ITM Mba

Information Technology And Management By USMS Academic Support Team
Information Technology And

Management Notes
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ITM/U1 Topic 1 CPU, Computer

Memory and Mass Storage Devices
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features
 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has following three components.
 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information
to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the
main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
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Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual
data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the
above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,

matching, and merging of data.
Computer Memory
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program, and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is
working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can
hold.
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RAM is of two types
 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM
chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to
prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as
cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times
per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
 Short data lifetime

 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in
such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start
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a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there
are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once
and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.

Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge
is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because
the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a
quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During
normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased
one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is
flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −
 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified
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Mass Storage Devices
The first invention that revolutionized storage for the personal computer industry was the
introduction of floppy disks. Similar to tape, these magnetic storage devices were flat discs
that rotated within a sleeve. The original 5-inch size soon had an 8-inch larger version to
store more data, and both of these were eventually replaced by a smaller 3½-inch size that
actually stored more data–up to 1.44 megabytes. These were great improvements, but speed
and reliability were still a problem. Today, floppy disks have been almost entirely replaced
by other storage devices, such as CDs and DVDs, that are faster, more reliable, and have
huge storage capacities.
Hard Disk Drives
Modern external hard drive
The addition of hard disk drives finally gave personal computers more reliable storage, with
faster loading and saving of programs and data. Similar to the concept of floppy disks, the
magnetic medium was placed on a hard metal platter that could spin much faster. Hard drives
soon became standard internal devices on PCs, although storage capacities of 20, 32 and 40
megabytes were filled rather rapidly. External hard drives, which are still in use, became
desirable add-ons. Today, however, external hard drives are small, fast, inexpensive and
available in storage capacities of 500 gigabytes and even 1 terabyte (1,000 gigabytes).
Flash drive
Solid state memory devices called “flash drives” have become a welcomed storage medium
for personal computer users. These small devices are only about 2 inches long and
conveniently plug into a computer‟s USB port. This makes them portable, enabling an easy
transfer of files between desktop and laptop computers, and even between PCs and Apple
computers. To the computer user, flash drives appear as another hard drive to which data can
be written and read at high speeds. Because there are no moving parts, flash drives are very
reliable and can sustain “bumps and bruises.” Storage capacities of up to 32 megabytes are
common. Flash drives are also referred to as “travel drives” and “removable disks.”
CDs and DVDs
CDs and DVDs are optical storage media that are well suited for external storage, with DVDs
storing up to 4.7 gigabytes. These discs are easy to read and write, and are very reliable,
though scratches caused by mishandling can cause problems.
The Future Is Here
Now, even DVDs are being improved upon, with Blu-Ray versions increasing storage
capacity and “light scribe” technology enabling users to utilize the laser in their DVD drives
to etch labels on their discs.
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ITM/U1 Topic 2 Computer

Hierarchy, Input Technologies,
Output Technologies
Computer Hierarchy
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.
Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an
entire computer system.
There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in
detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate
dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers.
S.No Generation & Description
First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
Second Generation
2 The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
Third Generation
3 The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
Fourth Generation
4 The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
Fifth Generation
5 The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.
Input Technologies
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −
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 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or
108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −
S.No Keys & Description
Typing Keys
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give
the same layout as that of typewriters.
Numeric Keypad
It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a
2 set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding
machines and calculators.
Function Keys
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row
3 at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for
some specific purpose.
Control keys
4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow
keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
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Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
Special Purpose Keys

Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
5 Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse
and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present
between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen,
but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower
spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in
a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to
the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can
be moved.
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Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track
ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the
computer for further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that
can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in
a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had
been pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.
The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank‟s code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine
readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.
OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.
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Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and
dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It
may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is
then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.
It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.
Output Technologies
Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.
 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels,
the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a
whole character, such as the letter „e‟ in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes – fixed location on the screen where a standard character can
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be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25
lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −
 Large in Size
 High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on
your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors,
laptop computer, and graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −
 Emissive Displays− Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays− Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal
Device).
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers −
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on
the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −
 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −
 Character printers
 Line printers
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Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are
popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in
the form of pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or
9*9) which come out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower) which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for
word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice
quality.
Advantages
 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP

 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
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Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
These are of two types −
 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper
width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track.
Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set.
One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to
2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
 Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −
 Laser Printers
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 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form
the characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
 Very high speed

 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They
print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high
quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
 High quality printing

 More reliable
Disadvantages
 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer
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ITM/U1 Topic 3 Number System

and Arithmetic: Decimal, Binary,
Octal and Hexadecimal Number
Systems, Binary Arithmetic
When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers
can understand only numbers. A computer can understand the positional number system
where there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values
depending on the position they occupy in the number.
The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −
 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system)
Decimal Number System
The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal
number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the
successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands,
and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number
1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds
position, and 1 in the thousands position. Its value can be written as
(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)
(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following

number systems which are frequently used in computers.
S.No. Number System and Description
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Binary Number System
1
Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1
Octal Number System

2 Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7
Hexa Decimal Number System

3 Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F
Binary Number System
Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −
 Uses two digits, 0 and 1

 Also called as base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a 0power of the base (2). Example 20
 Last position in a binary number represents a xpower of the base (2). Example
2x where x represents the last position – 1.
Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −
Binary
Step Decimal Number
Number
Step
101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10
1
Step
101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
2
Step
101012 2110
3
Note − 101012 is normally written as 10101.
Octal Number System
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Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

 Each position in an octal number represents a 0power of the base (8). Example 80
 Last position in an octal number represents a xpower of the base (8). Example
8x where x represents the last position – 1
Example
Octal Number: 125708
Octal
Step Decimal Number
Number
Step
125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10
1
Step
125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10
2
Step
125708 549610
3
Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.
Hexadecimal Number System
Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −
 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

 Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F =
15
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0power of the base (16). Example, 160
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a xpower of the base (16). Example
16x where x represents the last position – 1
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
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Binary
Step Decimal Number
Number
Step
19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10
1
Step
19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10
2
Step
19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10
3
Step
19FDE16 10646210
4
Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.
There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base
to another. In this chapter, we‟ll demonstrate the following −
 Decimal to Other Base System

 Other Base System to Decimal
 Other Base System to Non-Decimal
 Shortcut method – Binary to Octal
 Shortcut method – Octal to Binary
 Shortcut method – Binary to Hexadecimal
 Shortcut method – Hexadecimal to Binary
Decimal to Other Base System
Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the
new base number.
Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base
number.
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Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in
Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base
number.
Example
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent −
Step Operation Result Remainder
Step 1 29 / 2 14 1
Step 2 14 / 2 7 0
Step 3 7/2 3 1
Step 4 3/2 1 1
Step 5 1/2 0 1
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so
that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the last remainder
becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).
Decimal Number : 2910 = Binary Number : 111012.
Other Base System to Decimal System
Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position
of the digit and the base of the number system).
Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding
columns.
Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.
Example
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Binary Number: 111012
Step Binary Number Decimal Number
Step 1 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10
Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10
Step 3 111012 2910
Binary Number : 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910
Other Base System to Non-Decimal System
Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.
Example
Octal Number : 258
Step 1 – Convert to Decimal
Step Octal Number Decimal Number
Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10
Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10
Step 3 258 2110
Octal Number : 258 = Decimal Number : 2110
Step 2 – Convert Decimal to Binary

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Step Operation Result Remainder
Step 1 21 / 2 10 1
Step 2 10 / 2 5 0
Step 3 5/2 2 1
Step 4 2/2 1 0
Step 5 1/2 0 1
Decimal Number : 2110 = Binary Number : 101012
Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012
Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Octal
Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.
Example
Binary Number : 101012
Calculating Octal Equivalent −
Step Binary Number Octal Number
Step 1 101012 010 101
Step 2 101012 28 58
Step 3 101012 258
Binary Number : 101012 = Octal Number : 258
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Shortcut Method ─ Octal to Binary
Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated
as decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary
number.
Example
Octal Number : 258
Step Octal Number Binary Number
Step 1 258 210 510
Step 2 258 0102 1012
Step 3 258 0101012
Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012
Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Hexadecimal
Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.
Example
Binary Number : 101012
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −
Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number
Step 1 101012 0001 0101
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Step 2 101012 110 510
Step 3 101012 1516
Binary Number : 101012 = Hexadecimal Number : 1516
Shortcut Method – Hexadecimal to Binary
Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits
may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary
number.
Example
Hexadecimal Number : 1516
Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number
Step 1 1516 110 510
Step 2 1516 00012 01012
Step 3 1516 000101012
Hexadecimal Number : 1516 = Binary Number : 101012
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ITM/U2 Topic 1 Computer Software

Application and System Software
Computer Software
Sometimes abbreviated as SW and S/W, software is a collection of instructions that
enable the user to interact with a computer, its hardware, or perform tasks. Without
software, most computers would be useless. For example, without your
Internet browser software, you could not surf the Internet or read this page. Without
an operating system, the browser could not run on your computer. The picture to the
right shows a Microsoft Excel box, an example of a spreadsheet software program.
The computer programmer (or several computers programmers) write the instructions
using a programming language that tell the software how to function and what to do.
Once the program has been completed, it is compiled into a language that the computer
can understand.
Applications Software
Application software, or simply applications, are often called productivity programs or
end-user programs because they enable the user to complete tasks, such as creating
documents, spreadsheets, databases and publications, doing online research, sending
email, designing graphics, running businesses, and even playing games! Application
software is specific to the task it is designed for and can be as simple as a calculator
application or as complex as a word processing application. When you begin creating a
document, the word processing software has already set the margins, font style and
size, and the line spacing for you. But you can change these settings, and you have
many more formatting options available. For example, the word processor application
makes it easy to add color, headings, and pictures or delete, copy, move, and change
the document’s appearance to suit your needs.
Microsoft Word is a popular word-processing application that is included in the software

suite of applications called Microsoft Office. A software suite is a group of software
applications with related functionality. For example, office software suites might include
word processing, spreadsheet, database, presentation, and email applications
Systems Software
Systems software includes the programs that are dedicated to managing the computer
itself, such as the operating system, file management utilities, and disk operating system
(or DOS). The operating system manages the computer hardware resources in addition
to applications and data. Without systems software installed in our computers we would
have to type the instructions for everything we wanted the computer to do!
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ITM/U2 Topic 2 Programming

Language and Their Classifications
Just as humans use language to communicate, and different regions have different languages,
computers also have their own languages that are specific to them.
Different kinds of languages have been developed to perform different types of work on the
computer. Basically, languages can be divided into two categories according to how the
computer understands them.
Two Basic Types of Computer Language
 Low-Level Languages:A language that corresponds directly to a specific machine

 High-Level Languages:Any language that is independent of the machine
There are also other types of languages, which include
 System languages:These are designed for low-level tasks, like memory and process
management
 Scripting languages:These tend to be high-level and very powerful
 Domain-specific languages:These are only used in very specific contexts
 Visual languages:Languages that are not text-based
 Esoteric languages:Languages that are jokes or are not intended for serious use
These languages are not mutually exclusive, and some languages can belong to multiple
categories. The terms low-level and high-level are also open to interpretation, and some
languages that were once considered high-level are now considered low-level as languages
have continued to develop.
Low-Level Languages
Low-level computer languages are either machine codes or are very close them. A computer
cannot understand instructions given to it in high-level languages or in English. It can only
understand and execute instructions given in the form of machine language i.e. binary. There
are two types of low-level languages:
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 Machine Language:a language that is directly interpreted into the hardware
 Assembly Language: a slightly more user-friendly language that directly corresponds to
machine language
Machine Language
Machine language is the lowest and most elementary level of programming language and was
the first type of programming language to be developed. Machine language is basically the
only language that a computer can understand and it is usually written in hex.
In fact, a manufacturer designs a computer to obey just one language, its machine code,
which is represented inside the computer by a string of binary digits (bits) 0 and 1. The
symbol 0 stands for the absence of an electric pulse and the 1 stands for the presence of an
electric pulse. Since a computer is capable of recognizing electric signals, it understands
machine language.
Advantages Disadvantages
Machine language
All operation codes have
makes fast and efficient
to be remembered
use of the computer.
It requires no translator
to translate the code. It All memory addresses
is directly understood have to be remembered.
by the computer.
It is hard to amend or
find errors in a program
written in the machine
language.
Assembly Language
Assembly language was developed to overcome some of the many inconveniences of

machine language. This is another low-level but very important language in which operation
codes and operands are given in the form of alphanumeric symbols instead of 0‟s and l‟s.
These alphanumeric symbols are known as mnemonic codes and can combine in a maximum
of five-letter combinations e.g. ADD for addition, SUB for subtraction, START, LABEL etc.
Because of this feature, assembly language is also known as „Symbolic Programming
Language.‟
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This language is also very difficult and needs a lot of practice to master it because there is
only a little English support in this language. Mostly assembly language is used to help in
compiler orientations. The instructions of the assembly language are converted to machine
codes by a language translator and then they are executed by the computer.
Assembly language is
Like machine language, it
easier to understand and
is also machine
use as compared to
dependent/specific.
machine language.
Since it is machine
It is easy to locate and dependent, the
correct errors. programmer also needs to
understand the hardware.
It is easily modified.
High-Level Languages
High-level computer languages use formats that are similar to English. The purpose of
developing high-level languages was to enable people to write programs easily, in their own
native language environment (English).
High-level languages are basically symbolic languages that use English words and/or
mathematical symbols rather than mnemonic codes. Each instruction in the high-level
language is translated into many machine language instructions that the computer can
understand.
A high-level language
has to be translated into
High-level languages
the machine language by
are user-friendly
a translator, which takes
up time
The object code

They are similar to
generated by a translator
English and use English
might be inefficient
vocabulary and well-
compared to an
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known symbols equivalent assembly

language program
They are easier to learn
They are easier to

maintain
They are problem-

oriented rather than
„machine‟-based
A program written in a
high-level language can
be translated into many
machine languages and
can run on any
computer for which
there exists an
appropriate translator
The language is
independent of the
machine on which it is
used i.e. programs
developed in a high-
level language can be
run on any computer
text
Types of High-Level Languages
Many languages have been developed for achieving a variety of different tasks. Some are
fairly specialized, and others are quite general.
These languages, categorized according to their use, are:
1) Algebraic Formula-Type Processing
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These languages are oriented towards the computational procedures for solving mathematical
and statistical problems.
Examples include:
 BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)

 FORTRAN (Formula Translation)
 PL/I (Programming Language, Version 1)
 ALGOL (Algorithmic Language)
 APL (A Programming Language)
2. Business Data Processing
These languages are best able to maintain data processing procedures and problems involved
in handling files. Some examples include:
 COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)

 RPG (Report Program Generator)
3. String and List Processing
These are used for string manipulation, including search patterns and inserting and deleting
characters. Examples are:
 LISP (List Processing)

 Prolog (Program in Logic)
4. Object-Oriented Programming Language
In OOP, the computer program is divided into objects. Examples are:
 C++
 Java
5. Visual Programming Language
These programming languages are designed for building Windows-based

applications.Examples are:
 Visual Basic
 Visual Java
 Visual C
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ITM/U2 Topic 3 Assemblers,

Compilers and Interpreters
As stated earlier, any program that is not written in machine language has to be translated in
machine language before it is executed by the computer. The means used for translation are
themselves computer programs. There are three types of translator programs i.e. Assembler,
Compilers and Interpreters.
Assembler:
Assembler is a computer program which is used to translate program written in Assembly
Language in to machine language. The translated program is called as object program.
Assembler checks each instruction for its correctness and generates diagnostic messages, if
there are mistakes in the program. Various steps of assembling are:
1. Input source program in Assembly Language through an input device.

2. Use Assembler to produce object program in machine language.
3. Execute the program.
Compiler:
A compiler is a program that translates a programme written in HLL to executable machine
language. The process of transferring HKK source program in to object code is a lengthy and
complex process as compared to assembling. Compliers have diagnostic capabilities and
prompt the programmer with appropriate error message while compiling a HLL program. The
corrections are to be incorporated in the program, whenever needed, and the program has to
be recompiled. The process is repeated until the program is mistake free and translated to an
object code. Thus the job of a complier includes the following:
1. To translate HLL source program to machine codes.

2. To trace variables in the program
3. To include linkage for subroutines.
4. To allocate memory for storage of program and variables.
5. To generate error messages, if there are errors in the program.
Interpreter:
The basic purpose of interpreter is same as that of complier. In compiler, the program is
translated completely and directly executable version is generated. Whereas interpreter
translates each instruction, executes it and then the next instruction is translated and this goes
on until end of the program. In this case, object code is not stored and reused. Every time the
program is executed, the interpreter translates each instruction freshly. It also has program
diagnostic capabilities. However, it has some disadvantages as below:
1. Instructions repeated in program must be translated each time they are executed.
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2. Because the source program is translated fresh every time it is used, it is slow process or
execution takes more time. Approx. 20 times slower than complier.
ITM/U2 Topic 4 Process of

Software Development
It‟s pretty evident that technology is accelerating at a rapid pace and humans are becoming
further dependent on it for every purpose. And with every new day, software development is
becoming more and more crucial since the demand for software is fast rising from every
corner imaginable. In fact, almost every machine that we use can be a by-product of some
software empowering it. And going by the recent trends in the market, software development
in India is quite a bustling scene, what with India providing a huge chunk of software
intelligence that‟s required to make this process successful.
The process of software development services in India goes through a series of stages in step
wise fashion that almost every developing company follows. Known as the „software
development life cycle,‟ these six steps include planning, analysis, design, development &
implementation, testing & deployment and maintenance. Let‟s study each of these steps to
know how the perfect software is developed.
1. Planning: Without the perfect plan, calculating the strengths and weaknesses of the
project, development of software is meaningless. Planning kicks off a project flawlessly and
affects its progress positively.
2. Analysis: This step is about analyzing the performance of the software at various stages
and making notes on additional requirements. Analysis is very important to proceed further to
the next step.
3. Design: Once the analysis is complete, the step of designing takes over, which is basically
building the architecture of the project. This step helps remove possible flaws by setting a
standard and attempting to stick to it.
4. Development & Implementation: The actual task of developing the software starts here
with data recording going on in the background. Once the software is developed, the stage of
implementation comes in where the product goes through a pilot study to see if it‟s
functioning properly.
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5. Testing: The testing stage assesses the software for errors and documents bugs if there are
any.
6. Maintenance: Once the software passes through all the stages without any issues, it is to
undergo a maintenance process wherein it will be maintained and upgraded from time to time
to adapt to changes. Almost every software development Indian company follows all the six
steps, leading to the reputation that the country enjoys in the software market today.
The cost of software development services in India is comparatively lower than in other
countries, making it a much sought after destination today. Custom software development
in India is a big hit among clients who are able to get their business needs fulfilled at highly
cost-effective rates.
ITM/U2 Topic 5 Data Analysis

using Spreadsheets
Microsoft Excel provides several means and ways to analyze and interpret data. The data can
be from various sources. The data can be converted and formatted in several ways. It can be
analyzed with the relevant Excel commands, functions and tools – encompassing Conditional
Formatting, Ranges, Tables, Text functions, Date functions, Time functions, Financial
functions, Subtotals, Quick Analysis, Formula Auditing, Inquire Tool, What-if Analysis,
Solvers, Data Model, PowerPivot, PowerView, PowerMap, etc.
You will be learning these data analysis techniques with Excel as part of two parts −
 Data Analysis with Excel and

 Advanced Data Analysis with Excel
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Data Analysis is a process of collecting, transforming, cleaning, and modeling data with the
goal of discovering the required information. The results so obtained are communicated,
suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision-making. Data visualization is at times used
to portray the data for the ease of discovering the useful patterns in the data. The terms Data
Modeling and Data Analysis mean the same.
Data Analysis Process consists of the following phases that are iterative in nature −
 Data Requirements Specification

 Data Collection
 Data Processing
 Data Cleaning
 Data Analysis
 Communication
Data Requirements Specification
The data required for analysis is based on a question or an experiment. Based on the
requirements of those directing the analysis, the data necessary as inputs to the analysis is
identified (e.g., Population of people). Specific variables regarding a population (e.g., Age
and Income) may be specified and obtained. Data may be numerical or categorical.
Data Collection
Data Collection is the process of gathering information on targeted variables identified as

data requirements. The emphasis is on ensuring accurate and honest collection of data. Data
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Collection ensures that data gathered is accurate such that the related decisions are valid.
Data Collection provides both a baseline to measure and a target to improve.
Data is collected from various sources ranging from organizational databases to the
information in web pages. The data thus obtained, may not be structured and may contain
irrelevant information. Hence, the collected data is required to be subjected to Data
Processing and Data Cleaning.
Data Processing
The data that is collected must be processed or organized for analysis. This includes
structuring the data as required for the relevant Analysis Tools. For example, the data might
have to be placed into rows and columns in a table within a Spreadsheet or Statistical
Application. A Data Model might have to be created.
Data Cleaning
The processed and organized data may be incomplete, contain duplicates, or contain errors.
Data Cleaning is the process of preventing and correcting these errors. There are several
types of Data Cleaning that depend on the type of data. For example, while cleaning the
financial data, certain totals might be compared against reliable published numbers or defined
thresholds. Likewise, quantitative data methods can be used for outlier detection that would
be subsequently excluded in analysis.
Data Analysis
Data that is processed, organized and cleaned would be ready for the analysis. Various data
analysis techniques are available to understand, interpret, and derive conclusions based on the
requirements. Data Visualization may also be used to examine the data in graphical format, to
obtain additional insight regarding the messages within the data.
Statistical Data Models such as Correlation, Regression Analysis can be used to identify the
relations among the data variables. These models that are descriptive of the data are helpful in
simplifying analysis and communicate results.
The process might require additional Data Cleaning or additional Data Collection, and hence
these activities are iterative in nature.
Communication
The results of the data analysis are to be reported in a format as required by the users to
support their decisions and further action. The feedback from the users might result in
additional analysis.
The data analysts can choose data visualization techniques, such as tables and charts, which
help in communicating the message clearly and efficiently to the users. The analysis tools
provide facility to highlight the required information with color codes and formatting in
tables and charts.
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Excel Data Analysis – Overview
Excel provide commands, functions and tools that make your data analysis tasks easy. You
can avoid many time consuming and/or complex calculations using Excel. In this tutorial,
you will get a head start on how you can perform data analysis with Excel. You will
understand with relevant examples, step by step usage of Excel commands and screen shots
at every step.
Ranges and Tables
The data that you have can be in a range or in a table. Certain operations on data can be
performed whether the data is in a range or in a table.
However, there are certain operations that are more effective when data is in tables rather
than in ranges. There are also operations that are exclusively for tables.
You will understand the ways of analyzing data in ranges and tables as well. You will
understand how to name ranges, use the names and manage the names. The same would
apply for names in the tables.
Data Cleaning – Text Functions, Dates and Times
You need to clean the data obtained from various sources and structure it before proceeding
to data analysis. You will learn how you can clean the data.
 With Text Functions

 Containing Date Values
 Containing Time Values
Conditional Formatting
Excel provides you conditional formatting commands that allow you to color the cells or font,
have symbols next to values in the cells based on predefined criteria. This helps one in
visualizing the prominent values. You will understand the various commands for
conditionally formatting the cells.
Sorting and Filtering
During the preparation of data analysis and/or to display certain important data, you might
have to sort and/or filter your data. You can do the same with the easy to use sorting and
filtering options that you have in Excel.
Subtotals with Ranges
As you are aware, PivotTable is normally used to summarize data. However, Subtotals with
Ranges is another feature provided by Excel that will allow you to group / ungroup data and
summarize the data present in ranges with easy steps.
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Quick Analysis
With Quick Analysis tool in Excel, you can quickly perform various data analysis tasks and
make quick visualizations of the results.
Understanding Lookup Functions
Excel Lookup Functions enable you to find the data values that match a defined criteria from
a huge amount of data.
PivotTables
With PivotTables you can summarize the data, prepare reports dynamically by changing the
contents of the PivotTable.
Data Visualization
You will learn several Data Visualization techniques using Excel Charts. You will also learn
how to create Band Chart, Thermometer Chart, Gantt chart, Waterfall Chart, Sparklines and
PivotCharts.
Data Validation
It might be required that only valid values be entered into certain cells. Otherwise, they may
lead to incorrect calculations. With data validation commands, you can easily set up data
validation values for a cell, an input message prompting the user on what is expected to be
entered in the cell, validate the values entered with the defined criteria and display an error
message in case of incorrect entries.
Financial Analysis
Excel provides you several financial functions. However, for commonly occurring problems
that require financial analysis, you can learn how to use a combination of these functions.
Working with Multiple Worksheets
You might have to perform several identical calculations in more than one worksheet. Instead
of repeating these calculations in each worksheet, you can do it one worksheet and have it
appear in the other selected worksheets as well. You can also summarize the data from the
various worksheets into a report worksheet.
Formula Auditing
When you use formulas, you might want to check whether the formulas are working as
expected. In Excel, Formula Auditing commands help you in tracing the precedent and
dependent values and error checking.
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Inquire
Excel also provides Inquire add-in that enables you compare two workbooks to identify
changes, create interactive reports, and view the relationships among workbooks, worksheets,
and cells. You can also clean the excessive formatting in a worksheet that makes Excel slow
or makes the file size huge.
ITM/U2 Topic 6 Operating Systems

– Functions and Types
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices
such as disk drives and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux, Windows, OS X, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS,
etc.
Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.
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Following are some of important functions of an operating System.
 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users
Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main

memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a
program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the
following activities for memory management −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in use.
 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.
Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when
and for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System
does the following activities for processor management −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is known
as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the
following activities for device management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.
File Management
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A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known as file
system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.
Other Important Activities
Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
 Security− By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized access to
programs and data.
 Control over system performance− Recording delays between request for a service and response
from the system.
 Job accounting− Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
 Error detecting aids− Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error
detecting aids.
 Coordination between other softwares and users− Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
Types of Operating System

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving
with time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of operating systems
which are most commonly used.
Batch operating system

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer
operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a
group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts
the programs with similar requirements into batches.
The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −
 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the CPU.
 Difficult to provide the desired priority.
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Time-sharing operating systems
Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical
extension of multiprogramming. Processor‟s time which is shared among multiple users
simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is
that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use,
whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of
computation. That is, if nusers are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the
user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with
a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems
have been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −
 Provides the advantage of quick response.

 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −
 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
 Problem of data communication.
Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications
and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as
high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or
distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These
processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −
 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available at
another.
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 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating.
 Better service to the customers.
 Reduction of the load on the host computer.
 Reduction of delays in data processing.
Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to
manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The
primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access
among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private
network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −
 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.
 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −
 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.
 Regular maintenance and updates are required.
Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required
to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken
by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as
the response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online
processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a
dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time
constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical
imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control
systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
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Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time
systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these
systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other
tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility
than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific
Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
Operating System – Properties

Batch processing
Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the programs and data
together in a batch before processing starts. An operating system does the following activities
related to batch processing −
 The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and data as a single
unit.
 The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any manual information.
 Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.
 When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the job gets copied
into an output spool for later printing or processing.
Advantages
 Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
 Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job is finished, without any
manual intervention.
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Disadvantages
 Difficult to debug program.

 A job could enter an infinite loop.
 Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.
Multitasking
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching
between them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program
while it is running. An OS does the following activities related to multitasking −
 The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and receives an
immediate response.
 The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple operations/executes multiple
programs at a time.
 Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.
 These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer system at a
reasonable cost.
 A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to
provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.
 Each user has at least one separate program in memory.
 A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as a process.
 When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it either finishes or
needs to perform I/O.
 Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to complete. During this
time, a CPU can be utilized by another process.
 The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously. Since each action or
command in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU time is needed for each user.
 As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is given the
impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being shared among many
users.
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Multiprogramming
Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is
referred as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor.
Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has
one to execute.
The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.
An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.
 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.

 This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
 The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
 Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and system resources
using memory management programs to ensures that the CPU is never idle, unless there are no jobs
to process.
Advantages
 High and efficient CPU utilization.

 User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.
Disadvantages
 CPU scheduling is required.

 To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.
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Interactivity
Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a computer system. An Operating
system does the following activities related to interactivity −
 Provides the user an interface to interact with the system.

 Manages input devices to take inputs from the user. For example, keyboard.
 Manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For example, Monitor.
The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user submits and waits for the result.
Real Time System

Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. An operating system does the
following activities related to real-time system activity.
 In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to sensor data.
 The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed periods of time to ensure
correct performance.
Distributed Environment
A distributed environment refers to multiple independent CPUs or processors in a computer
system. An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment
−
 The OS distributes computation logics among several physical processors.

 The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each processor has its own local memory.
 The OS manages the communications between the processors. They communicate with each other
through various communication lines.
Spooling
Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling refers to
putting data of various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer is a special area in memory or hard
disk which is accessible to I/O devices.
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An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment −
 Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different data access rates.
 Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data can rest while the slower
device catches up.
 Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer can perform I/O in
parallel fashion. It becomes possible to have the computer read data from a tape, write data to disk
and to write out to a tape printer while it is doing its computing task.
Advantages
 The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer.

 Spooling is capable of overlapping I/O operation for one job with processor operations for another
job.
ITM/U2 Topic 7 DBMS: Traditional

file concepts and Environment
Database is a collection of related data and data is a collection of facts and figures that can
be processed to produce information.
Mostly data represents recordable facts. Data aids in producing information, which is based
on facts. For example, if we have data about marks obtained by all students, we can then
conclude about toppers and average marks.
A database management system stores data in such a way that it becomes easier to retrieve,
manipulate, and produce information.
Characteristics
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Traditionally, data was organized in file formats. DBMS was a new concept then, and all the
research was done to make it overcome the deficiencies in traditional style of data
management. A modern DBMS has the following characteristics −
 Real-world entity− A modern DBMS is more realistic and uses real-world entities to design
its architecture. It uses the behavior and attributes too. For example, a school database may
use students as an entity and their age as an attribute.
 Relation-based tables− DBMS allows entities and relations among them to form tables. A
user can understand the architecture of a database just by looking at the table names.
 Isolation of data and application− A database system is entirely different than its data. A
database is an active entity, whereas data is said to be passive, on which the database works
and organizes. DBMS also stores metadata, which is data about data, to ease its own process.
 Less redundancy− DBMS follows the rules of normalization, which splits a relation when
any of its attributes is having redundancy in values. Normalization is a mathematically rich
and scientific process that reduces data redundancy.
 Consistency− Consistency is a state where every relation in a database remains consistent.
There exist methods and techniques, which can detect attempt of leaving database in
inconsistent state. A DBMS can provide greater consistency as compared to earlier forms of
data storing applications like file-processing systems.
 Query Language− DBMS is equipped with query language, which makes it more efficient to
retrieve and manipulate data. A user can apply as many and as different filtering options as
required to retrieve a set of data. Traditionally it was not possible where file-processing
system was used.
 ACID Properties− DBMS follows the concepts of Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
and Durability (normally shortened as ACID). These concepts are applied on transactions,
which manipulate data in a database. ACID properties help the database stay healthy in multi-
transactional environments and in case of failure.
 Multiuser and Concurrent Access− DBMS supports multi-user environment and allows
them to access and manipulate data in parallel. Though there are restrictions on transactions
when users attempt to handle the same data item, but users are always unaware of them.
 Multiple views− DBMS offers multiple views for different users. A user who is in the Sales
department will have a different view of database than a person working in the Production
department. This feature enables the users to have a concentrate view of the database
according to their requirements.
 Security− Features like multiple views offer security to some extent where users are unable
to access data of other users and departments. DBMS offers methods to impose constraints
while entering data into the database and retrieving the same at a later stage. DBMS offers
many different levels of security features, which enables multiple users to have different
views with different features. For example, a user in the Sales department cannot see the data
that belongs to the Purchase department. Additionally, it can also be managed how much data
of the Sales department should be displayed to the user. Since a DBMS is not saved on the
disk as traditional file systems, it is very hard for miscreants to break the code.
Users
A typical DBMS has users with different rights and permissions who use it for different
purposes. Some users retrieve data and some back it up. The users of a DBMS can be broadly
categorized as follows −
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 Administrators− Administrators maintain the DBMS and are responsible for administrating
the database. They are responsible to look after its usage and by whom it should be used.
They create access profiles for users and apply limitations to maintain isolation and force
security. Administrators also look after DBMS resources like system license, required tools,
and other software and hardware related maintenance.
 Designers− Designers are the group of people who actually work on the designing part of the
database. They keep a close watch on what data should be kept and in what format. They
identify and design the whole set of entities, relations, constraints, and views.
 End Users− End users are those who actually reap the benefits of having a DBMS. End users
can range from simple viewers who pay attention to the logs or market rates to sophisticated
users such as business analysts.
ITM/U2 Topic 8 Database

Management Systems Concepts
DBMS – Architecture
The design of a DBMS depends on its architecture. It can be centralized or decentralized or
hierarchical. The architecture of a DBMS can be seen as either single tier or multi-tier. An n-
tier architecture divides the whole system into related but independent n modules, which can
be independently modified, altered, changed, or replaced.
In 1-tier architecture, the DBMS is the only entity where the user directly sits on the DBMS
and uses it. Any changes done here will directly be done on the DBMS itself. It does not
provide handy tools for end-users. Database designers and programmers normally prefer to
use single-tier architecture.
If the architecture of DBMS is 2-tier, then it must have an application through which the
DBMS can be accessed. Programmers use 2-tier architecture where they access the DBMS by
means of an application. Here the application tier is entirely independent of the database in
terms of operation, design, and programming.
3-tier Architecture
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A 3-tier architecture separates its tiers from each other based on the complexity of the users
and how they use the data present in the database. It is the most widely used architecture to
design a DBMS.
 Database (Data) Tier− At this tier, the database resides along with its query processing languages.
We also have the relations that define the data and their constraints at this level.
 Application (Middle) Tier− At this tier reside the application server and the programs that access the
database. For a user, this application tier presents an abstracted view of the database. End-users are
unaware of any existence of the database beyond the application. At the other end, the database
tier is not aware of any other user beyond the application tier. Hence, the application layer sits in the
middle and acts as a mediator between the end-user and the database.
 User (Presentation) Tier− End-users operate on this tier and they know nothing about any existence
of the database beyond this layer. At this layer, multiple views of the database can be provided by
the application. All views are generated by applications that reside in the application tier.
Multiple-tier database architecture is highly modifiable, as almost all its components are
independent and can be changed independently.
Database Schema
A database schema is the skeleton structure that represents the logical view of the entire
database. It defines how the data is organized and how the relations among them are
associated. It formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the data.
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A database schema defines its entities and the relationship among them. It contains a
descriptive detail of the database, which can be depicted by means of schema diagrams. It‟s
the database designers who design the schema to help programmers understand the database
and make it useful.
A database schema can be divided broadly into two categories −
 Physical Database Schema− This schema pertains to the actual storage of data and its form of
storage like files, indices, etc. It defines how the data will be stored in a secondary storage.
 Logical Database Schema− This schema defines all the logical constraints that need to be applied on
the data stored. It defines tables, views, and integrity constraints.
Database Instance
It is important that we distinguish these two terms individually. Database schema is the
skeleton of database. It is designed when the database doesn‟t exist at all. Once the database
is operational, it is very difficult to make any changes to it. A database schema does not
contain any data or information.
A database instance is a state of operational database with data at any given time. It contains
a snapshot of the database. Database instances tend to change with time. A DBMS ensures
that its every instance (state) is in a valid state, by diligently following all the validations,
constraints, and conditions that the database designers have imposed.
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If a database system is not multi-layered, then it becomes difficult to make any changes in the
database system. Database systems are designed in multi-layers as we learnt earlier.
Data Independence
A database system normally contains a lot of data in addition to users‟ data. For example, it
stores data about data, known as metadata, to locate and retrieve data easily. It is rather
difficult to modify or update a set of metadata once it is stored in the database. But as a
DBMS expands, it needs to change over time to satisfy the requirements of the users. If the
entire data is dependent, it would become a tedious and highly complex job.
Metadata itself follows a layered architecture, so that when we change data at one layer, it
does not affect the data at another level. This data is independent but mapped to each other.
Logical Data Independence
Logical data is data about database, that is, it stores information about how data is managed
inside. For example, a table (relation) stored in the database and all its constraints, applied on
that relation.
Logical data independence is a kind of mechanism, which liberalizes itself from actual data
stored on the disk. If we do some changes on table format, it should not change the data
residing on the disk.
Physical Data Independence
All the schemas are logical, and the actual data is stored in bit format on the disk. Physical
data independence is the power to change the physical data without impacting the schema or
logical data.
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For example, in case we want to change or upgrade the storage system itself − suppose we
want to replace hard-disks with SSD − it should not have any impact on the logical data or
schemas.
ITM/U2 Topic 9 Types of Data

Models, ER Modeling
Data models define how the logical structure of a database is modeled. Data Models are
fundamental entities to introduce abstraction in a DBMS. Data models define how data is
connected to each other and how they are processed and stored inside the system.
The very first data model could be flat data-models, where all the data used are to be kept in
the same plane. Earlier data models were not so scientific, hence they were prone to introduce
lots of duplication and update anomalies.
Entity-Relationship Model
Entity-Relationship (ER) Model is based on the notion of real-world entities and relationships
among them. While formulating real-world scenario into the database model, the ER Model
creates entity set, relationship set, general attributes and constraints.
ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a database.
ER Model is based on −
 Entitiesand their
 Relationshipsamong entities.
These concepts are explained below.
 Entity− An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having properties called attributes.

Every attribute is defined by its set of values called domain. For example, in a school
database, a student is considered as an entity. Student has various attributes like name, age,
class, etc.
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 Relationship− The logical association among entities is called relationship. Relationships
are mapped with entities in various ways. Mapping cardinalities define the number of
association between two entities.
Mapping cardinalities −

o one to one
o one to many
o many to one
o many to many
Relational Model
The most popular data model in DBMS is the Relational Model. It is more scientific a model
than others. This model is based on first-order predicate logic and defines a table as an n-ary
relation.
The main highlights of this model are −
 Data is stored in tables called relations.

 Relations can be normalized.
 In normalized relations, values saved are atomic values.
 Each row in a relation contains a unique value.
 Each column in a relation contains values from a same domain.
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ITM/U2 Topic 10 Integrity

Constraints, SQL Queries
SQL is a programming language for Relational Databases. It is designed over relational algebra and
tuple relational calculus. SQL comes as a package with all major distributions of RDBMS.
SQL comprises both data definition and data manipulation languages. Using the data
definition properties of SQL, one can design and modify database schema, whereas data
manipulation properties allows SQL to store and retrieve data from database.
SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the
accuracy and reliability of the data in the table. If there is any violation between the
constraint and the data action, the action is aborted.
Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply to a column,
and table level constraints apply to the whole table.
The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:
 NOT NULL – Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

 UNIQUE – Ensures that all values in a column are different
 PRIMARY KEY – A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each row in a table
 FOREIGN KEY – Uniquely identifies a row/record in another table
 CHECK – Ensures that all values in a column satisfies a specific condition
 DEFAULT – Sets a default value for a column when no value is specified
 INDEX – Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly
SQL Queries
SQL uses the following set of commands to define database schema −
CREATE
Creates new databases, tables and views from RDBMS.
For example −
Create database tutorialspoint;Create table article;Create view for_students;
DROP
Drops commands, views, tables, and databases from RDBMS.
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For example−
Drop object_type object_name;Drop database tutorialspoint;Drop table article;Drop view

for_students;
ALTER
Modifies database schema.
Alter object_type object_name parameters;
For example−
Alter table article add subject varchar;
This command adds an attribute in the relation article with the name subjectof string type.
ITM/U3 Topic 1 Concepts of

Data Communications
When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.
between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance. The term Telecommunication, which includes
Telephony, Telegraphy, and television, means communication at a distance.
The data refers to facts, concepts and instruction presented in whatever form is agreed upon
by the parties creating and using the data. In the context of computer information system,
data represented by binary information units produced and consumed in the form of 0s and
1s.
Data Communications is the transfer of data or information between a source and a receiver.
The source transmits the data and the receiver receives it. The actual generation of the
information is not part of Data Communications nor is the resulting action of the information
at the receiver. Data Communication is interested in the transfer of data, the method of
transfer and the preservation of the data during the transfer process.
The purpose of Data Communications is to provide the rules and regulations that allow
computers with different disk operating systems, languages, cabling and locations to share
resources. The rules and regulations are called protocols and standards in Data
Communications.
For data communication to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a

communication system made up of a combination of hardware and software.
The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on the three fundamental

characteristics:
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1. Delivery: The System must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received
by the intended device or user and only by that device or user
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are rustles
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video, audio, and voice data, timely delivery means delivering data as
they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay.
this kind of delivery id called real-time transmission.
Components
Basic Components of a Communication System

The following are the basic requirements for working of a communication system.
1. The sender (source) who creates the message to be transmitted
2. A medium that carries the message
3. The receiver (sink) who receives the message
Data Communication system components
1. Message: A messagein its most general meaning is an object of communication. It is a vessel

which provides information. Yet, it can also be this information. Therefore, its meaning is
dependent upon the context in which it is used; the term may apply to both the information
and its form.
2. Sender: The sender will have some kind of meaning she wishes to convey to the receiver.
It might not be conscious knowledge, it might be a sub-conscious wish for communication.
What is desired to be communicated would be some kind of idea, perception, feeling, or
datum. It will be a part of her reality that she wishes to send to somebody else.
3. Receiver:These messages are delivered to another party. No doubt, you have in mind a
desired action or reaction you hope your message prompts from the opposite party. Keep in
mind, the other party also enters into the communication process with ideas and feelings that
will undoubtedly influence their understanding of your message and their response. To be a
successful communicator, you should consider these before delivering your message, then
acting appropriately.
4. Medium: Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The sender must
choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message else the message might not be
conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of communication is
essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This
choice of communication medium varies depending upon the features of communication. For
instance – Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of
people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the
recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a formal description of digital message formats and the rules for
exchanging those messages in or between computing systems and in telecommunications.
Protocols may include signaling, authentication and error detection and correction syntax,
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semantics, and synchronization of communication and may be implemented in hardware or
software, or both.
6. Feedback: Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the

sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct
interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-
verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of memos,
reports, etc.
ITM/U3 Topic 2 Types of Data

Communication Networks
Communication Networks can be of following 5 types:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Wireless
5. Inter Network (Internet)
Local Area Network (LAN)
It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of
buildings or a factory. LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot.
Personal computers and workstations are connected to each other through LANs. We can use
different types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
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LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network
among each other while it can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.
LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.
Characteristics of LAN
 LAN‟s are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls.
 LAN‟s operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN.
 There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent ones are
Ethernet, Token ring.
 It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a restricted
geographical area.
Applications of LAN
 One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining computers
called clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the remaining
clients.
 Connecting Locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with each
other locally without any internet access.
 Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common applications of LAN.
Advantages of LAN
 Resource Sharing:Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives and hard
disks can be shared with the help of local area networks. This reduces cost and hardware
purchases.
 Software Applications Sharing:It is cheaper to use same software over network instead of
purchasing separate licensed software for each client a network.
 Easy and Cheap Communication:Data and messages can easily be transferred over
networked computers.
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 Centralized Data:The data of all network users can be saved on hard disk of the server
computer. This will help users to use any workstation in a network to access their data.
Because data is not stored on workstations locally.
 Data Security:Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it will be easy to manage
data at only one place and the data will be more secure too.
 Internet Sharing:Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection sharing system
keeps the internet expenses cheaper.
Disadvantages of LAN
 High Setup Cost:Although the LAN will save cost over time due to shared computer
resources, but the initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high.
 Privacy Violations:The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data files of each
and every LAN user. Moreover he can check the internet history and computer use history of
the LAN user.
 Data Security Threat:Unauthorised users can access important data of an organization if
centralized data repository is not secured properly by the LAN administrator.
 LAN Maintenance Job:Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because, there
are problems of software installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances in Local
Area Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time job.
 Covers Limited Area:Local Area Network covers a small area like one office, one building
or a group of nearby buildings.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and
uses the similar technology as LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It can be
means to connecting a number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a single cable. It is
mainly hold and operated by single private company or a public company.
Characteristics of MAN
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 It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)
 Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.
Advantages of MAN
 Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as fibre
optic cables.
 It provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in both directions simultaneously.
 A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
 More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial espionage(spying)
graphical regions.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used for
the network that covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to
design and maintain. Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links.
WAN operates on low data rates.
Characteristics of WAN
 It generally covers large distances(states, countries, continents).

 Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are connected
by routers.
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Advantages of WAN
 Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on the one network.
 Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
 Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages can have
picture, sounds or data included with them(called attachments).
 Expensive things(such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be shared by all the
computers on the network without having to buy a different peripheral for each computer.
 Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids problems where some users may
have older information than others.
Disadvantages of WAN
 Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.
 Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the network the
more expensive it is.
 Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network supervisors and
technicians to be employed.
 Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use information from
other computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense.
Wireless Network
Digital wireless communication is not a new idea. Earlier, Morse code was used to
implement wireless networks. Modern digital wireless systems have better performance, but
the basic idea is the same.
Wireless Networks can be divided into three main categories:
1. System interconnection
2. Wireless LANs
3. Wireless WANs
System Interconnection
System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a computer

using short-range radio. Some companies got together to design a short-range wireless
network called Bluetooth to connect various components such as monitor, keyboard, mouse
and printer, to the main unit, without wires. Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets,
scanners and other devices to connect to a computer by merely being brought within range.
In simplest form, system interconnection networks use the master-slave concept. The system
unit is normally the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc. as slaves.
Wireless LANs
These are the systems in which every computer has a radio modem and antenna with which
it can communicate with other systems. Wireless LANs are becoming increasingly common
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in small offices and homes, where installing Ethernet is considered too much trouble. There
is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, which most systems implement and
which is becoming very widespread.
Wireless WANs
The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a low-bandwidth wireless
WAN. This system has already gone through three generations.
 The first generation was analog and for voice only.

 The second generation was digital and for voice only.
 The third generation is digital and is for both voice and data.
Inter Network
Inter Network or Internet is a combination of two or more networks. Inter network can be
formed by joining two or more individual networks by means of various devices such as
routers, gateways and bridges.
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ITM/U3 Topic 3
Communication Media
Magnetic Media
One of the most convenient way to transfer data from one computer to another, even before
the birth of networking, was to save it on some storage media and transfer physical from one
station to another. Though it may seem old-fashion way in today‟s world of high speed
internet, but when the size of data is huge, the magnetic media comes into play.
For example, a bank has to handle and transfer huge data of its customer, which stores a
backup of it at some geographically far-away place for security reasons and to keep it from
uncertain calamities. If the bank needs to store its huge backup data then its,transfer through
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internet is not feasible.The WAN links may not support such high speed.Even if they do; the
cost too high to afford.
In these cases, data backup is stored onto magnetic tapes or magnetic discs, and then shifted
physically at remote places.
Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper wires twisted together to form a
single media. Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and another is used for
ground reference. The twists between wires are helpful in reducing noise (electro-magnetic
interference) and crosstalk.
There are two types of twisted pair cables:
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
STP cables comes with twisted wire pair covered in metal foil. This makes it more indifferent
to noise and crosstalk.
UTP has seven categories, each suitable for specific use. In computer networks, Cat-5, Cat-
5e, and Cat-6 cables are mostly used. UTP cables are connected by RJ45 connectors.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in the center and it is made of solid
conductor.The core is enclosed in an insulating sheath.The second wire is wrapped around
over the sheath and that too in turn encased by insulator sheath.This all is covered by plastic
cover.
Because of its structure,the coax cable is capable of carrying high frequency signals than that
of twisted pair cable.The wrapped structure provides it a good shield against noise and cross
talk. Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps.
There are three categories of coax cables namely, RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin Ethernet),
and RG-11 (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Government.
Cables are connected using BNC connector and BNC-T. BNC terminator is used to terminate
the wire at the far ends.
Power Lines
Power Line communication (PLC) is Layer-1 (Physical Layer) technology which uses power
cables to transmit data signals.In PLC, modulated data is sent over the cables. The receiver on
the other end de-modulates and interprets the data.
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Because power lines are widely deployed, PLC can make all powered devices controlled and
monitored. PLC works in half-duplex.
There are two types of PLC:
 Narrow band PLC

 Broad band PLC
Narrow band PLC provides lower data rates up to 100s of kbps, as they work at lower
frequencies (3-5000 kHz).They can be spread over several kilometers.
Broadband PLC provides higher data rates up to 100s of Mbps and works at higher
frequencies (1.8 – 250 MHz).They cannot be as much extended as Narrowband PLC.
Fiber Optics
Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray hits at critical angle it tends to
refracts at 90 degree. This property has been used in fiber optic. The core of fiber optic cable
is made of high quality glass or plastic. From one end of it light is emitted, it travels through
it and at the other end light detector detects light stream and converts it to electric data.
Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes, one is single mode
fiber and second is multimode fiber. Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light whereas
multimode is capable of carrying multiple beams of light.
Fiber Optic also comes in unidirectional and bidirectional capabilities. To connect and access
fiber optic special type of connectors are used. These can be Subscriber Channel (SC),
Straight Tip (ST), or MT-RJ.
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no

physical link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless
signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts

the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The
receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.
Radio Transmission
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate
through walls and structures alike.Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000
km and have frequency ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz
(Extremely High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-divided into six bands.
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Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in
straight line and bounce back.The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they
cover long distance. High frequency radio waves have more power.
Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000
kilometers, over the earth‟s surface.
Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They
use Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands
are spread upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.
Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them
can be sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves
travels in straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-
sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging from
300 MHz to 300 GHz.
Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture above,
multiple antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and
do not penetrate wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is
using.
Infrared Transmission
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of
700-nm to 1-mm and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.
Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and it‟s
remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of high
frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.
Light Transmission
Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission is light or
optical signaling. This is achieved by means of LASER.
Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line.Hence the sender and
receiver must be in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both
ends of communication the laser and the photo-detector needs to be installed. Laser beam is
generally 1mm wide hence it is a work of precision to align two far receptors each pointing to
lasers source.
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Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).
Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, laser beam
is distorted by wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the path.
Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser without
interrupting the communication channel.
ITM/U3 Topic 4 Concepts of

Communication Networks
A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers is
called computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates information
sharing among them. Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless
media.
Classification of Computer Networks
Computer networks are classified based on various factors.They includes:
 Geographical span
 Inter-connectivity
 Administration
 Architecture
Geographical Span
Geographically a network can be seen in one of the following categories:
 It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth enabled devices,. Ranging not more
than few meters.
 It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to connect all
floors.
 It may be spanned across a whole city.
 It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.
 It may be one network covering whole world.
Inter-Connectivity
Components of a network can be connected to each other differently in some fashion. By
connectedness we mean either logically , physically , or both ways.
 Every single device can be connected to every other device on network, making the network
mesh.
 All devices can be connected to a single medium but geographically disconnected, created
bus like structure.
 Each device is connected to its left and right peers only, creating linear structure.
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 All devices connected together with a single device, creating star like structure.
 All devices connected arbitrarily using all previous ways to connect each other, resulting in a
hybrid structure.
Administration
From an administrator‟s point of view, a network can be private network which belongs a
single autonomous system and cannot be accessed outside its physical or logical domain.A
network can be public which is accessed by all.
Network Architecture
Computer networks can be discriminated into various types such as Client-Server,peer-to-
peer or hybrid, depending upon its architecture.
 There can be one or more systems acting as Server. Other being Client, requests the Server to
serve requests.Server takes and processes request on behalf of Clients.
 Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in back-to-back fashion. They both reside at
the same level and called peers.
 There can be hybrid network which involves network architecture of both the above types.
Network Applications
Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network.They provide numerous
advantages:
 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices

 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging
ITM/U3 Topic 5 Primary

Network Topologies
The way in which devices are interconnected to form a network is called network
topology. Some of the factors that affect choice of topology for a network are −
 Cost− Installation cost is a very important factor in overall cost of setting up an

infrastructure. So cable lengths, distance between nodes, location of servers, etc. have
to be considered when designing a network.
 Flexibility− Topology of a network should be flexible enough to allow reconfiguration of
office set up, addition of new nodes and relocation of existing nodes.
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 Reliability− Network should be designed in such a way that it has minimum down time.
Failure of one node or a segment of cabling should not render the whole network
useless.
 Scalability− Network topology should be scalable, i.e. it can accommodate load of new
devices and nodes without perceptible drop in performance.
 Ease of installation− Network should be easy to install in terms of hardware, software
and technical personnel requirements.
 Ease of maintenance− Troubleshooting and maintenance of network should be easy.
Bus Topology
Data network with bus topology has a linear transmission cable, usually coaxial, to
which many network devices and workstations are attached along the
length. Server is at one end of the bus. When a workstation has to send data, it
transmits packets with destination address in its header along the bus.
The data travels in both the directions along the bus. When the destination terminal sees
the data, it copies it to the local disk.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 Easy to install and maintain

 Can be extended easily
 Very reliable because of single transmission line
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Troubleshooting is difficult as there is no single point of control

 One faulty node can bring the whole network down
 Dumb terminals cannot be connected to the bus
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Ring Topology
In ring topology each terminal is connected to exactly two nodes, giving the network a
circular shape. Data travels in only one pre-determined direction.
When a terminal has to send data, it transmits it to the neighboring node which transmits
it to the next one. Before further transmission data may be amplified. In this way, data
raverses the network and reaches the destination node, which removes it from the
network. If the data reaches the sender, it removes the data and resends it later.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 Small cable segments are needed to connect two nodes

 Ideal for optical fibres as data travels in only one direction
 Very high transmission speeds possible
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 Failure of single node brings down the whole network

 Troubleshooting is difficult as many nodes may have to be inspected before faulty one is
identified
 Difficult to remove one or more nodes while keeping the rest of the network intact
Star Topology
In star topology, server is connected to each node individually. Server is also called the
central node. Any exchange of data between two nodes must take place through the
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server. It is the most popular topology for information and voice networks as central
node can process data received from source node before sending it to the destination
node.
Advantages of Star Topology
 Failure of one node does not affect the network

 Troubleshooting is easy as faulty node can be detected from central node immediately
 Simple access protocols required as one of the communicating nodes is always the
central node
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 Long cables may be required to connect each node to the server

 Failure of central node brings down the whole network
Tree Topology
Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear bus backbone cable. It
incorporates features of both star and bus topologies. Tree topology is also called
hierarchical topology.
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Advantages of Tree Topology
 Existing network can be easily expanded

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments means easier installation and maintenance
 Well suited for temporary networks
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 Technical expertise required to configure and wire tree topology

 Failure of backbone cable brings down entire network
 Insecure network
 Maintenance difficult for large networks
ITM/U3 Topic 6 Network

Architecture- The OSI Model, Inter-
Networking Devices
The International Standard Organization has a well-defined model for Communication
Systems known as Open System Interconnection, or the OSI Model. This layered model is a
conceptualized view of how one system should communicate with the other, using various
protocols defined in each layer. Further, each layer is designated to a well-defined part of
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communication system. For example, the Physical layer defines all the components of
physical nature, i.e. wires, frequencies, pulse codes, voltage transmission etc. of a
communication system.
The OSI Model has the following seven layers:
 Application Layer (Layer-7): This is where the user application sits that needs to transfer
data between or among hosts. For example: HTTP, file transfer application (FTP) and
electronic mail etc.
 Presentation Layer (Layer-6): This layer helps to understand data representation in one
form on a host to other host in their native representation. Data from the sender is converted
to on-the-wire data (general standard format) and at the receiver‟s end it is converted to the
native representation of the receiver.
 Session Layer (Layer-5): This layer provides session management capabilities between
hosts. For example, if some host needs a password verification for access and if credentials
are provided then for that session password verification does not happen again. This layer can
assist in synchronization, dialog control and critical operation management (e.g., an online
bank transaction).
 Transport Layer (Layer-4): This layer provides end to end data delivery among hosts. This
layer takes data from the above layer and breaks it into smaller units called Segments and
then gives it to the Network layer for transmission.
 Network Layer (Layer-3): This layer helps to uniquely identify hosts beyond the subnets
and defines the path which the packets will follow or be routed to reach the destination.
 Data Link Layer (Layer-2): This layer takes the raw transmission data (signal, pulses etc.)
from the Physical Layer and makes Data Frames, and sends that to the upper layer and vice
versa. This layer also checks any transmission errors and sorts it out accordingly.
 Physical Layer (Layer-1): This layer deals with hardware technology and actual
communication mechanism such as signaling, voltage, cable type and length, etc.
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for carrying data from one host to another. It provides
means to allocate logical addresses to hosts, and identify them uniquely using the same.
Network layer takes data units from Transport Layer and cuts them in to smaller unit called
Data Packet.
Network layer defines the data path, the packets should follow to reach the destination.
Routers work on this layer and provides mechanism to route data to its destination.
Inter-Networking Devices
Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and other
electronic devices to a network are called network devices. These devices transfer data in a
fast, secure and correct way over same or different networks. Network devices may be inter-
network or intra-network. Some devices are installed on the device, like NIC card or RJ45
connector, whereas some are part of the network, like router, switch, etc. Let us explore some
of these devices in greater detail.
Modem
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Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone or cable
lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable wire can
transmit only analog data.
The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice versa.
Modem is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator.
The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the data is being sent by the
computer. The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data when it is being
received by the computer.
Types of Modem
Modem can be categorized in several ways like direction in which it can transmit data, type
of connection to the transmission line, transmission mode, etc.
Depending on direction of data transmission, modem can be of these types −
 Simplex− A simplex modem can transfer data in only one direction, from digital device to
network (modulator) or network to digital device (demodulator).
 Half duplex− A half-duplex modem has the capacity to transfer data in both the directions
but only one at a time.
 Full duplex− A full duplex modem can transmit data in both the directions simultaneously.
RJ45 Connector
RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45 connector is an 8-pin jack used by
devices to physically connect to Ethernet based local area networks (LANs). Ethernet is a
technology that defines protocols for establishing a LAN. The cable used for Ethernet LANs
are twisted pair ones and have RJ45 connector pins at both ends. These pins go into the
corresponding socket on devices and connect the device to the network.
Ethernet Card
Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC), is a hardware component used
by computers to connect to Ethernet LAN and communicate with other devices on the LAN.
The earliest Ethernet cards were external to the system and needed to be installed manually.
In modern computer systems, it is an internal hardware component. The NIC has RJ45
socketwhere network cable is physically plugged in.
Ethernet card speeds may vary depending upon the protocols it supports. Old Ethernet cards
had maximum speed of 10 Mbps. However, modern cards support fast Ethernets up to a
speed of 100 Mbps. Some cards even have capacity of 1 Gbps.
Router
A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one LAN to another if
both networks support the same set of protocols. So a router is typically connected to at least
two LANs and the internet service provider (ISP). It receives its data in the form
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of packets, which are data frames with their destination address added. Router also
strengthens the signals before transmitting them. That is why it is also called repeater.
Routing Table
A router reads its routing table to decide the best available route the packet can take to reach
its destination quickly and accurately. The routing table may be of these two types
 Static− In a static routing table the routes are fed manually. So it is suitable only for very
small networks that have maximum two to three routers.
 Dynamic− In a dynamic routing table, the router communicates with other routers through
protocols to determine which routes are free. This is suited for larger networks where manual
feeding may not be feasible due to large number of routers.
Switch
Switch is a network device that connects other devices to Ethernet networks through twisted
pair cables. It uses packet switching technique to receive, store and forward data
packets on the network. The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all the devices
connected to it.
On receiving a packet, it checks the destination address and transmits the packet to the correct
port. Before forwarding, the packets are checked for collision and other network errors. The
data is transmitted in full duplex mode
Data transmission speed in switches can be double that of other network devices like hubs
used for networking. This is because switch shares its maximum speed with all the devices
connected to it. This helps in maintaining network speed even during high traffic. In fact,
higher data speeds are achieved on networks through use of multiple switches.
Gateway
Gateway is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar networks. In
networking parlance, networks that use different protocols are dissimilar networks. A
gateway usually is a computer with multiple NICs connected to different networks. A
gateway can also be configured completely using software. As networks connect to a
different network through gateways, these gateways are usually hosts or end points of the
network.
Gateway uses packet switching technique to transmit data from one network to another. In
this way it is similar to a router, the only difference being router can transmit data only over
networks that use same protocols.
Wi-Fi Card
Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve wireless
connection to any network. Wi-Fi card is a card used to connect any device to the local
network wirelessly. The physical area of the network which provides internet access through
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Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi hotspot. Hotspots can be set up at home, office or any public space.
Hotspots themselves are connected to the network through wires.
A Wi-Fi card is used to add capabilities like teleconferencing, downloading digital camera
images, video chat, etc. to old devices. Modern devices come with their in-built wireless
network adapter.
ITM/U3 Topic 7 The Internet,

Intranet and Extranets
Information technology has been rapidly advancing over the last decade, with information
being available as an on demand commodity at levels never before imagined. Today, a
teenager in rural India with access to a computer and an ethernet port has orders of magnitude
more information available at the tips of his fingerprints than the President of the United
States had access to just thirty years ago. Though it is taken for granted today, the Internet,
and similar components such as Intranets, have been the primary tools by which people have
been able to share such vast amounts of information.While the two are very similar, they
differ in their usefulness and their overall goals when it comes to sharing information,
specifically in who can access the information in question.
Internet
Though used on a daily basis by people all around the world, a thorough understanding of
what the internet is lacking for most of its users. The internet can best be seen as a
community of computers that are allowed to connect to each other, and any computer on the
internet can connect any other computer at any time it wishes. Through infrastructure that
spans the globe, there is one single, unified internet that all computers connect to, allowing
anyone connected to share and access all the information that they choose to. While humans
are often using computers in the traditional sense (with a mouse, keyboard, and monitor),
many of the other „computers‟ we connect to are most often servers, which act as holding
stations that store all the data that is being accessed.
The Internet functions via several major hubs throughout the world, where they connect and
are able to connect to other major hubs. Primarily ordered and managed by the United States,
a person sitting in California that is connected to the internet can access servers anywhere
else around the world that are also connected. Because servers are physically located
throughout the world, this is why some websites are able to return information faster than
others – a server in a nearby city does not have to send data as far as a server thousands of
miles away.
Intranet
Intranet is a restricted version of the internet, that typically does not allow access to anyone
outside of its network. An intranet is typically a local only network, meaning only people
who are directly wired to the intranet can access the information stored on its servers.
Intranets may be used for organizations or networks that do not want their information to be
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able to be accessed by outside sources, and is especially important for organizations that
require a high amount of secrecy – such as a server that holds military secrets or a database
for the CIA. Intranets are basically mini versions of the internet that connect just a few
servers, instead of the countless number of servers that the internet holds and connects with
one another.
Extranet
Internet and an intranet are not always separate and clear cut, and anything that is a blend of
the two is considered an extranet. An extranet is a private intranet (or local network) that is
connected to the Internet, but only allows access to certain information or access by certain
groups of people. The extranet is a blend of the secrecy and control allowed to an intranet,
but also the convenience and sheer amount of information enjoyed by using the internet.
Extranets, however, are not perfect, and almost any network connected to the internet can be
accessed inappropriately given enough time, motivation, and resources by an interested party.
If a hacker with the right skill set decides to access an extranet, the question is more a matter
of when they will be able to get past security measures and access it, rather than if they will
be able to.
ITM/U3 Topic 8 Operation of

Internet, Services provided
by Internet
Internet
Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over the web.
However, It can be defined in many ways as follows:
 Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer networks.

 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
 IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computer location.
 A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Address so that user
can locate a computer by a name.
 For example, a DNS server will resolve a name http://www.tutorialspoint.comto a particular IP
address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
 Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.
Evolution
The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several technological &
Infrastructural changes as discussed below:
 The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research Project Agency Network
(ARPANET).
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 ARPANETwas developed by United States Department of Defense.
 Basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among the various bodies of government.
 Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called
 In 1972, the ARPANETspread over the globe with 23 nodes located at different countries and thus
became known as
 By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols, DNS, WWW, browsers,
scripting languages etc.,Internet provided a medium to publish and access information over the web.
Advantages
Internet covers almost every aspect of life, one can think of. Here, we will discuss some of
the advantages of Internet:
 Internet allows us to communicate with the people sitting at remote locations. There are various
apps available on the wed that uses Internet as a medium for communication. One can find various
social networking sites such as:
o Facebook
o Twitter
o Yahoo
o Google+
o Flickr
o Orkut
 One can surf for any kind of information over the internet. Information regarding various topics such
as Technology, Health & Science, Social Studies, Geographical Information, Information Technology,
Products etc can be surfed with help of a search engine.
 Apart from communication and source of information, internet also serves a medium for
entertainment. Following are the various modes for entertainment over internet.
o Online Television
o Online Games
o Songs
o Videos
o Social Networking Apps
 Internet allows us to use many services like:
o Internet Banking
o Matrimonial Services
o Online Shopping
o Online Ticket Booking
o Online Bill Payment
o Data Sharing
o E-mail
 Internet provides concept of electronic commerce, that allows the business deals to be conducted
on electronic systems
Disadvantages
However, Internet has prooved to be a powerful source of information in almost every field,
yet there exists many disadvanatges discussed below:
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 There are always chances to loose personal information such as name, address, credit card number.
Therefore, one should be very careful while sharing such information. One should use credit cards
only through authenticated sites.
 Another disadvantage is the Spamming.Spamming corresponds to the unwanted e-mails in bulk.
These e-mails serve no purpose and lead to obstruction of entire system.
 Viruscan easily be spread to the computers connected to internet. Such virus attacks may cause your
system to crash or your important data may get deleted.
 Also a biggest threat on internet is pornography. There are many pornographic sites that can be
found, letting your children to use internet which indirectly affects the children healthy mental life.
 There are various websites that do not provide the authenticated information. This leads to
misconception among many people.
Internet Services allows us to access huge amount of information such as text, graphics,
sound and software over the internet. Following diagram shows the four different categories
of Internet Services.
Communication Services
There are various Communication Services available that offer exchange of information with
individuals or groups. The following table gives a brief introduction to these services:
S.N. Service Description
Electronic Mail
1
Used to send electronic message over the internet.
Telnet
2
Used to log on to a remote computer that is attached to internet.
Newsgroup
3
Offers a forum for people to discuss topics of common interests.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

4
Allows the people from all over the world to communicate in real time.
Mailing Lists
5
Used to organize group of internet users to share common information through e-mail.
6
Internet Telephony (VoIP)
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Allows the internet users to talk across internet to any PC equipped to receive the call.
Instant Messaging
7 Offers real time chat between individuals and group of people. Eg. Yahoo messenger, MSN
messenger.
Information Retrieval Services

There exist several Information retrieval services offering easy access to information present
on the internet. The following table gives a brief introduction to these services:
S.N. Service Description
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

1
Enable the users to transfer files.
Archie
2 It’s updated database of public FTP sites and their content. It helps to search a file by its
name.
Gopher
3
Used to search, retrieve, and display documents on remote sites.
Very Easy Rodent Oriented Netwide Index to Computer Achieved (VERONICA)

4 VERONICA is gopher based resource. It allows access to the information resource stored
on gopher’s servers.
Web Services
Web services allow exchange of information between applications on the web. Using web
services, applications can easily interact with each other.
The web services are offered using concept of Utility Computing.
World Wide Web (WWW)

WWW is also known as W3. It offers a way to access documents spread over the several
servers over the internet. These documents may contain texts, graphics, audio, video,
hyperlinks. The hyperlinks allow the users to navigate between the documents.
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Video Conferencing
Video conferencing or Video teleconferencing is a method of communicating by two-way
video and audio transmission with help of telecommunication technologies.
Modes of Video Conferencing

POINT-TO-POINT
This mode of conferencing connects two locations only.
MULTI-POINT
This mode of conferencing connects more than two locations through Multi-point Control
Unit (MCU).
ITM/U3 Topic 9 World wide Web,

Creating Web Pages Using HTML
Web development refers to building website and deploying on the web. Web
development requires use of scripting languages both at the server end as well as at
client end.
Before developing a web site once should keep several aspects in mind like:
 What to put on the web site?

 Who will host it?
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 How to make it interactive?
 How to code it?
 How to create search engine friendly web site?
 How to secure the source code frequently?
 Will the web site design display well in different browsers?
 Will the navigation menus be easy to use?
 Will the web site loads quickly?
 How easily will the site pages print?
 How easily will visitors find important details specific to the web site?
 How effectively the style sheets be used on your web sites?
Web Development Process
Web development process includes all the steps that are good to take to build an
attractive, effective and responsive website. These steps are shown in the following
diagram:
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Web development tools
Web development tools helps the developer to test and debug the web sites. Now a
days the web development tooll come with the web browsers as add-ons. All web
browsers have built in tools for this purpose.
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Thsese tools allow the web developer to use HTML, CSS and JavaScript etc.. These are
accessed by hovering over an item on a web page and selecting the “Inspect Element”
from the context menu.
Featues
Following are the common featuers that every web development tool exhibits:
HTML AND THE DOM
HTML and DOM viewer allows you to see the DOM as it was rendered. It also allows to
make changes to HTML and DOM and see the changes reflected in the page after the
change is made.
WEB PAGE ASSESTS, RESOURCES, AND NETWORK INFORMATION
Web development tools also helps to inspect the resources that are loaded and
available on the web page.
PROFIING AND AUDITING
Profiling refers to get information about the performance of a web page or web
application and Auditing provides developers suggestions, after analyzing a page, for
optimizations to decerease page load time and increase responsiveness.
Skills Required
For being a successful web developer, one should possess the following skills:
 Understanding of client and server side scripting.

 Creating, editing and modifying templates for a CMS or web development framework.
 Testing cross browser inconsistencies.
 Conducting observational user testing.
 Testing for compliance to specified standards such as accessibility standards in the
client region.
 Programming interaction with javaScript, PHP, and Jquery etc.
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ITM/U4 Topic 1 Information And

Knowledge Concepts
Perspectives on Knowledge, Information, Data
In everyday language we use knowledge all the time. Sometimes we mean know-how, while
other times we are talking about wisdom. On many occasions we even use it to refer to
information. Part of the difficulty of defining knowledge arises from its relationship to two
other concepts, namely data and information. These two terms are often regarded as lower
denominations of knowledge, but the exact relationship varies greatly from one example to
another.
Within more technologically oriented disciplines- particularly involving information systems-

knowledge is often treated very similarly to information. It is seen as something one can
codify and transmit, and where IT plays a pivotal role in knowledge sharing. For instance, the
encyclopedia at fact-archive.com defines it as: “information that has a purpose or use.”
This kind of simplistic view of knowledge was particularly widespread during the 90s when
information technology became increasingly more common. However even today, some KM
systems are little more than information management systems using knowledge as a virtual
synonym for information.
To illustrate, Theirauf (1999) defines the three components as follows: data is the lowest
point, an unstructured collection of facts and figures; information is the next level, and it is
regarded as structured data; finally knowledge is defined as “information about information”.
However, increasingly one sees definitions that treat knowledge as a more complex and
personal concept that incorporate more than just information. The Longman online dictionary
has one definition that begins to approach the way that knowledge is usually regarded within
KM. It states “the information, skills, and understanding that you have gained through
learning or experience.” Although still closely associated with information, concepts like
skills, understanding, and experience begin to surface.
Defining Data, Information, and Knowledge
Below, I have included the definitions that will be used throughout this site.
Data: Facts and figures which relay something specific, but which are not organized in any
way and which provide no further information regarding patterns, context, etc. I will use the
definition for data presented by Thierauf (1999): “unstructured facts and figures that have the
least impact on the typical manager.”
Information: For data to become information, it must be contextualized, categorized,

calculated and condensed (Davenport & Prusak 2000). Information thus paints a bigger
picture; it is data with relevance and purpose (Bali et al 2009). It may convey a trend in the
environment, or perhaps indicate a pattern of sales for a given period of time. Essentially
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information is found “in answers to questions that begin with such words as who, what,
where, when, and how many” (Ackoff 1999).
IT is usually invaluable in the capacity of turning data into information, particularly in larger
firms that generate large amounts of data across multiple departments and functions. The
human brain is mainly needed to assist in contextualization.
Knowledge: Knowledge is closely linked to doing and implies know-how and understanding.
The knowledge possessed by each individual is a product of his experience, and encompasses
the norms by which he evaluates new inputs from his surroundings (Davenport & Prusak
2000). I will use the definition presented by Gamble and Blackwell (2001), based closely on
a previous definition by Davenport & Prusak:
“Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, expert

insight, and grounded intuition that provides an environment and framework for evaluating
and incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and is applied in the mind
of the knowers. In organizations it often becomes embedded not only in documents or
repositories, but also in organizational routines, practices and norms.”
In order for KM to succeed, one needs a deep understanding of what constitutes knowledge.
Now that we have set clear boundaries between knowledge, information, and data, it is
possible to go one step further and look at the forms in which knowledge exists and the
different ways that it can be accessed, shared, and combined. I will discuss this in the section
titled “The Different Kinds of Knowledge”.
ITM/U4 Topic 2 Decision

Making Process
Decision support systems (DSS) are interactive software-based systems intended to help
managers in decision-making by accessing large volumes of information generated from
various related information systems involved in organizational business processes, such as
office automation system, transaction processing system, etc.
DSS uses the summary information, exceptions, patterns, and trends using the analytical
models. A decision support system helps in decision-making but does not necessarily give a
decision itself. The decision makers compile useful information from raw data, documents,
personal knowledge, and/or business models to identify and solve problems and make
decisions.
Programmed and Non-programmed Decisions
Programmed decisions are basically automated processes, general routine work, where:
 These decisions have been taken several times.
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 These decisions follow some guidelines or rules.
For example, selecting a reorder level for inventories, is a programmed decision.
Non-programmed decisions occur in unusual and non-addressed situations, so:
 It would be a new decision.

 There will not be any rules to follow.
 These decisions are made based on the available information.
 These decisions are based on the manger‟s discretion, instinct, perception and judgment.
For example, investing in a new technology is a non-programmed decision.
Decision support systems generally involve non-programmed decisions. Therefore, there will
be no exact report, content, or format for these systems. Reports are generated on the fly.
Attributes of a DSS
 Adaptability and flexibility

 High level of Interactivity
 Ease of use
 Efficiency and effectiveness
 Complete control by decision-makers
 Ease of development
 Extendibility
 Support for modeling and analysis
 Support for data access
 Standalone, integrated, and Web-based
Characteristics of a DSS
 Support for decision-makers in semi-structured and unstructured problems.

 Support for managers at various managerial levels, ranging from top executive to line
managers.
 Support for individuals and groups. Less structured problems often requires the involvement
of several individuals from different departments and organization level.
 Support for interdependent or sequential decisions.
 Support for intelligence, design, choice, and implementation.
 Support for variety of decision processes and styles.
 DSSs are adaptive over time.
Benefits of DSS
 Improves efficiency and speed of decision-making activities.

 Increases the control, competitiveness and capability of futuristic decision-making of the
organization.
 Facilitates interpersonal communication.
 Encourages learning or training.
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 Since it is mostly used in non-programmed decisions, it reveals new approaches and sets up
new evidences for an unusual decision.
 Helps automate managerial processes.
Components of a DSS
Following are the components of the Decision Support System:
 Database Management System (DBMS): To solve a problem the necessary data may come
from internal or external database. In an organization, internal data are generated by a system
such as TPS and MIS. External data come from a variety of sources such as newspapers,
online data services, databases (financial, marketing, human resources).
 Model Management System: It stores and accesses models that managers use to make
decisions. Such models are used for designing manufacturing facility, analyzing the financial
health of an organization, forecasting demand of a product or service, etc.
Support Tools: Support tools like online help; pulls down menus, user interfaces, graphical
analysis, error correction mechanism, facilitates the user interactions with the system.
Classification of DSS
There are several ways to classify DSS. Hoi Apple and Whinstone classifies DSS as follows:
 Text Oriented DSS:It contains textually represented information that could have a bearing
on decision. It allows documents to be electronically created, revised and viewed as needed.
 Database Oriented DSS:Database plays a major role here; it contains organized and highly
structured data.
 Spreadsheet Oriented DSS:It contains information in spread sheets that allows create, view,
modify procedural knowledge and also instructs the system to execute self-contained
instructions. The most popular tool is Excel and Lotus 1-2-3.
 Solver Oriented DSS:It is based on a solver, which is an algorithm or procedure written for
performing certain calculations and particular program type.
 Rules Oriented DSS:It follows certain procedures adopted as rules.
 Rules Oriented DSS:Procedures are adopted in rules oriented DSS. Export system is the
example.
 Compound DSS:It is built by using two or more of the five structures explained above.
Types of DSS
Following are some typical DSSs:
 Status Inquiry System:It helps in taking operational, management level, or middle level
management decisions, for example daily schedules of jobs to machines or machines to
operators.
 Data Analysis System:It needs comparative analysis and makes use of formula or an
algorithm, for example cash flow analysis, inventory analysis etc.
 Information Analysis System:In this system data is analyzed and the information report is
generated. For example, sales analysis, accounts receivable systems, market analysis etc.
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 Accounting System:It keeps track of accounting and finance related information, for
example, final account, accounts receivables, accounts payables, etc. that keep track of the
major aspects of the business.
 Model Based System:Simulation models or optimization models used for decision-making
are used infrequently and creates general guidelines for operation or management.
ITM/U4 Topic 3 Physical

Components of Information Systems
and Classification
Components of information systems
An information system is essentially made up of five components hardware, software,
database, network and people. These five components integrate to perform input, process,
output, feedback and control.
Hardware consists of input/output device, processor, operating system and media devices.
Software consists of various programs and procedures. Database consists of data organized in
the required structure. Network consists of hubs, communication media and network devices.
People consist of device operators, network administrators and system specialist.
Information processing consists of input; data process, data storage, output and control.
During input stage data instructions are fed to the systems which during process stage are
worked upon by software programs and other queries. During output stage, data is presented
in structured format and reports.
Classification of Information System
In any given organization information system can be classified based on the usage of the
information. Therefore, an information system in an organization can be divided into
operations support system and management support system.
 Operations support system
In an organization, data input is done by the end user which is processed to generate
information products i.e. reports, which are utilized by internal and or external users. Such a
system is called operation support system.
The purpose of the operation support system is to facilitate business transaction, control
production, support internal as well as external communication and update organization
central database. The operation support system is further divided into a transaction-
processing system, processing control system and enterprise collaboration system.
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 Transaction Processing System (TPS)
In manufacturing organization, there are several types of transaction across department.

Typical organizational departments are Sales, Account, Finance, Plant, Engineering, Human
Resource and Marketing. Across which following transaction may occur sales order, sales
return, cash receipts, credit sales; credit slips, material accounting, inventory management,
depreciation accounting, etc.
These transactions can be categorized into batch transaction processing, single transaction
processing and real time transaction processing.
 Process Control System
In a manufacturing organization, certain decisions are made by a computer system without

any manual intervention. In this type of system, critical information is fed to the system on a
real-time basis thereby enabling process control. This kind of systems is referred as process
control systems.
 Enterprise Collaboration System
In recent times, there is more stress on team effort or collaboration across different functional
teams. A system which enables collaborative effort by improving communication and sharing
of data is referred to as an enterprise collaboration system.
 Management Support System
Managers require precise information in a specific format to undertake an organizational

decision. A system which facilitates an efficient decision making process for managers is
called management support system.
Management support systems are essentially categorized as management information system,

decision support system, expert system and accounting information system.
Management information system provides information to manager facilitating the routine

decision-making process. Decision support system provides information to manager
facilitating specific issue related solution.
Further Classification
An information system can be categorized based upon activity into strategic planning system,
tactical information system and operational information system.
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ITM/U4 Topic 4 Security issue in IT

and Emerging Trends
21st century has been defined by application of and advancement in information technology.
Information technology has become an integral part of our daily life. According to
Information Technology Association of America, information technology is defined as “the
study, design, development, application, implementation, support or management of
computer-based information systems.”
Information technology has served as a big change agent in different aspect of business and
society. It has proven game changer in resolving economic and social issues.
Advancement and application of information technology are ever changing. Some of the
trends in the information technology are as follows:
1. Cloud Computing
One of the most talked about concept in information technology is the cloud computing.
Clouding computing is defined as utilization of computing services, i.e. software as well as
hardware as a service over a network. Typically, this network is the internet.
Cloud computing offers 3 types of broad services mainly Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS),
Platform as a Service (PaaS) and Software as a Service (SaaS).
Some of the benefit of cloud computing is as follows:
 Cloud computing reduces IT infrastructure cost of the company.

 Cloud computing promotes the concept of virtualization, which enables server and storage
device to be utilized across organization.
 Cloud computing makes maintenance of software and hardware easier as installation is not
required on each end user‟s computer.
Some issues concerning cloud computing are privacy, compliance, security, legal, abuse, IT
governance, etc.
2. Mobile Application
Another emerging trend within information technology is mobile applications (software

application on Smart phone, tablet, etc.)
Mobile application or mobile app has become a success since its introduction. They are
designed to run on Smartphone, tablets and other mobile devices. They are available as a
download from various mobile operating systems like Apple, Blackberry, Nokia, etc. Some
of the mobile app are available free where as some involve download cost. The revenue
collected is shared between app distributor and app developer.
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3. User Interfaces
User interface has undergone a revolution since introduction of touch screen. The touch
screen capability has revolutionized way end users interact with application. Touch screen
enables the user to directly interact with what is displayed and also removes any intermediate
hand-held device like the mouse.
Touch screen capability is utilized in smart phones, tablet, information kiosks and other
information appliances.
4. Analytics
The field of analytics has grown many folds in recent years. Analytics is a process which
helps in discovering the informational patterns with data. The field of analytics is a
combination of statistics, computer programming and operations research.
The field of analytics has shown growth in the field of data analytics, predictive analytics and
social analytics.
Data analytics is tool used to support decision-making process. It converts raw data into
meaningful information.
Predictive analytics is tool used to predict future events based on current and historical
information.
Social media analytics is tool used by companies to understand and accommodate customer
needs.
The every changing field of information technology has seen great advancement and changes
in the last decade. And from the emerging trend, it can be concluded that its influence on
business is ever growing, and it will help companies to serve customers better.
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Information Technology And Management By USMS Academic Support Team

Information Technology And

ITM/U1 Topic 1 CPU, Computer

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

Memory or Storage Unit

Functions of this unit are

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,

 Static RAM (SRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

Characteristic of Static RAM

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime

MROM (Masked ROM)

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The advantages of ROM are as follows −

Hard Disk Drives

Modern external hard drive

CDs and DVDs

The Future Is Here

ITM/U1 Topic 2 Computer

Following are the main five generations of computers.

S.No Generation & Description

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

Special Purpose Keys

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

These printers are of two types −

These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

Dot Matrix Printer

 More reliable than DMP

 Slower than DMP

These are of two types −

 Very high speed

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

These printers are of two types −

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 Very high speed

 High quality printing

 Expensive as the cost per page is high