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com

EXOTICS Alpaca owners attach a high

emotional and financial value
to their animals and this
is reflected in the level of
veterinary care they expect

Introduction to the alpaca and

its veterinary care in the UK GIAN LORENZO D’ALTERIO

SOUTH American camelids, particularly alpacas (Lama pacos), are becoming increasingly popular exotic
livestock species in the UK. As with most exotic animals, veterinary intervention relies heavily on
knowledge gained with more conventional and familiar species. However, species differences must
be taken into consideration, and it is crucial that exotic patients are placed within the appropriate
biological context. This article discusses the husbandry procedures commonly adopted for alpacas in
the UK and describes how routine veterinary techniques are conducted in this species. It also outlines
an approach to disease prevention.

Gian Lorenzo
D’Alterio qualified
SOUTH AMERICAN CAMELIDS
No drugs are licensed for use in camelids in the UK.
from the Faculty of
Veterinary Medicine, Owner consent should always be sought before
SPECIES
University of Perugia, any drugs are administered to camelids, and the
Italy, in 1995. There are four species of South American (New World)
use of a consent form is recommended.
He subsequently camelid: the alpaca (Lama pacos), llama (Lama glama),
completed a three-
year residency at guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and vicuna (Vicugna vicugna)
Bristol in production (see table, below left). Guanacos and vicunas are wild to have led to a degeneration in the fibre quality of
animal health,
with particular
species, while llamas and alpacas are domesticated. alpacas seen today. There are two breeds of alpaca: the
emphasis on South Guanacos can be tamed by continuous human contact huacaya and suri. Huacayas have short, crimped fibres,
American camelids.
and supplemental feeding. Some guanaco (possibly gua- while suris have longer, straighter fibres that are organ-
He is currently in
mixed practice in naco crosses) herds are present in the UK. ised in locks.
Maremma, Italy. He All four species possess the same karyotype (2n=74),
holds an MSc in wild
animal health and, in so the production of fertile hybrids is possible, albeit
2005, was awarded with human intervention. Extensive hybridisation over
fellowship of the
RCVS for studies on many centuries between llamas and alpacas is thought
skin disease in South
American camelids in
the UK.

In Practice (2006)
28, 404-411

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUTH
AMERICAN CAMELIDS

Order Artiodactyla

Suborder Tylopoda

Family Camelidae

Tribe Lamini

Species Lama pacos

Lama glama
Lama guanicoe
Vicugna vicugna

Adapted from Wheeler (1995)

Huacaya (left) and suri (right) alpacas. Pictures, Arunvale Alpacas, UK

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NORMAL PARAMETERS FOR ALPACAS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOUTH AMERICAN CAMELIDS AND TRUE RUMINANTS

Gestation 335-372 days South American camelids True ruminants

Birth weight 6-9 kg Digestive system Foregut fermenters, with Same

Adult weight
Adult height at withers
Body temperature
Respiratory rate (adult at rest)
Heart rate (adult at rest)
regurgitation, rechewing and
50-90 kg reswallowing
76-104 cm Three-compartment stomach Four-compartment stomach
Dental formula: I 1/3, C 1/1, PM 1-2/1-2, Dental formula: I 0/3, C 0/1, PM 3/3,
37·5-38·9°C M 3/3 x 2 = 28-32 M 3/3 x 2 = 32
10-30/minute Red blood cells are elliptic and Red blood cells are round and larger
Blood
60-90/minute small (6·5 µm); neutrophils are the (10 µm); lymphocytes are the
predominant leucocyte predominant leucocyte

Reproduction Induced ovulation Spontaneous ovulation

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES No true oestrous cycle
Follicular wave cycle
Camelids are characterised by the absence of horns or Copulation in prone position
antlers, the presence of true canines on both the upper Diffuse placenta
and lower jaws, a three-compartment stomach and callous Epidermal membrane surrounding
fetus
digital pads covered by claws.
Prolonged ejaculation
Oestrous cycle
No follicular wave cycle
Copulation in standing position
Cotyledonary placenta
No epidermal membrane surrounding
fetus
Short and intense ejaculation

Respiration Primarily a nasal breather Nasal or oral breather

BIOLOGY AND ADAPTATIONS
Digestive system
Members of the suborder Tylopoda are functionally
ruminant (ie, they regurgitate and rechew food material),
but evolved in parallel and independently from members
of the suborder Ruminantia or Pecora (true or advanced
ruminants), although both suborders are likely to have
originated from a simple stomached, common ancestor
(see table, above right).
The digestive system of camelids has been exten-
sively studied. Functionally, it is worth noting that the
apex of the incisors remains open, even after maturity is
reached, resulting in continuous growth of these teeth.
The camelidʼs stomach is characterised by three dis-
tinct compartments (C-1, C-2 and C-3). While there are
no morphological analogies with the four-compartment
stomach of true ruminants, functional similarities, partic-
ularly between C-1 of camelids and rumen, and C-2 and
reticulum, have been observed. Papillae are not present in
C-1 and C-2, and all three compartments have glandular
areas, producing secretions of a mostly mucinous nature.
In fact, only the last fifth of C-3 contains gastric glands
capable of secreting digestive enzymes and acid.
Like true ruminants, camelid neonates have a large
true stomach compared with the size of the remaining
compartments. The oesophageal groove is less devel-
oped than in true ruminants and comprises a single lip.
C-1 motility (which is best appreciated by auscultation
at the lower left flank rather than the paralumbar fossa)
equates to three to four contractions per minute.
Alpacas perform better than sheep when grazing on
poor quality pasture as the gastrointestinal transit time
is slower for particulate matter, and faster for fluids
(probably due to the higher volume of saliva produced
in relation to the volume of the forestomach). This is
thought to be an adaptive response to the coarse, heav-
ily lignified vegetable material that camelids originally
grazed on Andean pastures. Llamas perform even better
than alpacas when faced with adverse nutritional condi-
tions. The full nutrient requirements of alpacas have not,
to date, been determined.
Blood
Other factors that camelids have had to adapt to during
their evolutionary development are the low oxygen levels
and low atmospheric pressure of the high Andes. This
has led to various haemovascular features including:
■ Limited vascular smooth muscle hypertrophic response
to hypoxia, and related pulmonary hypertension;
Foot Toenails and soft pad; P2/P3 horizontal Hooves and sole; P2/P3 nearly vertical
Adapted from Fowler (1997, 1998)
■ Small, flat, elliptic erythrocytes, present in high
numbers, resulting in an advantageous surface area to
volume ratio;
■ Easier passage of erythrocytes through capillaries
(thus reducing sludging during periods of dehydration)
and less osmotic fragility (reducing hypotonic lysis dur-
ing periods of water loading).
A high turnover of red cells and a bone marrow
myeloid:erythroid ratio of 1:2, together with a high
mean cell haemoglobin concentration and high muscular
myoglobin levels, are additional adaptive features that Digital pads of the
camelids have developed as a result of their native high foot of an alpaca
altitude environment (Ellis 1982).
Reproduction
The female alpaca can attain sexual maturity at one year
of age, although they are normally bred when they have
reached at least 60 per cent of adult bodyweight (approx-
imately 40 kg). Females are induced ovulators (ie, ovu-
lation is induced by penile penetration of the vagina and
cervix) and display prolonged periods of receptivity.
Fertilisation rates can be high (up to 80 per cent), but
early embryonic losses may lead to a birth rate of less
than 50 per cent. Alpacas only carry singlets, almost
invariably in the left uterine horn, and the gestation
period is very variable. They have the potential to breed
all year round but, in South America, mating and conse-
quently births tend to take place during the rainy season
(December to April), when better and more abundant
pasture is available.
Alpaca ancestry and domestication
South American camelids evolved approximately two million years ago from a
common ancestor, and there is evidence of early domestication of llamas and
alpacas dating back 5500 to 6000 years ago. The early centres of domestication
were located in the central Peruvian Andes, at altitudes of over 4000 metres
above sea level, in the ‘puna’ ecosystem (plateau grassland characterised by
extreme variations in daily temperature, with frequent frost, limited rainfall
and strong winds). Alpaca rearing is currently restricted to the high altitude
Andean Cordillera, with the area of greatest productivity in southern Peru, cen-
tral Bolivia and northern Chile.

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HUSBANDRY AND NUTRITION
In the UK, alpacas are normally maintained at pasture
all year round, with access to a shelter. The vast majority
are supplemented with hay for all or part of the year, and
almost all breeders provide additional supplemental con-
centrate feed. As a result, obesity is commonly observed
and can lead to infertility, dystocia and a reduced milk
yield, as well as predisposing to hepatic lipidosis.
Owners should be encouraged to periodically assess the
body condition of their animals by palpating the lum-
bosacral region (or thoracic vertebrae, just behind the
withers). In the authorʼs opinion, under UK conditions,
pasture and hay will satisfy the maintenance nutritional
requirements of alpacas. The use of concentrate feed
should be confined to periods of additional need (ie,
growth, lactation while already pregnant). Concentrate
feed formulated for monogastric species (eg, horses)
should be discouraged in a polygastric species such as
the alpaca. Concentrate feeds specifically formulated
for camelids are commercially available, but the author
is unaware of what nutritional criteria have been used as
the basis for these products.
Mineral supplementation should be considered if defi-
ciencies are highlighted by pasture/soil and blood analysis.
The UK alpaca population
The number of alpacas in the UK is estimated to be in excess of 10,000. A sur-
vey conducted by the author and colleagues found that, of all the camelids
in the UK in 2001, over 70 per cent were alpacas (D’Alterio and others 2006).
According to the survey, the three main reasons for keeping camelids were
breeding for sale, companionship and fibre production. A breeding female can
sell for over £2000 while stud males of high genetic merit can fetch more than
£10,000.
Alpacas are mainly present in the south and south-west of England although
their numbers are increasing in the north of the country, and in Wales and
Scotland. Mixed species herds (eg, alpaca/llama) are rare, and the number of
animals per unit is small, with the majority of herds being made up of less
than 10 animals. On a few large, commercially orientated farms, herds number
more than 500 alpacas. A high proportion of alpacas still originate from
South American countries (eg, Chile and Peru) and were imported into the
UK through different quarantine schemes. However, such importation is now
diminishing, as there is a greater tendency to import stud males of high genetic
merit from countries such as Australia and Canada.
Alpacas can be restrained by using one arm to grasp the neck,
just below the head, and resting the other arm on the animal’s
body
406
ROUTINE VETERINARY PROCEDURES
HANDLING AND RESTRAINT
Owners should be encouraged to handle their animals on
a regular basis so that they become accustomed to being
handled while undergoing body condition assessment,
clinical examination, and other diagnostic and manage-
ment procedures.
Alpacas are gregarious animals and can be herded
into a confined area using the same approach as used
for sheep. Ideally, the boundaries of this area should be
solid, as alpacas have long legs and can get stuck in any
gaps in fences. When dealing with an individual alpaca,
it is advisable always to leave more than one animal in
the pen. Ropes, poles or arms stretched out can then be
used to drive the animal into a corner before catching it.
An alpaca is caught and subsequently restrained by
grasping it with one hand around the neck, just below the
head, and then sliding the arm down the neck and pull-
ing it back towards the handlerʼs chest, with the other
hand resting on the animalʼs body. Minor movements
should be allowed, with the handler moving together
with the animal; gently pushing the animal against the
boundary of the pen will provide further restraint, if
necessary. Some animals will vocalise loudly, spit or
lay down (kushed position) while restrained. Although
many procedures can be carried out with the animal
recumbent, tilting the pelvis forward will often result in
the animal getting up, if required. Purpose-built chutes
are highly recommended for certain procedures, but are
virtually non-existent in the UK.
CLINICAL EXAMINATION
The clinical examination of camelids is very similar
to that of other livestock species and horses. However,
practitioners are advised to:
■ Take particular note of the conformation of the limbs.
Limb deformities are often encountered in camelids in
the UK, especially carpus valgus;
■ Always check the position of the incisors in relation
to the dental pad. Prognathism (especially) and brachy-
gnathism of the mandible are common defects;
■ Check for mandibular osteomyelitis as this is a rela-
tively common finding in alpacas and an obvious dis-
Purpose-built chutes for llamas and alpacas
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charging fistula might

only be present at a late
stage of development. A
cria (an alpaca or llama
up to weaning age) may
present with transitory
mandibular swelling due
to teeth eruption;
■ Part the fleece over
several areas to check for
crusty and scaly lesions
that are not accompanied
by alopecia;
■ Lift the tail (which
might be deformed, kink-
ed or have some other
relatively common abnor-
mality) to check for the
presence of both testicles
in males and any vulval Abdominocentesis in a llama
restrained in a purpose-
abnormality in females. built crush. The lower right
abdominal wall is penetrated
for sampling
BLOOD SAMPLING
Blood sampling is best
carried out from the Collection of a blood sample ■ INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTION. The quadriceps muscle
(right) jugular vein, which from the ventral aspect of is the authorʼs preferred site for intramuscular injection,
runs more ventrally than the neck but the semitendinous/semimembranous and triceps
in other livestock species. Unless the alpaca has recent- muscles may also be used. Do not exceed 5 ml for any
ly been sheared, filling of the vein following occlusion injection site (less for young animals).
with the fingers will not be visible. The author prefers ■ INTRAVENOUS INJECTION. See earlier discussion on
sampling from the lower part of the neck. The ventral blood sampling.
projection of the transverse process of the fifth and sixth ■ ORAL ADMINISTRATION. Use the same technique as for
cervical vertebrae (laterally) and the trachea (medially) sheep.
in this region provide excellent landmarks. Accidental
puncturing of the carotid artery – as evidenced by high STOMACH TUBING
pressure blood flow in the tube and the bright red colour Gastric intubation in alpacas can only be accomplished
of the blood – is relatively common, but prolonged pres- orally. A calf-sized gastric tube is suitable for this pro-
sure applied over the artery will stem the bleeding.
SELECTED DRUGS AND DOSAGES FOR USE IN ALPACAS AND LLAMAS
DRUG ADMINISTRATION Drug Dosage Route Comments
■ SUBCUTANEOUS INJECTION. Alpacas have a rather
Procaine penicillin 20,000 IU/kg bid sc, im Up to 120,000 IU/kg for severe infections
inelastic skin and only a small subcutaneous space.
Ampicillin sodium 12 mg/kg bid iv
However, because of the relatively limited muscle
development in this species, the subcutaneous route Ceftiofur 2·2 mg/kg bid iv sc and im should be effective

is favoured by many practitioners, especially for the Enrofloxacin 5 mg/kg bid iv

administration of large volumes of drugs (eg, antibiot- 10 mg/kg sid po

ics). The skin fold at the axilla and just cranial to the Oxytetracycline LA 20 mg/kg im, sc Every three days
shoulder are suggested areas for subcutaneous injections. Flunixin meglumine 1 mg/kg sid or bid iv
No more than 10 ml should be injected into a single site. Ketoprofen 2 mg/kg iv, im, sc

Phenylbutazone 5 mg/kg sid po

Dexamethasone 0·05-0·1 mg/kg iv, im, sc

Ivermectin 0·3-0·4 mg/kg sc

Doramectin 0·3 mg/kg sc

Cloprostenol 175-250 µg im

Buserelin 4 µg im

Oxytocin 10 IU im

Omeprazole 0·4 mg/kg iv Every eight hours

Sucralfate 4 g tid po Dose for adult

Atropine 0·04 mg/kg iv, sc

Doxapram 5-10 mg/kg iv, im

Epinephrine 1:1000 dilution, iv, im

give 1 ml/50 kg

po Oral, sc Subcutaneous, im Intramuscular, iv Intravenous, sid Once a day, bid Twice a day,
Orogastric intubation in a llama. Note the use of a custom-made tid Three times a day
mouth opener

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cedure. Alpacas have sharp molars so the gastric tube
should be protected using a custom-made mouth opener
(eg, a smooth wooden block with a hole in the middle) or
a PVC speculum. Correct placement of the gastric tube
is confirmed by adopting the same criteria as used in
cattle and horses.
INTRAVENOUS CATHETERISATION
Intravenous catheterisation is best carried out in the
jugular vein. The catheter can be placed directly in the
vein or, alternatively, via a cut-through and stitching
technique (involving clipping the hair, surgically pre-
paring the skin and using local anaesthetic). A similar
technique to that used in cattle and horses is employed.
Adult alpacas will require 16 or 18 gauge catheters.
ABDOMINOCENTESIS
Given the presence of abdominal fat lateral to the
ventral midline, peritoneal fluid can be obtained by
sampling through the linea alba, just cranial or caudal
to the umbilicus. The animal should be properly
restrained and strict asepsis maintained throughout the
procedure.
An alternative sampling site – on the right abdomi-
nal wall, one-third of the distance from the xiphoid to
the transverse process of the lumbar vertebrae, and
two fingers caudal to the last rib – has been identified
to overcome the risk associated with the animal lying
down during the sampling procedure (Dr Chris Cebra,
personal communication).
PREVENTIVE MEDICINE
VACCINATION PLAN
Almost all alpaca (and llama) herds in the UK are
routinely vaccinated against clostridal diseases.
Multivalent vaccines licensed for sheep are used, with
the protocols employed varying from farm to farm.
While it is true that camelids are susceptible to almost
all known clostridial diseases, most notably Clostridium
perfringens enterotoxaemia (which has certainly been
diagnosed in the UK) and tetanus, there is a lack of
knowledge about vaccination efficacy. The current pau-
city of information on antibody response following
vaccination and duration of acquired immunity from
colostrum, together with the lack of challenge studies,
explains the huge variation in the vaccination protocols
advocated.
The author prefers to administer the first dose of mul-
tivalent clostridial vaccine at four to six weeks of age,
followed by a booster injection two to three weeks later
(see diagram, below left). The decision on whether to
provide boosters for all animals annually or biannually
should be based on the incidence of clostridial diseases
in the area. Pregnant females should receive an addition-
al dose four to six weeks prior to the expected parturi-
tion date (providing administration is not too stressful
for the animal). Follow the manufacturerʼs instructions
for the sheep dosage and route of administration.
Vaccination against leptospirosis should be consid-
ered in endemic areas.

ENDOPARASITE CONTROL
There is very little published information on endopara-
Spring herd health check (precalving)
January
■ Examine/treat:
sitic disease in camelids in Europe. Generally, one has to
– Feet rely on studies carried out primarily in South and North
– Skin
– Teeth
America, where there is evidence that gastrointesti-
February
■ Select future breeding animals nal nematodes commonly seen in sheep and cattle also
affect camelids. However, a UK-based parasitological
March
study involving faecal and necroscopic examination of
Herd health check (premating [day 20 to day 0])
■ Shearing (non-pregnant animals) llamas found the presence of Ostertagia, Haemonchus,
■ Examine/treat: Cooperia and Trichostrongylus species, and Capillaria,
– Teeth
April – Feet
Nematodirus and Trichuris species, respectively (Tait
– Genitalia and others 2002). The highest parasite burden (although
– Udder
■ Cull/sell unsuitable stock
relatively low compared with that often found in sheep in
May the UK) was recorded in juvenile animals.
While experience suggests that camelids in the UK
Breeding season
are periodically treated against gastrointestinal nema-
June
PRECALVING todes, control strategies are generally considered to be
■ Group animals according to calving date
■ Develop colostrum bank far from satisfactory. The difficulties faced by the sheep
July industry in terms of widespread anthelmintic resistance
C ALVING (day 20)
■ Isolate in sight of group should act as a warning, and put pressure on breeders
■ Monitor labour and veterinary professionals to apply sound and up-to-
■ Examine dam/placenta postcalving
August date methods of endoparasite control. No single control
NEWBORN CRIA
■ Observe/examine vital parameters, colostrum intake, weight
policy can be advocated: instead, a strategy tailored to
■ Dip navel the individual farm, and not based exclusively on phar-
September
MATING (day 0) macological control, should be developed. Avermectin
compounds are the most widely used anthelmintics in
PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS
October ■ Behaviour (day 7+) camelids in the UK.
■ Ultrasound scan (days 40 to 60, day 90) A faecal egg count prior to treatment is a widely
accepted tool for ensuring correct anthelmintic selec-
November Autumn herd health check (preweaning) tion. However, care must be taken in interpreting
■ Examine/treat:
results. The McMaster technique, commonly employed
– Feet
– Skin to quantify endoparasitic load in sheep, has low sensi-
December – Teeth tivity. Eggs belonging to, for example, Capillaria and
■ Assess cria weight (wean if >25 kg)
Trichuris species, can easily go undetected, and yet
Calendar for UK camelid breeders are capable of causing extensive intestinal damage in

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camelids. Alternative, more sensitive methods are there-

fore advised. The author uses tests normally employed Pregnancy detection using
to detect fluke to identify nematode eggs. The modified ultrasonography
Stollʼs test is recommended for faecal examination in
The author used to scan alpacas transrectally, but
camelids. The presence of these parasites (irrespective
now prefers the transabdominal approach as few
of how many) warrants aggressive anthelmintic treat-
farms truly require the very early pregnancy diag-
ment (eg, fenbendazole orally at 10 mg/kg for three to
noses that are achievable by transrectal ultra-
five days).
sonography. In addition, early embryonic death is
Sampling from communal dung piles should be
common at around 30 to 40 days postmating. If
avoided in small herds, where individual sampling is
only one ultrasound examination is requested, it is
preferable. In larger herds, at least 10 per cent of animals
best carried out after this time.
should be sampled individually.
Ultrasound equipment available to the large
Fasciolosis is increasingly diagnosed in camelids in
animal practitioner can be used. For the trans-
the UK, usually at postmortem examination. Periodic
abdominal approach, apply alcohol or ultrasound
screening for fluke eggs is highly recommended, partic-
gel to the relatively hairless area of the left flank,
ularly in at-risk areas. Clorsulon (orally at 7 mg/kg twice
as far caudal and dorsal as possible, and scan
every 60 days) or albendazole (orally at 10 to 20 mg/kg)
the region using a 3·5 MHz linear transducer. For
can be used for treatment. Albendazole should not be
transrectal examination, ensure that the animal is
used in crias because of the risk of toxicity.
well restrained and remove faeces from the rectal
Protozoan parasites, such as Coccidia, Cryptospori-
ampulla with a lubricated gloved hand. Insert 50
dium and Giardia species, have been reported as potential
ml of lubricating gel into the ampulla with a large
pathogens causing diarrhoea, particularly in neonates and
syringe. Insert just the transducer (5·0 or 7·5 MHz)
juveniles. The presence of these parasites is often indica-
into the rectum and gently advance it just cranial
tive of poor environmental hygiene. They are seldom
to the pelvic rim; the transducer and part of its
diagnosed in camelids in the UK, possibly because of the
lead can be made rigid using a cylindrical support
small size of the average herd. In large herds, Eimeria
with smooth edges.
macusaniensis is increasingly reported. Sulfadimethoxine
The embryonic vesicle can be visualised as in
(orally at 160 mg/kg twice daily for five days, followed
all other species. At 25 to 30 days postmating, the
by 80 mg/kg for at least 10 days) or amprolium (orally at
embryo will almost invariably be present in the left
10 mg/kg once daily for 14 days) are reportedly effective
uterine horn, where 98 to 100 per cent of pregnan-
for the treatment of oral coccidiosis. Amprolium can be
cies are located.
used for the prevention of clinical coccidiosis; the manu-
facturerʼs recommended dosage should be given in water
for 21 days.
liar reproductive physiology of the species, a systematic
approach should be adopted to establish the cause of the
REPRODUCTION infertility, which in the majority of cases is as for other
species. Studies in the USA have indicated that by far
Reproduction is probably the most extensively studied the most common primary complaint in alpacas and
aspect of the farming management of camelids. This llamas, as reported by owners, is ʻrepeat breedingʼ fol-
is due to the key economic role these species play lowed by ʻearly pregnancy lossʼ.
in certain parts of South America, and also because In a retrospective study, the most common confirmed
of their perceived ʻlowʼ fertility (ie, long gestation diagnoses of uterine disease were endometritis and
period, early embryonic death, singleton births). Arti-
ficial insemination and embryo transfer have been
successfully achieved, but are not commercially avail-
able at present.
In the UK, it is very common for females from small
herds to be sent to stud. These animals are often left
there until pregnancy is confirmed, but this practice can
be very stressful for females. Long-term loan of stud
males between farms would be ideal.
The conception rate is highest between 20 and 30
days following parturition. If receptive, the female will
readily accept the male, and mating takes place with the
female in sternal recumbency. ʻForcedʼ mating by leaving
the female with the male for a prolonged period of time
should be strongly discouraged. A successful mating
should be witnessed and the date recorded. To confirm
pregnancy, breeders will normally ʻtestʼ the female a few
times at weekly intervals by exposing her to a male and
observing rejection (ʻspitting offʼ behaviour). However,
rejection per se does not confirm pregnancy, hence the
need for ultrasound scanning (see box, above right).
Similar to other production animals, alpacas may be
presented for infertility investigation. Given the pecu- Mating takes place with the female alpaca in sternal recumbency

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endometrial fibrosis (Tibary and Anouassi 2002). In the
same study, ovarian hypoplasia, followed by follicular
cysts (with ovulation failure) and persistent luteal struc-
tures, were the most frequently diagnosed ovarian dis-
eases. Various therapeutic protocols developed to treat
these reproductive conditions are available in the litera-
ture (mostly in conference proceedings).
Dystocia in alpacas is relatively rare but, if it occurs,
should be approached as for sheep. Retained placentas
are also rare but, if seen, should be managed in the same
way as for mares.
The cria
The dam usually gives birth in the morning, with stage
I labour lasting 1·5 to two hours, and stage II not more
than 30 minutes. The dam does not lick the newborn or
eat the placenta. The average alpaca cria weighs approx-
imately 7 to 8 kg at birth, and should double its weight
by 30 days of age. The cria sits up within 10 minutes.
It should be standing within an hour, and successfully
SUMMARY OF CLINICAL CAMELID CASES REFERRED TO THE FARM ANIMAL HOSPITAL, UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL, FROM 1999 TO 2002
Number of cases Main presenting clinical signs
12 Mandibular/maxillary mass, discharging sinus
5 Inability to stand after birth
4 Infertility
4 Weight loss, diarrhoea, illthrift
4 Limb deformity
2 Weight loss, submandibular mass
2 Umbilical mass
2 Lameness (sudden onset)
2 Lameness
2 Ocular lesion
2 Testicle not in scrotum, scrotal oedema
2 Various
1 Head down, stiff neck, ataxia
1 Dyspnoea
1 Tail bending
1 Head tilt, often recumbent
1 Head tremors, torticollis, wide stance
1 Deformed skull
1 Recumbent, hypothermia, tachypnoea
1 Lethargy, dysuria
1 Food material extruding from nostrils
1 Weight loss, lethargy
1 Recumbency, abnormal gait, stiffness
1 Impaired mobility, tendon contractions,
dyspnoea on handling
1 Colic-like signs
1 Alopecia, crusting and scaling
1 Large subcutaneous mass
1 Heart murmur
1 Hard udder and milk clots
1 Severe dyspnoea
1 Recumbency, abnormal gait
From D’Alterio and Bazeley (2003). In a further 12 cases, presenting with various clinical signs, no diagnosis was reached
*Angular limb deformity was a frequent incidental finding in several other cases
†Skin lesions were detected in several cases
‡Sinus arrhythmia was observed in other cases as an incidental finding
410
nursing within three to four hours of birth. Passive trans-
fer of immunity may fail if there is inadequate colos-
trum intake, so storage of frozen colostrum on farm is
recommended. If alpaca colostrum is not readily obtain-
able (and milking an alpaca is certainly quite tedious!),
sheep or goat (fresh or frozen) colostrum can be used.
Failure of passive transfer of immunity can be diagnosed
using a sodium sulphite turbidity test, a camelid-specific
immunoglobulin G (IgG) test, or more simply by meas-
uring serum total protein. A total protein level below
5 mg/dl might indicate failure of passive transfer. Some
commercial farms now store frozen plasma obtained
from donor animals on site. Plasma can be given at 15 to
25 ml/kg (or, if necessary, up to 40 ml/kg), either intra-
venously (preferable) or intraperitoneally.
Crias need to be vaccinated and wormed at some
point. A vaccination protocol against clostridial dis-
eases should be initiated but, as mentioned earlier,
the exact timing of this is a matter of personal choice.
Juvenile animals are more susceptible than adults to
Diagnosis/clinical interpretation
Mandibular/maxillary osteomyelitis
Failure to suckle
Agenesis and/or atrophy of ovaries and fallopian tubes
Severe endoparasitic infection (often associated with
nutritional imbalance)
Angular limb deformity, particularly carpus valgus*
Tuberculosis
Umbilical hernia
Bone sequestrum
Fracture
Chronic keratitis and corneal ulcer
Cryptorchidism
Multifactorial condition (with poor genetic background
and/or nutritional imbalance)
Cervical damage
Choanal atresia
Deformed tail
Cerebral abscess
Bacterial meningitis
Maxillofacial dysgenesis
Extensive kidney damage of unknown aetiology
Rectogenital abscess
Fissure in the soft palate
Lymphoid leukaemia
Hypovitaminosis D
Hypovitaminosis E
Perforated stomach ulcers
Hypersensitivity to Chorioptes mite infestation†
Fibroma
Sinus arrhythmia‡
Chronic Staphylococcus aureus mastitis
Diaphragmatic paralysis
Bilateral patellar subluxation
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FIELD SEDATION/ANAESTHESIA PROTOCOLS FOR ALPACAS AND LLAMAS

Agent Dose Route Duration Comments

Xylazine 0·1-0·2 mg/kg iv ~30 minutes Standing sedation

Xylazine 0·3-0·4 mg/kg iv ~30 minutes To achieve recumbency

Xylazine 0·4-0·6 mg/kg im ~30 minutes Less reliable route

Butorphanol + ketamine
+ xylazine
(BKX, Johnson mix,
‘ketamine stun’)
Add 100 mg of xylazine (1 ml of a 10%
solution) and 10 mg of butorphanol to
1000 mg of ketamine (100 mg/ml, 10 ml
bottle)
Give 1 ml per 23 kg to llamas and 1 ml
per 19 kg to alpacas. Add 1 ml flat rate
for adults only
im 30-45 minutes Full recumbency, excellent
recovery; might be extended
with additional half dose or
partial dose of ketamine, but
recovery is slower

im Intramuscular, iv Intravenous

gastrointestinal parasitism and usually have the highest Acknowledgements

egg counts, which warrant prompt implementation of an
anthelmintic protocol.
Breeders in the UK tend to wean crias at around six
months of age, sometimes sticking quite rigidly to this
timing. It is not uncommon for the dam to struggle to
maintain body condition at this stage, particularly if
already pregnant. Milk production may have dropped
considerably some time earlier, and crias may spend
a lot of time suckling on little milk and not switching
completely to solid feed. Owners should be instructed
to periodically check the damʼs body condition and size
of the udder, as well as the criaʼs bodyweight/condition,
and should not hesitate to wean the cria early if any of
the parameters assessed are not satisfactory.
Routine surgery
Castration is probably the most common surgical inter-
vention performed on camelids. Generally, the technique
used in other species such as dogs, cattle and horses can
be adapted for alpacas and llamas.
In the field situation, castration can be carried out with
the animal standing or recumbent under heavy sedation
(see table above). For a standing castration, the animal is
sedated with xylazine at 0·1 to 0·2 mg/kg given intrave-
nously. Alternatively, some practitioners inject an average
male alpaca with 10 mg of butorphanol intramuscularly,
which achieves very mild sedation but excellent analge-
sia. For recumbency, the ʻketamine stunʼ can be admin-
istered intramuscularly. Local anaesthesia is obtained by
using 2 ml of 2 per cent lidocaine each side, infiltrating
the spermatic cord and the scrotal median raphe.
After surgical scrubbing, a 2 cm incision is made on
either side of the median raphe, taking care to avoid the
sigmoid flexure of the penis. An open castration technique
is normally used, with transfixation and ligation of the
spermatic cord. The abundant fat that is present around
the spermatic cord should be removed to avoid protrusion
from the surgical incision, which is not sutured.
SUMMARY
The steady increase in the alpaca population in the UK
means that veterinary practitioners in mixed and large
animal practice are becoming more exposed to this spe-
cies. Owners place a high emotional and financial value
on their animals and, inevitably, expect an ever-increas-
ing level of veterinary care. Camelids provide plenty of
scope for individual clinical case work as well as the
opportunity to apply modern principles of herd manage-
ment to a more unusual livestock species.
The author would like to thank Mrs Kat
Bazeley for supervising his studies on South
American camelids during a residency at
the University of Bristol, supported by the
RCVS Trust. The calendar on page 408 was
developed by the author in collaboration
with E. Barker, P. Duffus, N. Evans and
L. Wariyar.
References
D’ALTERIO, G. L. & BAZELEY, K. J. (2003)
Referral service for South American camelids
at the University of Bristol Veterinary
School: a review of cases from 1999 to 2002.
In Proceedings of the 41st International
Symposium on Zoo and Wildlife Diseases.
Rome, May 28 to June 1. pp 203-210
D’ALTERIO, G. L., KNOWLES, T. G., EKNAES,
E. I., LOEVLAND, I. E. & FOSTER, A. P. (2006)
Postal survey of the population of South
American camelids in the United Kingdom
in 2000/01. Veterinary Record 158, 86-90
ELLIS, J. (1982) The haematology of South
American Camelidae and their role in
adaptation to altitude. Veterinary Medicine:
Small Animal Clinician 77, 1796-1802
FOWLER, M. E. (1997) Evolutionary history
and differences between camelids and
ruminants. Journal of Camel Practice
and Research 4, 99-105
TAIT, S. A., KIRWAN, J. A., FAIR, C. J., COLES,
G. C. & STAFFORD, K. A. (2002) Parasites and
their control in South American camelids in
the United Kingdom. Veterinary Record 150,
637-638
TIBARY, A. & ANOUASSI, A. (2002) Infertility
in the female camelidae: case studies.
In Proceedings of the course in camelid
medicine, surgery and reproduction.
Columbus, March 27 to 31
WHEELER, J. C. (1995) Evolution and present
situation of the South American Camelidae.
Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 54,
271-295
Further reading
BROWN, B. W. (2000) A review on
reproduction in South American camelids.
Animal Reproduction Science 58, 169-195
FOWLER, M. E. (1998) Medicine and Surgery
of South American Camelids: Llama, Alpaca,
Vicuña and Guanaco, 2nd edn. Ames, Iowa
State University Press
JOHNSON, L. W. (1989) Llama medicine.
Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food
Animal Practice 5, 1-236
JOHNSON, L. W. (1994) Update on llama
medicine. Veterinary Clinics of North
America: Food Animal Practice 10, 187-438
WERNERY, U. & KAADEN, O-R. (2002)
Infectious Diseases in Camelids, 2nd edn.
Oxford, Blackwell Science
Websites
■ BRITISH VETERINARY C AMELID SOCIETY:
www.camelidvets.org
■ INTERNATIONAL C AMELID INSTITUTE:
www.icinfo.org
■ O REGON STATE UNIVERSITY ’S COLLEGE OF
VETERINARY MEDICINE:
www.vet.orst.edu/camelid/camelid.htm

In Practice ● J U LY /A U G U S T 2 0 0 6 411
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Introduction to the alpaca and its veterinary

care in the UK
Gian Lorenzo D'Alterio

In Practice 2006 28: 404-411

doi: 10.1136/inpract.28.7.404

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