 3' codon by codon.

DIAGRAM 8 : T ERMINAT ION IN T RANSLAT ION

Stage 3 : Termination
1) When ribosome reaches a stop codon on mRNA, the A site of the ribosome accepts a
protein called a rel.ease factor instead of tRNA.
2) T he release factor hydrolyzes the bond between the tRNA in the P site and the last amino
acid of the polypeptide chain. T he polypeptide is thus freed from the ribosome.
3) T he two ribosomal subunits and the other componentsof the assembly dissociate.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION

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SYNTHESIS OF VIRAL PROTEIN

DIAGRAM 9 : EXAMPLE OF SYNT HESIS OF VIRAL PROT EIN
1) Absorption
T he virus attaches to the host cell by specific binding of its spikes to cell receptors.
2) Penetration
T he virus is engulfed by the cell membrane into a vesicle or endosome and transported
internally.
3) Uncoating
Conditions within the endosome cause fusion of the vesicle membrane with the viral
envelope followed by release of the viral capsid and RNA into the cytoplasm.
4) Synthesis : Replication and Protein Production
Under the control of viral genes, the cell synthesizes the basic components of new viruses:
RNA molecules, capsomers and spikes.
5) Assembly
Viral spikes proteins are inserted into cell membrane for the viral envelope ; nucleocapsid is
formed from RNA and capsomers.
7) Release
Enveloped viruses bud off of the membrane carrying away an envelope with the spikes. T his
complete virus is ready to infect another cell.
WHAT IS POSSIBLE WAY TO PREVENT TRANSLATION OF THE VIRAL PROTEIN?
Produce an antigen call vaccine. Vaccines contain weakened or inactive parts of a particular
organism (antigen) that triggers an immune response within the body. Newer vaccines
contain the blueprint for producing antigens rather than the antigen itself. iRNA can bind
with it and lead to the intracellular degradation of the foreign mRNA. If the foreign mRNA is
taken in from the extracellular environment via pinocytosis then it will be segregated within
a vacuole where it will be digested and not allowed access to ribosomes for translation,
which is how our cells prevent it from being accidentally introduced to their system.

MECHANISM OF LAC OPERON

 Gene Regulation and the Order of the Operon
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Gene Regulation and the Order of the Operon

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Explore gene expression with the Amoeba Sisters, including the fascinating Lac Operon found in
bacteria! Learn how genes can be turned "on" and "off" and why...

REFERENCES
1) Amoeba Sisters. (2015, June 30). Gene Regulation and the Order of the Operon [Video].
Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h_1QLdtF8d0
2) Campbell, N. A., Urry, L. A., Minorsky, P. V., & Reece, J. B. (2018). Biology : A global approach
(11th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
3) Facts. (2021, July 21). What is DNA replication. https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-
dna-replication

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