UNIT- 1

TOPIC 1- Computer Concept, Characteristics, Evolution,Classification

CONCEPT - the word ‘computer’ literally means ‘something that computes’ or ‘calculates’. But considering a
computer to be merely a calculating device would be to severely limit its powers. It may be defined as a device
that can operate upon information or data. This is done through the execution of a program (a sequence of
instructions which operate on data to perform certain tasks)

The dictionary definition of a computer is:

“An automatic electronic apparatus for making calculations or controlling operations that is expressible in
numerical or logical terms.”

A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculations and operations based on instructions
provided by a software or hardware program. It is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of
solutions by combining integrated hardware and software components.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

● Speed- The speed with which computers perform is way beyond human capabilities. To express it
differently, a computer does in one minute what a human being could take a lifetime.
● Accuracy- The accuracy of a computer is consistently high. Errors can occur, but these are almost always
due to human error rather than technological weaknesses.
● Diligence- Unlike human beings, a computer does not suffer from limitations associated with living beings
like tiredness and lack of concentration, and hence can work for hours at a stretch without errors arising
from the above (non-existent) faults.
● Versatility- computers are capable of doing almost every task, provided the task can be reduced to a series
of logical steps. for e.g. A task such as preparing a payroll can be broken down into a logical sequence of
operations, and is therefore ideal for computerized processing.
● Intelligence- a computer does not possess any intelligence of its own. It can perform only those tasks that
can be broken down into a series of logical steps. Therefore, it needs to be told what it has to do and in
what sequence.
● Storage- storage of information in a human brain and a computer happens differently. Using its
intelligence the human brain subconsciously sifts through new knowledge and selects what it feels is
important and retains in the memory, and the unimportant info is relegated to the back of the mind or just
forgotten.
Computers, on the other hand, can store and recall any amount of information by using secondary storage
capability. Information can therefore be retained as long as desired and recalled as and when required.

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER

First generation (1940-1956): vacuum tubes - the first computers used vacuum tubes in their circuitry and
magnetic drums for memory. A vacuum tube was a fragile glass device that used filaments as a source of
electrons and could control and amplify electronic signals.
These computers could perform computations in milliseconds but were enormous in size, taking up almost an
entire room. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a
lot of heat resulting in malfunctioning.

First generation computers relied on machine language (binary-coded programs) to perform operations and could
solve only one problem at a time. Input was based on punch cards and paper tape, and output displayed on
printouts.

Second generation (1956-1963): transistors- Transistors developed in 1947 replaced vacuum tubes and ushered
in the second generation computers. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
Although transistors also generated a great deal of heat that could damage the computer, it was a substantial
improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and
printouts for output.

The cryptic binary machine language gave way to symbolic or assembly language that allowed programmers to
specify instructions in words.

Third generation (1964-1971): integrated circuits- Transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube
but were still characterized by a great deal of heat generation resulting in computer damage.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through the devices like
keyboards and monitors. They also interfaced with an operating system that allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.

For the first time, computers became accessible to the masses audience because they were substantially smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth generation (1971-present): microprocessors- After integrated circuits, the only place to go was down-in
size, that is. Large Scale Integration (LSI) could fit hundreds of components onto a single chip. By the 1980's, Very
Large Scale Integration (VLSI) squeezed hundreds of thousands of components onto a single chip. Ultra Large
Scale Integration (ULSI) increased that number to millions.

The ability to fit so much processing capability in an area so small, helped to diminish the size and price of the
computers. It also increased its power, efficiency and reliability.

Initially the IC technology was used only for constructing the processor, but it was soon realised that the same
technology could also be used for the construction of memory. The first memory chip was constructed in 1970
and could hold 256 bits.

Fifth generation (present and beyond): artificial intelligence - Artificial Intelligence Fifth generation computing
devices based on artificial intelligence are still developing. One does see glimpses of these today in the form of
voice recognition systems. The use of parallel processing and supercomputers is helping to make artificial
intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular technology will radically change the face of computers
in the years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

BASED ON SIZE

1) Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge amount of data. A
supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands of interconnected processors.

CHARACTERISTICS / APPLICATION OF SUPERCOMPUTER

● It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.
● It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
● It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can run in NOAA's system
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can execute any type of simple and logical data.
● It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their training.
● It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud systems. For example, in
insurance companies.
● It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as the stock market and bitcoin.

2) Mainframe computer

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. They can support
multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different processes simultaneously. These
features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which
need to manage and process high volume of data.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAINFRAME COMPUTER:

● It can process huge amounts of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the banking sector.
● It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
 ● It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.

APPLICATIONS OF MAINFRAME COMPUTER

● Health care- to maintain a record of their millions of patients in order to contact them for treatment
● Retail - Co. having huge customer base and branches use mainframe computers to handle and execute
information related to their inventory management, customer management
● Education - it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data related to their courses,
admissions, students, teachers etc
● Defence- it allows the defence departments to share a large amount of sensitive information with other
branches of defence.

3) Miniframe or Minicomputer

It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can support 4 to 200 users at
one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and departments for tasks such as billing, accounting and
inventory management. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than
mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

● It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.

● It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
● It is very fast compared to its size.
● It remains charged for a long time.
● It does not require a controlled operational environment.

APPLICATIONS OF MINIFRAME COMPUTER

● Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing

● Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store and share data.
● Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger systems by serving as
a portal between a human operator and a central processor or computer.

4) Workstation

Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications. It has a faster
microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It generally performs a specific job with
great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics workstation, music workstation and
engineering design workstation.

Characteristics of workstation computer:

● It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or professional use.
● It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal computer.
● It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.

5) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that is designed for
individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit and output
unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of microcomputers. They are suitable for personal work that
may be making an assignment, watching a movie, or at the office for office work.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:

● It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.

● A limited number of software can be used.
● It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.
● It is less expensive and easy to use.
● It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
● Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
● It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.

FLOPS - Floating point operations for second MIPS - Million instruction per second

Type of Processor Speed Amount of Physical Size Application

computer RAM

Super computer 60 billion to 9 8000 MB - 256 Like a small car ● Scientification

trillion FLOPS GB ● Simulation

Mainframe 500 to 13500 256 GB - 128 Like a ● Enterprise wide

MIPS GB refrigerator system
● Corporate DBMS

Minicomputer 250 to 3000 MIPS 256 MB - 64 GB Like a cabinet Dept wise applications

Micro computer 100 MIPS to 350 64 MB - 16 GB Fit on the ● Word processing

MIPS desktop ● Network Access

Work Station 50 to 350 MIPS 1024 MB - 32 Fit on the Engineering application

GB desktop like CADCAM

BASED ON MECHANISM

1) Analogue Computer

Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data that changes
continuously and cannot have discrete values. Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring
device without first converting it into numbers and codes. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples
of analogue computers.

Advantages of using analogue computers:

● It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous representation of all data
within the range of the analogue machine.
 ● In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of transducers for
converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice versa.
● The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue computer. It provides
insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and their effects.

2) Digital Computer

Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It accepts the raw data
as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it with programs stored in its memory to
produce the output. All modern computers like laptops, desktops including smartphones that we use at home or
office are digital computers.

Advantages of digital computers:

● It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever you need it.
● You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
● Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program without making any
changes in hardware

3) Hybrid Computer

Hybrid computers have features of both analogue and digital computers. It is fast like an analogue computer and
has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both continuous and discrete data. It accepts
analogue signals and converts them into digital form before processing.

Advantages of using hybrid computers:

● Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the analogue subsystem.
● It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
● It has the ability to solve and manage big equations in real-time.
● It helps in on-line data processing.

BASED ON PURPOSE

1. General purpose

These computers are designed to perform a range of tasks. They have the ability to store numerous programs, but
lack in speed and efficiency. needs. The general – purpose computer can be used to prepare stores reports, sales
reports, payroll, etc. a general purpose computer can solve much broader class problems specifically a general
purpose digital computer is remarkably versatile.

2. Specific purpose

These computers are designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a specific task. A set of instructions is
built into the machine. It does not possess unnecessary options, hence it is economical. E.g. Business purpose
computers and scientific purpose computers.
TOPIC 2 - Storage Devices & Mass storage system

There are two types of storage devices.

a. Primary storage device
b. Secondary Storage device.

a. PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICE OR RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY [RAM]:

Primary storage is usually referred to as Random Access Memory [RAM] because it is possible to randomly select
and use any location of this memory to directly store and retrieve data and instructions. It is also referred to as
read/write memory because information can be ‘read’ from a RAM chip and also be ‘written’ into it. Random
Access Memory requires some time for accessing data and is considered to be the fastest memory. Each bit in a
RAM stores information by means of electric charge, where the presence of an electric charge indicates ‘1’ and
the absence of an ‘0’. RAM is called Temporary storage, because data persists until the machine is on.

ROM
A Read Only Memory [ROM] is one in which information is permanently stored. The information from the memory
can only be read and it is not possible to write fresh information into it. This is the reason why it is called ROM.
When the power supply is switched off, the information stored inside.

b. SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

Additional memory, called auxiliary memory or secondary storage, is used with most computer systems.
Secondary storage devices are used to store data and programs permanently. They are used to store data that is
not in use at the moment, but that may be needed in the future. Types of secondary storage devices include:

1. Hard Disk Drives (HDD): These are physical devices that are made up of spinning disks and magnetic heads
that store and read data. Hard Disk Drives are the most common type of secondary storage device, and are used
to store large amounts of data.

2. Solid State Drives (SSD): These are non-volatile storage devices that use integrated circuits to store data.
They are faster and more reliable than HDDs, but more expensive.

3. Flash Drives: These are small, removable storage devices that use flash memory to store data. They are
commonly used for transferring data between computers. Flash memory cards, such as SD cards, are used to
store small amounts of data in a portable format.

4. Optical Discs: These are circular discs made of polycarbonate plastic and covered with an optically readable
coating. They are commonly used to store large amounts of data, such as movies or software. Optical Discs, such
as CDs and DVDs, are used to store large amounts of data in a physical media format.

5. Tape Drives: These are devices that use magnetic tape to store data. They are mostly used for backup,
archiving and long-term storage.

MASS STORAGE SYSTEMS

Mass storage systems are computer storage systems that are used to store large amounts of data on a long-term
basis. These systems are typically used for backups, archiving, and disaster recovery. Mass storage systems
usually consist of physical devices such as hard drives, flash drives, tape drives, and optical drives, as well as
virtual storage such as cloud storage.
Types of Mass Storage Systems:

1. Direct-Access Storage Device (DASD): DASD is a type of mass storage device that allows for direct access
to data. Examples include hard disks, optical disks, tape drives and floppy drives.

2. Network Attached Storage (NAS): NAS is a type of mass storage system that is connected to a network,
allowing it to be accessed from multiple computers.

3. Storage Area Network (SAN): SAN is a type of mass storage system that is connected to a network and
allows for storage and retrieval of data from multiple computers.

4. Cloud Storage: Cloud storage is an online storage service that allows users to store, manage, and access
data on a remote server. Examples include Google Drive, Dropbox, and iCloud.

5. RAID: RAID is a type of mass storage system that uses multiple hard drives to provide fault tolerance and
improved performance.

TOPIC 3 - Computer Memory and its Types

Computer memory is an important concept that refers to the storage space in a computer where data is held for
quick access by the computer's processor. There are several types of memory, including primary memory,
secondary memory, and memory caches.

1. Primary Memory: Primary memory is the main memory of the computer and is also known as internal memory
or main memory. It is the memory that is directly accessible to the CPU (Central Processing Unit). Primary
memory is usually volatile, meaning that its contents are not retained when the computer is powered off.
Examples of primary memory include random access memory (RAM) and cache memory.

2. Secondary Memory: Secondary memory is also known as external memory or auxiliary memory, and is used
to store large amounts of data for long periods of time. It is non-volatile, meaning that its contents are retained
even when the computer is powered off. Common examples of secondary memory are hard disk drives,
solid-state drives, and optical discs such as CDs and DVDs.

3. Cache Memory: Cache memory is a type of high-speed memory that is used to temporarily store data and
instructions that are frequently used by the CPU. It is much faster than primary and secondary memory and is
typically integrated onto the CPU chip itself.

4. Read-Only Memory (ROM): Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory that is used to store
instructions and data that are needed by the computer during the boot-up process. It is not possible to write data
to ROM, and its contents are retained even when the computer is powered off.

5. Flash Memory: Flash memory is a type of non-volatile memory that can be electrically erased and
re-programmed. It is typically used in USB drives, digital cameras, and other portable devices.
TOPIC 4 - Cloud Computing

Cloud computing is a model for delivering information technology services over the internet. It allows
organizations to access computing resources, such as servers, storage, databases, networking, software,
analytics, and intelligence, on a pay-as-you-go basis. Cloud computing services are hosted remotely in data
centers, and users access these services over the internet.

FEATURES OF CLOUD COMPUTING

1. On-Demand Scalability: Cloud computing allows businesses to scale up their IT resources quickly and easily
in response to changing demands.

2. Cost Efficiency: Cloud computing reduces the cost of IT infrastructure and support, allowing businesses to
save money on hardware, software, and maintenance costs.

3. Reliability: With cloud computing, companies can be sure that their data is secure and available at all times.

4. Increased Mobility: Cloud computing allows businesses to access their applications and data from anywhere
with an internet connection.

5. Automation: Cloud computing simplifies and automates the process of managing and deploying applications.

6. Improved Collaboration: Cloud computing allows teams to collaborate and work together on projects in
real-time.

7. Security: Cloud computing providers offer enhanced security measures to protect data and applications.

ADVANTAGES OF CLOUD COMPUTING

1. Cost Savings: Cloud computing eliminates the capital expense of buying hardware and software and setting
up and maintaining on-site datacenters. Instead, it utilizes a “pay-as-you-go” model, which only charges for the
services you actually use.

2. Increased Storage Capacity and Automated Backups: Cloud computing offers virtually unlimited storage
capacity and automated backups, as well as the ability to easily scale up or down depending on your needs.

3. Improved Business Agility and Scalability: Cloud computing allows businesses to quickly scale up or down
to meet changing business demands, thereby improving business agility and scalability.

4. Improved Collaboration: Cloud computing enables teams to easily collaborate on projects in real time, no
matter where they are located.

5. Increased Security: Cloud computing provides enhanced security for businesses, as data is stored and
backed up in secure data centers, and multiple layers of security are used to protect it.

6. Faster Innovation: Cloud computing enables businesses to quickly access the latest technologies, such as
artificial intelligence and machine learning, to drive innovation and increase their competitive advantage.
DISADVANTAGES OF CLOUD COMPUTING

1. Security Concerns: One of the major disadvantages of cloud computing is security. As your data is stored
remotely, it can be vulnerable to attacks from hackers and malicious software.

2. Limited Control: With cloud computing, you do not have full control over the infrastructure, applications, and
data. You are at the mercy of the cloud service provider when it comes to the availability and reliability of the
services.

3. Data Loss: Cloud computing is prone to data loss due to various reasons such as hardware failure, human
error, etc.

4. High Costs: Cloud computing can be expensive in the long run as the cost of storing and maintaining data on
the cloud can add up quickly.

5. Limited Flexibility: Cloud computing is not always the most suitable solution for all types of businesses. It may
not be able to provide the flexibility and customization that some businesses require.

CLOUD COMPUTING MODELS

Cloud computing models are the different ways that cloud computing can be used to provide services. 1.

● Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS): This type of cloud computing provides access to virtualized

computing resources such as servers, storage, and networking. IaaS is an ideal solution for organizations
that need to quickly deploy and manage virtualized environments.

● Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS): This type of cloud computing provides a platform for the development,
deployment, and management of web, mobile, and other applications. PaaS is a great solution for
organizations that need to quickly develop and deploy applications without having to manage the
underlying infrastructure.

● Software-as-a-Service (SaaS): This type of cloud computing provides access to applications and services
that are hosted in the cloud. SaaS is ideal for organizations that need to access applications without
having to manage the underlying infrastructure or develop their own applications.

● Function-as-a-Service (FaaS): This type of cloud computing provides access to functions that are hosted
in the cloud. FaaS is great for organizations that need to quickly deploy functions for a specific task without
having to manage the underlying infrastructure.

● Network as a Service (NaaS): Network as a Service (NaaS) is a cloud computing model in which a
third-party provider delivers network-related services such as virtual private networks (VPNs), firewalls,
and Internet access over the Internet. NaaS providers typically provide access to their services on a
pay-as-you-go basis, meaning that customers pay only for the services they use and can scale their usage
up or down as needed.

CLOUD DEPLOYMENT MODEL

Cloud deployment models are a set of practices and tools used to deploy applications and services to a cloud
computing environment. They define the architecture, components, and processes necessary to deploy
applications and services to the cloud. The models enable organizations to design, develop, and manage
applications and services for high availability, scalability, and security.

The most common cloud deployment models are public, private, hybrid, and multi-cloud.

● Public cloud: A public cloud is a cloud computing environment that is made available to the public over
the Internet. It is owned and managed by a third-party cloud service provider.

● Private cloud: A private cloud is a cloud computing environment that is dedicated to a single organization
or user. It is managed and maintained by the organization or user, and it is not accessible to the public.

● Hybrid cloud: A hybrid cloud is a combination of public and private clouds. It enables organizations to
move workloads between public and private clouds as needed.

● Multi-cloud: A multi-cloud is an environment that uses multiple cloud providers. It enables organizations
to move workloads between clouds and take advantage of different features and services offered by
multiple cloud providers.

TOPIC 5 - Data Centres and their Challenges

Data centres are physical facilities where businesses store, manage, and distribute large volumes of data and IT equipment.
They are essential for businesses to store, process, and share data securely, as well as to access computing resources such
as servers, storage, and networks. Data centres provide essential services such as cloud computing, web hosting, and data
storage. They are also used to host websites and applications, and to manage large databases. In addition, data centres are
used to provide disaster recovery solutions and to ensure business continuity.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA CENTRES

1. High Security: Data centers must have adequate physical security measures, such as access control systems,
CCTV surveillance, and fire suppression systems.
2. Reliability: Data centers must ensure that their systems are reliable, so that data is always available and
accessible even during outages.
3. Power: Data centers must have a reliable power supply. This includes an uninterruptible power supply, power
conditioning equipment, and backup generators.
4. Cooling: Data centers must provide cooling systems to maintain a safe operating temperature. This includes
air conditioning, heat exchangers, and cooling towers.
5. Connectivity: Data centers must provide a variety of connectivity options, such as LANs, WANs, and cloud
services.
6. Scalability: Data centers must be able to scale up or down quickly and efficiently to meet changing demands.
7. Manageability: Data centers must have the necessary tools and processes to ensure efficient and effective
management of the infrastructure.
8. Monitoring: Data centers must have the necessary tools and processes to monitor the performance and health
of the infrastructure.

CHALLENGES OF DATA CENTRES

1. Security and compliance: Data centers are targets for malicious cyberattacks, and the cost of a successful
attack can be devastating for a business.
2. Cooling and temperature management.- Data centers consume large amounts of power and require a
reliable power source and efficient cooling systems.This can be a challenge since it can be expensive to maintain
the power and cooling needs of a data center.

3. Efficiency: Data centers must be designed to be energy-efficient to reduce operational costs and
environmental impact.

4. Backup and Disaster Recovery: Data centers must have reliable backup and disaster recovery plans in place
to protect against unplanned outages.

5. Network latency- High-speed, low-latency network connectivity is critical for data centers to function optimally.

6. Increasing demands for capacity.- Data centers must be able to accommodate capacity increases over time
to meet growing demand.

7. Physical space constraints- Data centers must be able to scale up quickly to meet peak demand and scale
down to reduce costs when demand is low.

8. Maintenance costs- Data centers are expensive to build and maintain, so minimizing costs is critical.

TOPIC 6 - Computer Architecture

Computer architecture is a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and
implementation of computer systems. It is the bridge between hardware and software, allowing them to work
together in harmony.

Computer architecture is the fundamental design of a computer system, including the instruction set, memory
organization, processors, and other components. The architecture of a computer system provides a framework for
the design and implementation of software and hardware components, and it defines the relationships between
those components. It is important to note that computer architecture is not the same as computer hardware, which
refers to the actual physical components of a computer system.
All computer systems perform the following five basics operations for converting raw data into relevant
information.
● Inputting: The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
● Storing: The process of saving data and instructions so that they are available for use as and when
required.
● Processing: Performing arithmetic or logical operations on data, to convert them into useful information.
Arithmetic operations include operations of add, subtract, multiply, divide etc., and logical operations are
operations of comparison like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.
● Outputting: This is the process of providing the results to the user. These could be in the form of visual
display and/or printed reports.
● Controlling: Refers to directing the sequence and manner in which all the above operations are
performed

Input unit- Both program and data need to be in the computer system before any kind of operation can
be performed. Program refers to the set of instructions which the computer is to carry out, and data is the
information on which these instructions are to operate. For example, if the task is to rearrange a list of
telephone subscribers in alphabetical order, the sequence of instructions that guide the computer through
this operation is the program, whilst the list of names to be sorted is the data.

Main memory (primary storage)- Data and instructions are stored in the primary storage before
processing and transferred as and when needed to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) W actual processing
takes place. Once the processing is completed, the final results are again stored in the primary storage till
they are released to an output device. Also, any intermediate results generated by the ALU are temporarily
transferred back to the primary storage until needed at a later time. Thus data and instructions may move
many times back and forth between the primary storage and the ALU before the processing is completed.
It may be worth remembering that no processing is done in the primary storage.

Arithmetic logic unit- Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) After the input unit transfers the information into the
memory unit the information can then be further transferred to the ALU where comparisons or
calculations are done and results sent back to the memory unit. Since all data and instructions are represented in
numeric form (bit patterns), ALUs are designed to perform the four basic arithmetic operations: add, subtract,
multiply, divide, and logic/comparison operations such as equal to, less than, greater than.

Output unit-Since computers work with binary code, the results produced are also in binary form. The
basic function of the output unit therefore is to convert these results into human readable form before
providing the output through various output devices like terminals, printer etc.

Control unit- It is the function of the control unit to ensure that according instructions, the right
operation is done on the right data at the control unit that obtains instructions from the program stored in
the interprets them, and ensures that other units of the system execute them in the desired order. In
effect, the control unit is comparable to the central nervous system in the human body.

Central processing unit- the control unit, arithmetic logic unit along with the main memory are
together known as the central processing unit. It is the brain of any computer system.

Secondary storage- Secondary storage is storage other than the primary storage. These are peripheral
devices connected to and controlled by the computer to enable permanent storage of user data and
programs. Typically, hardware devices like magnetic tapes and magnetic disks fall under this category.
 UNIT- 3

TOPIC 1- Data communication - Concept, Characteristics, Communication Media

Data Communication

Data communication is the transmission of information from one device to another over a communication
channel. This includes the exchange of both analog and digital data between computers, tablets, mobile phones,
modems, and other network-enabled devices. Data communication can be either point-to-point or broadcast. In
point-to-point communication, only two devices are involved in the transmission, while in broadcast
communication, many devices can be involved. Data communication is essential for modern computing, as it
enables users to send and receive information from different locations.

Characteristics of Data communication

1. Sender: The sender is the source of data that is transmitted to the receiver.
2. Receiver: The receiver is the destination of the data sent by the sender.
3. Protocols: Protocols are sets of rules that govern how data is transmitted between the sender and receiver.
4. Modulation: Modulation is the process of transforming digital information into an analog signal for
transmission over a physical medium.
5. Transmission Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path used to transport the data from the
sender to the receiver.
6. Error Correction: Error correction is the process of detecting and correcting errors in the data that is being
transmitted.
7. Security: Security measures are used to protect the data from unauthorized access or modification.

Components of a Data Communication System

● Message: The Message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
● Sender: The Sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera and so on.
● Receiver: The Receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
● Transmission Medium: The Transmission Medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twister-pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
● Protocol: A Protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

Data Communication Modes

1. Simplex Mode: Simplex mode is a type of data communication which allows only one-way transmission of
data. The transmitting and receiving device can not send and receive data at the same time and the
direction of data flow is only one way.
2. Half-Duplex Mode: Half-duplex mode is a type of data communication which allows two-way transmission
of data but not simultaneously. The transmitting and receiving device can send and receive data but not at
the same time. The direction of data flow is only one way at a time.
 3. Full Duplex Mode: Full duplex mode is a type of data communication which allows two-way transmission
of data simultaneously. The transmitting and receiving device can send and receive data at the same time
and the direction of data flow is both ways.

Difference between Analog Signal and Digital Signal

Analog
An Analog signal is a continuous signal that
represents physical measurements.
It is denoted by sine waves
It uses a continuous range of values that help you
to represent information.
Temperature sensors, FM radio signals, Photocells,
Light sensor, Resistive touch screen are examples
of Analog signals.
The Analog signal bandwidth is low
Digital
Digital signals are time separated signals
which are generated using digital modulation.
It is denoted by square waves
Digital signal uses discrete 0 and 1 to
represent information.
Computers, CDs, DVDs are some examples of
Digital signal.
The digital signal bandwidth is high.

Analog signals are deteriorated by noise Relatively a noise-immune system without

throughout transmission as well as write/read
cycle.
Analog hardware never offers flexible
implementation.
It is suited for audio and video transmission.
deterioration during the transmission process
and write/read cycle.
Digital hardware offers flexibility in
implementation.
It is suited for Computing and digital
electronics.

Processing can be done in real-time and consumes
lesser bandwidth compared to a digital signal.
Analog instruments usually have scale which is
cramped at the lower end and gives considerable
observational errors.
Analog signal doesn't offer any fixed range.
It never gives a guarantee that digital signal
processing can be performed in real time.
Digital instruments never cause any kind of
observational errors.
Digital signal has a finite number, i.e., 0 and 1.

Difference b/w Analog Transmission and Digital Transmission

Feature Analog Transmission Digital Transmission

Signal Continuously variable, in both amplitude and Discrete signal, represented as either changes in
frequency voltage or changes in light levels
 Feature Analog Transmission Digital Transmission

Traffic Hz (for example, a telephone channel is Bits per second (for example, a T-1 line carries
measurement 4KHz) 1.544Mbps, and an E-1 line transports
2.048Mbps)

Bandwidth Low bandwidth (4KHz), which means low High bandwidth that can support high-speed data
data transmission rates (up to 33.6Kbps) and emerging applications that involve video and
because of limited channel bandwidth multimedia

Network Low; one conversation per telephone High; multiplexers enable multiple conversations
capacity channel to share a communications channel and hence to
achieve greater transmission efficiencies

Network Poor; a lot of labor is needed for network
manageability maintenance and control because dumb
analog devices do not provide management
information streams that allow the device to
be remotely managed
Good; smart devices produce alerts, alarms,
traffic statistics, and performance measurements,
and technicians at a network control center (NCC)
or network operations center (NOC) can remotely
monitor and manage the various network
elements

Power High because the signal contains a wide Low because only two discrete signals—the one
requirement range of frequencies and amplitudes and the zero—need to be transmitted

Security Poor; when you tap into an analog circuit, Good; encryption can be used
you hear the voice stream in its native form,
and it is difficult to detect an intrusion

Error rates High; 10  bits (that is, 1 in 100,000 bits) is

–5
Low; with twisted-pair, 10 (that, is 1 in 10 million
–7 

guaranteed to have an error bits per second) will have an error, with satellite,
10  (that is, 1 in 1 billion per second) will have an
–9

error, and with fiber, 10  (that is only 1 in 10

–11

trillion bits per second) will have an error

COMMUNICATION MEDIA / TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Transmission media is the physical path or conduit through which data or information is transmitted or conveyed
from one device to another. Examples of transmission media include twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables, optical
fibers, and radio waves.
 A) Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media:

Wired transmission media is a physical medium used to transmit data from one point to another. It is typically made up
of a conductor such as copper, fiber optic cable, or coaxial cable. Wired transmission media is used for a variety of
applications, such as telephone and computer networks, broadcast television, and radio.

Types of Wired Transmission Media

1. Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable is a type of wired transmission media composed of an inner conductor surrounded by
an insulating layer, surrounded by a conductive shield. It is used for transmitting video and data signals, and is most
commonly used in cable television systems, local area networks (LANs), and telephone systems.

2. Twisted Pair Cable: Twisted pair cable is a type of wired transmission media composed of two insulated wires
twisted together. It is commonly used in telephone and computer networks and is capable of carrying data over short
distances at high speeds.

3. Fiber Optic Cable: Fiber optic cable is a type of wired transmission media composed of thin, flexible strands of
glass or plastic. It is used for transmitting data over long distances at high speeds, and is commonly used in
long-distance telephone systems and the internet.

4. Ethernet Cable: Ethernet cable is a type of wired transmission media composed of four twisted pairs of copper
wires. It is used to connect computers and other network devices in a local area network (LAN), and is capable of
carrying data at speeds up to 10 Gigabits per second.

B) Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media:

Wireless transmission media is a type of communication technology used for transmitting data over a distance without
the use of wires or cables. This type of transmission is usually achieved through radio frequency, infrared (IR) and laser
light. Common examples of wireless transmission media include satellite communication, cellular networks, Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, and wireless sensor networks.

Types of Wireless Transmission Media

1. Radio Waves: Radio waves are one of the most commonly used types of wireless transmission media and are used to
transmit signals across long distances. Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of
frequencies and are used in applications such as radio and television broadcasting, wireless networking, and cellular
communication.

2. Infrared: Infrared is a type of wireless transmission media that is used to transmit signals between two points. It
works by emitting infrared radiation, which is invisible to the human eye. Infrared is commonly used for remote control
devices and to transfer data between computers.

3. Microwave: Microwave is a type of wireless transmission media that is used to transmit signals over long distances.
It works by sending a signal in the form of an electromagnetic wave, which is generated by a transmitter. The signal is
then received by a receiver. Microwave is commonly used for communication between satellites and Earth stations.

4. Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a type of short-range wireless communication technology that is used to connect devices
over short distances. It works by sending data between two Bluetooth-enabled devices, such as mobile phones, laptops,
and tablets.

5. Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is a type of wireless transmission media that is used to connect devices over a network. It works by
sending a signal from a wireless router, which is then received by a device that is connected to the network. Wi-Fi is
commonly used for wireless networking in homes and offices.
TOPIC 2- Computer Network - Concept,Types, Primary Network, Network Architecture, Inter-
Networking Devices

Network- A Network is a set of devices connected by communication links.

Networking- Networking is the practice of connecting computers, devices, and other technology in order to share
data, access resources, and facilitate communication. Networks can be as small as a local area network (LAN)
with just two computers, or as large as the entire Internet. Networking is a key component of modern technology,
allowing us to communicate, access data, and much more.

Computer network- A computer network is a group of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing
information and resources. This connection can be via cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared
light beams. The network allows computers to communicate with each other, share hardware and software
resources, and access the internet.

Types of Network
1. Local Area Network (LAN): A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network of computers and other electronic
devices that share a common communications line and typically share the resources of a single processor or
server within a small geographic area (e.g., within an office building).

Advantages
1. Cost: Installing and maintaining a LAN is relatively inexpensive compared to other types of networks.
2. Speed: Data can be transferred quickly over a LAN.
3. Flexibility: LANs are highly flexible and can be easily expanded to accommodate additional users or devices.
4. Security: Data on a LAN is typically secure from outside threats, as the network is not connected to the
internet.
5. Reliability: A LAN is more reliable than a WAN, as data can be transferred more quickly and reliably over
shorter distances.

Disadvantages
1. Limited Range: The range of a LAN is limited, usually to a single building.
2. Vulnerability: A LAN can be vulnerable to hackers if it is not properly secured.
3. Maintenance: Maintaining a LAN can be time consuming and costly.
4. Resource Sharing: Sharing resources such as printers, scanners, and other peripherals can be difficult on a
LAN.
5. Compatibility: Different devices may not be compatible with one another, making it difficult to connect them to
the same network.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network that spans a
metropolitan area, such as a city, and usually consists of two or more LANs connected by some form of
high-speed connection, such as a T1 or T3 line.

Advantages:
1. High Data Transfer Rate: A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) offers very high data transfer rates, allowing
businesses to quickly and efficiently share data between different locations.
2. Greater Reach: A MAN has a greater reach than a LAN, allowing users to access data and resources from
further away locations.
3. Increased Security: When compared to WANs, MANs offer increased security and privacy as they are not
connected to the public Internet.
4. Cost-Effective: As MANs are cheaper than WANs, they are often used by smaller businesses to connect their
different locations.

Disadvantages:
1. Expensive to Setup and Maintain: Setting up and maintaining a MAN can be expensive due to the high costs
associated with the hardware and software needed for the network.
2. Not as Reliable as WANs: MANs are not as reliable as WANs as they are more prone to downtime and data
loss due to the lack of redundancy in their design.
3. Limited Bandwidth: MANs typically have limited bandwidth, meaning that they cannot handle the same
amount of data as a WAN.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN): A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that spans a large geographical area,
such as a city, state, or country. WANs typically utilize public communication networks, such as the Internet, to
connect users.

Advantages
1. WANs provide a greater geographical coverage than LANs, and can span the entire globe.
2. WANs offer higher speeds than are typically available with a dial-up connection.
3. WANs are typically more reliable than LANs due to their larger scale and more sophisticated infrastructure.
4. WANs can be used to connect multiple locations, allowing for enhanced collaboration and communication.
5. WANs are often more secure than LANs, as they use dedicated lines and are typically managed by a third-party
provider.

Disadvantages
1. WANs can be more expensive to set up and maintain than LANs due to their larger scale and more complex
infrastructure.
2. WANs are typically slower than LANs due to the geographical distance between nodes.
3. WANs are more vulnerable to security threats such as hacking and malicious software.
4. WANs can be more difficult to configure and troubleshoot than LANs.
5. WANs typically require more specialized personnel to manage and maintain them.

PRIMARY NETWORK
Primary Network is a type of computer network that allows two or more computers to communicate. It is a direct
connection between two or more computers, usually over a dedicated cable. A primary network is usually used for
sharing files, applications, and other resources between multiple computers. Primary networks are commonly
used in homes, small businesses, and other small areas.

The main features of a primary network include:

- Direct connection between two or more computers.

- Ability to share files, applications, and other resources.
- Ability to transfer data quickly and reliably.
- Easy setup and administration.
- Ability to set up user accounts and password protection.
- Ability to configure security settings.
- Ability to connect to other networks and the internet.

NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Network architecture is the design of a communication network. It includes the hardware, software, protocols, and
media used to interconnect nodes in a network. Network architecture also includes the topology, or the way in
which the nodes are connected. Examples of network architectures include peer-to-peer, client-server, and mesh
architectures.

Types of Network Architecture

A). Client-Server Architecture: This type of network architecture consists of two main components: clients and
servers. Clients send requests to the server, which then processes the request and sends back a response. The
server is responsible for providing the resources, such as files or services, to the clients.

Advantages:
1. Increased performance: Client-server networks have the ability to separate resources and responsibilities.
This means that different computers can be dedicated to different tasks which can lead to increased performance.
2. Centralized data storage: Client-server networks allow for centralized storage of data. This means that all
data is stored in one place, making it easier to access, manage, and back up.
3. Increased security: Client-server networks are considered to be more secure than peer-to-peer networks. This
is because the server can be configured with more advanced security measures such as firewalls, antivirus
software, and user authentication.
4. Easier to manage: Client-server networks are typically easier to manage than peer-to-peer networks. This is
because all of the resources are centralized and can be managed from one place.

Disadvantages:

1. Expensive: Client-server networks can be expensive to implement and maintain. This is because more
hardware is required and the server must be maintained by a skilled network administrator.
2. Single point of failure: Client-server networks are vulnerable to single point of failure. If the server fails, the
entire network can be affected.
3. Complex setup: Client-server networks require a more complex setup than peer-to-peer networks. This is
because all of the components need to be configured properly in order for the network to work properly.

B). Peer-to-Peer Architecture: This type of network architecture does not have a centralized server, instead, all
nodes on the network are equal and can act both as a client and a server. This type of architecture is very efficient
for file sharing, as it allows for direct communication between nodes, which eliminates the need for a middleman.

Advantages:
1. Cost effective: Setting up a peer-to-peer network is usually cheaper than a server-based network as there is
no need to purchase a server and its associated hardware.
2. No single point of failure: Since there is no central server, the network is not dependent on a single machine
and is less vulnerable to failure.
3.Resource Sharing: The ability to share resources such as printers and files makes peer-to-peer networks ideal
for small businesses and home users.
4.Easy to set up and use: Peer-to-peer networks are easy to set up and use, and can be quickly established
without the need for IT support.
Disadvantages:
1. Security: Peer-to-peer networks are less secure than server-based networks as there is no central server to
manage access control and user authentication.
2. Lack of control: Since there is no central server, it can be difficult to manage user access rights and enforce
policies.
3. Limited scalability: Peer-to-peer networks are not suitable for large networks as the number of users and
resources that can be supported is limited.
4. Data redundancy: Without a central server, data stored on the network is vulnerable to duplication, which can
lead to data loss.

INTER- NETWORKING DEVICES

Inter- networking devices are devices used to connect two or more networks together. They include routers,
switches, bridges, hubs, and firewalls.
● Routers are devices that direct data packets between two or more networks. They use routing tables and
protocols to determine the best path for the packet.

● Switches are devices that connect multiple devices on the same network. They create virtual circuits
between the devices, allowing them to communicate.

● Bridges are devices that connect two different networks together. They work by reading the destination
address of each packet and forwarding the packet to the appropriate network.

● Hubs are devices that connect multiple devices on the same network. They broadcast all incoming data
packets to all connected devices, regardless of the destination address.

● Firewalls are devices that protect networks from malicious traffic. They use rules and filters to control the
flow of traffic between networks.

TOPIC 3- Network Topologies

Network topologies refer to the physical or logical arrangement of computers and other devices in a network. They
are typically represented by a diagram showing the nodes (computers, routers, switches, etc.) and the
connections between them. The most common types of network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and
hybrid.

1. Bus topology is the simplest type of network topology and consists of a single cable that connects all of
the computers and devices in the network. It is typically used in small networks where all of the devices
can be connected to the same cable.
Advantages:
1. Simple setup and low cost for installation.
2. Easy to expand or modify the network.
3. Easy to identify faults and to troubleshoot.
4. Good for small networks.
Disadvantages:
1. Limited number of devices that can be connected to the network.
2. If one node fails, the entire network is affected.
3. Data transfer rate is slow compared to other topologies.
4. Not suitable for large networks.
2. Star topology is more complex than bus topology and consists of a central hub or switch that connects to
each of the computers or devices in the network. This allows for greater flexibility and scalability as more
devices can be added to the network without having to change the cable layout.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. High performance: Star topology is one of the most reliable topologies as it offers centralized control,
which allows for better performance.
2. Easy to install and expand: It is easy to install and expand the star topology. Adding new nodes to the
network is simple as only one connection needs to be established.
3. Easy to troubleshoot: In case of a problem, it is easy to identify the problematic node and make the
necessary changes.
4. No disruption to the network: A star topology network can be expanded without disrupting the existing
network.
5. Secure: Star topology offers better security as each node is connected to the central node, allowing the
central node to monitor the traffic.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost: Star topology is expensive as it requires more cabling and other equipment compared to other
topologies.
2. Dependence on central node: The whole network is dependent on the central node. If the central
node fails, the whole network will fail.
3. Low tolerance for cable faults: Even a single cable fault can affect the whole network.

3. Ring topology is similar to star topology, but instead of a central hub or switch, the devices are connected
in a circle. Data travels around the ring in one direction, and each device has the ability to send and
receive data from any other device on the network.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. It’s easy to set up and configure.
2. Its transmission speed is fairly high.
3. The cost of the cabling is low.
4. It is not affected by the node addition or deletion.
5. The fault detection and isolation is easy.
6. It’s easy to manage.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. If the main cable or ring fails, the entire network fails.

2. The network traffic can be disrupted due to the single point of failure.
3. Since the network is closed, it’s hard to expand or add additional nodes.
4. Each data packet must pass through all the nodes, resulting in slower data transfer rates.

4. Mesh topology is a type of network topology in which each device is connected to every other device in
the network. This allows for more reliable connectivity and faster data speeds, but it is more expensive and
 complex to set up. To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh connection , we need to
find n(n-1)/2

Advantages:
1. Mesh topology provides the highest level of reliability and redundancy because each node has a direct
connection with every other node.
2. It is relatively easy to add new nodes or devices to the network.
3. The entire network can be used as a single broadcast domain, meaning that broadcast messages can
be sent to all nodes in the network at once.
4. The mesh topology is fault-tolerant and can self-heal if one of the nodes fails.

Disadvantages:
1. The mesh topology can be expensive to implement and maintain due to the large number of
connections required.
2. It is difficult to configure and manage a large number of nodes.
3. The network performance can suffer if the number of nodes in the network is increased.
4. The mesh topology is not suitable for large networks because of its complexity.

5. Hybrid topology is a combination of two or more of the other topologies. It is usually used when different
types of connections are needed in the same network, such as a star and ring topology.

Advantages:

1. Mesh topology provides the highest level of reliability and redundancy because each node has a direct
connection with every other node.
2. It is relatively easy to add new nodes or devices to the network.
3. The entire network can be used as a single broadcast domain, meaning that broadcast messages can be sent
to all nodes in the network at once.
4. The mesh topology is fault-tolerant and can self-heal if one of the nodes fails.

Disadvantages:

1. The mesh topology can be expensive to implement and maintain due to the large number of connections
required.
2. It is difficult to configure and manage a large number of nodes.
3. The network performance can suffer if the number of nodes in the network is increased.
4. The mesh topology is not suitable for large networks because of its complexity.

HUB | ROUTER | SWITCH

Switch
● It is commonly used in local area networks for connecting many nodes.
● Forwards a message to a specific host - On each port, a switch, like a bridge, employs the same
forwarding or filtering logic. When a host or switch on the network transmits a message to another host or
switches on the same network, the switch receives the frames and decodes them to read the physical
(MAC) address component of the message.
● Increase LAN bandwidth - A switch divides a LAN into many collision domains, each with its broadband
connection, considerably improving the LAN’s bandwidth.
Router
 ● It is commonly used in Local Area Network and Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
● It manages traffic by forwarding data packets to their proper IP addresses. Traffic between these networks
may be managed.
● It determines the best path to send packets.
Hub
● It is similar to a switch because it is used in the Local Area Network (LAN).
● It is used for network monitoring.
● They are also used in organizations to provide connectivity.
● It can be used to create a device that is available throughout the network.

TOPIC 4 - Internet, Intranet ,Extranet, Internet Services, WWW

Internet
Internet is a global network of computers that use the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to link billions of devices
worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and
government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical
networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as
the interlinked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support email.

Benefits of Internet
1. Access to Information: One of the greatest benefits of the internet is its ability to provide access to information
on virtually any topic imaginable. From educational resources to health-related information and news, the internet
has made it easier than ever for people to find the information they need quickly and easily.
2. Communication: The internet has revolutionized the way we communicate with each other. Whether it’s
through email, social media, text messaging, or any other form of communication, the internet has made the world
smaller by connecting people from all over the world.
3. Shopping: The internet has made shopping much easier and more convenient for consumers. With online
shopping, consumers can browse through thousands of products and compare prices with just a few clicks.
4. Entertainment: The internet is an endless source of entertainment. From streaming movies and TV shows to
playing online games and listening to music, there’s something for everyone.
5. Education: The internet has made it easier than ever for students to access educational resources. From
online courses to virtual libraries and educational websites, students have access to countless resources that can
help them learn.
Intranet
An intranet is a private network contained within an organization that is used to share information and resources,
including any applications or services, among its members. It is usually accessible only to authorized personnel
and uses security measures like firewalls and password protection to keep unauthorized users out. Intranets are
often used to share documents, collaborate on projects, and communicate with other members of the
organization.

Characteristics of intranet
1. Secure: Intranets are highly secure and access to the resources within the intranet is usually restricted to only
certain users.
2. Private: Intranets are designed for private use and contain confidential information.
3. Easy to Use: Intranets are usually user friendly and easy to use.
4. Centralized: Intranets provide a centralized source of information, making it easier to access and share
information within the organization.
5. Collaborative: Intranets make it easier for employees to collaborate and work together on projects.
6. Cost-Effective: Intranets can be more cost-effective than public internet solutions since the infrastructure is
already in place and the cost of maintaining the system is lower.

Benefits of Intranet
● Workforce productivity: Intranets can also help users to locate and view information faster and use
applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities.
● Time: Intranets allow organizations to distribute information to employees on an as needed basis;
Employees may link to relevant information at their convenience, rather than being distracted
indiscriminately by electronic mail.
● Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an organization,
vertically and horizontally. By providing this information on the intranet, staff has the opportunity to keep
up-to-date with the strategic focus of the organization. Some examples of communication would be chat,
email, and or blogs.
● Business operations and management: Intranets are also being used as a platform for developing and
deploying applications to support business operations and decisions across the internet.
● Cost-effective: Users can view information and data via web-browser rather than maintaining physical
documents such as procedure manuals, internal phone list and requisition forms.
● Promote common corporate culture: Every user is viewing the same information within the Intranet.
● Enhance Collaboration: With information easily accessible by all authorized users, teamwork is enabled.
● Immediate Updates: When dealing with the public in any capacity, laws/specifications/ parameters can
change. With an Intranet and providing your audience with "live" changes, they are never out of date,
which can limit a company's liability.

Extranet
An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technology to securely share part of a business's information or
operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses. It allows authorized users to access
information and applications from outside the company's internal network. An extranet is typically an extension of
a company's intranet that is accessible to customers, vendors, and business partners. It can be used to facilitate
communication between the business and its partners, customers, and suppliers, as well as provide access to
shared applications, such as customer portals and product catalogs.

BENEFITS OF EXTRANET
1. Improved Communication: An extranet can provide a secure platform for businesses to communicate with
customers, partners, suppliers, and other stakeholders. This can help streamline communication, share
documents, and collaborate on projects.
2. Increased Productivity: An extranet can provide access to documents, updates, and other resources that can
help employees work more efficiently. This can help reduce the amount of time spent on tasks and increase
productivity.
3. Cost Savings: By using an extranet, businesses can reduce the cost of printing, mailing, and distributing
documents. This can result in significant cost savings for businesses.
4. Improved Security: An extranet can offer secure access to documents and resources. This can help protect
confidential information and ensure that only authorized users have access to the information.
5. Enhanced Customer Service: An extranet can provide customers with access to resources and updates,
which can help improve customer service. This can result in increased customer satisfaction and loyalty.

BASIS INTERNET INTRANET EXTRANET

Definition A global network of A private network based on A private network based on

computers connected TCP/IP protocols and
together accessible only to an
organization's staff
TCP/IP protocols that
crosses firewalls and is
accessible to authorized
users from outside the
organization

Accessibility Openly accessible to anyone Accessible only to members of Accessible to members of

with an internet connection the organization the organization and to
some users outside the
organization

Use Used for browsing the web,
sending and receiving
emails, downloading files
etc.
Used for sharing information
within the organization,
building departmental
applications and providing
access to certain applications
from remote locations
Used for providing secure
access to the organization’s
data and applications to
partners, vendors and
customers

INTERNET SERVICES
Internet service is a type of service that enables users to access the Internet, such as through a modem or other
type of connection. It provides access to websites, email, file sharing, and other online services. Internet service
providers (ISPs) provide the physical connection necessary to access the Internet, as well as the tools and
services used to use the Internet.

Characteristics of Internet Services

1. Accessibility: Internet services are accessible from anywhere in the world with an internet connection,
including computers, smartphones, tablets, and other connected devices.
2. Speed: Internet services are typically fast and reliable, with download speeds of up to 100 Mbps or more
in some cases.
3. Affordability: Internet services are typically affordable and can be customized to fit a variety of budgets.
4. Security: Internet services are typically secure, with data encryption and other safety measures to protect
users from malware, hackers, and other malicious threats.
5. Flexibility: Internet services are flexible, allowing users to customize their internet experience to fit their
needs.
6. Reliability: Internet services are typically reliable, with minimal downtime or service interruption.
7. Scalability: Internet services are typically scalable, allowing users to increase or decrease their bandwidth
as needed.

WWW
WWW stands for World Wide Web which is the system of interlinked hypertext documents that are accessed
via the Internet. It serves as a platform to share information by connecting to web pages, images, videos,
and other files.WWW is essentially the backbone of the Internet, providing users with an easy to navigate
space to find the information they need.

Web Publishing
Web publishing is the process of publishing content on the World Wide Web and making it available to the
general public. This includes anything from creating and maintaining a website, to uploading content such as
text, images, videos, audio, and other multimedia elements. Web publishing also includes managing website
traffic, search engine optimization, and content marketing.

Web Hosting
Web hosting is a service that provides individuals and organizations with a platform to store their website
data and files on servers connected to the internet. This allows their website to be accessible to people
around the world.

TOPIC 5- OSI MODEL

OSI Reference Model:

⮚ The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed the Open System Interconnection (OSI)
reference model.
⮚ OSI model is the most widely used model for networking.
⮚ OSI model is a seven layer standard.
⮚ Each layer performs a well-defined function.

Layers of OSI Model:

1. Application Layer:
⮚ It provides access to the OSI environment for users.
⮚ It also provides distributed information services.
⮚ The application layer provides a variety of protocols that are commonly needed to the application
processes running on separate computers on behalf of user tasks.
⮚ The protocols include electronic mail, remote job entry and file transfer.

Major Functions or Services of Application Layer:

⮚ It provides services for electronic mail.

⮚ It provides the mechanism for remote file access and transfer.
⮚ It provides user interfaces and support for services.
2. Presentation Layer:
⮚ It is responsible for data compression, data encryption and data decryption.
⮚ It translates or formats data to adapt to the needs of application layer and nodes at both the receiving
and sending ends of communication process.

Major Functions or Services of Presentation Layer:

● The main responsibility of this layer is data compression.

● It reduces the size of data in order to achieve faster transmission over the network.
● For the security, it encrypts and decrypts data whenever required.
● Data Encryption is the conversion of data into an encoded form that cannot be read by an unauthorized
person.
● It translates data i.e. it converts the data from one protocol to another so that it can be transferred between
dissimilar platforms or operating systems.

3. Session Layer:
⮚ The Session Layer adds mechanisms to establish, maintain, synchronize and manage communication
between network entities.
⮚ It provides services to manage who can transmit data at a particular time.

Major Functions or Services of Session Layer:

⮚ It provides the synchronization to the data.

⮚ This layer is responsible for regulating communication between source and destination.
⮚ This layer controls dialogues between two processes; determining which one can transmit and
which one can receive and at what point of time during communication.
4. Transport Layer:
⮚ It is responsible for reliable end to end data transfer between source and destination.
⮚ The Transport Layer performs the service of accepting data from session layer, splits it up into smaller
units, if needed, passes these to network layer and ensures that the pieces arrive correctly at the other
end.
⮚ It also provides facility for end-to-end error recovery and flow control.

Major Function or Services of Transport Layer:

⮚ It is responsible for providing reliable and transparent transfer of data between source and
destination points.
⮚ It provides flow control, sequence numbering and message acknowledgement.
⮚ It determines what type of service to provide to the session layer and ultimately the users of the
network.
5. Network Layer:
⮚ The Network Layer is a complex layer that controls the operation of the communication subnet.
⮚ It specifies the intra-network operations and different types of addressing and routing services.
⮚ The main functions of network layer are packet routing, accounting and congestion control.
⮚ Logical and Service addressing are provided from network layer.

Main functions and Services of Network Layer:

⮚ It manages traffic with the help of packet switching, routing and controlling the congestion of data.
⮚ It determines the route from the source to the destination computer.
⮚ It is responsible for addressing messages and translating logical addresses and names into
physical addresses.
6. Data Link Layer:
⮚ It provides error-free communication lines between computers that are directly connected.
⮚ It groups zeroes and ones into frames.
⮚ A Frame is a series of bits that forms a unit of data.
⮚ It is responsible for providing reliable transfer of information across the physical link and it sends
frames.
⮚ Error free service is provided by breaking bit stream into frames and adding extra bit for error
detection.
⮚ This layer is also responsible for flow control to prevent flooding of nodes and to manage speed
difference between a fast sender and slow receiver.
⮚ The data link layer constructs the frames and performs error checking.

Major Functions and Services of Data Link Layer:

⮚ It alerts upper layer protocols that a transmission error has occurred.

⮚ It groups bits into frames and ensures their correct delivery.
⮚ It consists of the data link layer specification that often defines how devices are to be physically
connected like bus or a ring topology.
⮚ It interoperates certain processes which carry out error control, flow control, access control and the
associated link management functions.
⮚ It defines how devices are addressed at the data link layer.
⮚ It transfers data from one node to another node.
7. Physical Layer:
⮚ It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
⮚ This layer transmits raw bits over a communication channel.

Major Functions and Services of Physical Layer:

⮚ Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium.

⮚ Defines data encoding i.e. how 0’s and 1’s are changed to signals.
⮚ Defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits transmitted per second.
⮚ Deals with network connection types, including multipoint and point to point connections.
⮚ Protocols of physical layer are: IEEE 802 IEEE 02.2