Clinical Correlates

of Emotion
Presentation by Group 6
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Name of Person
Clinical
Correlates of
Emotion
Panic Attacks
a sudden episode of intense fear that triggers severe
physical reactions when there is no real danger or apparent
cause.
PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS ASSOCIATED WITH AN ATTACK
light-headedness
racing heart
difficulty breathing
chest discomfort
generalized sweating
weakness
Panic Disorder
Extreme fear and an urge to flee as well as intense
autonomic arousal involving a wide variety of symptoms,
which originally occur spontaneously and unpredictably and
vary in length from several minutes up to 60 minutes.

Agoraphobia
A fear of being in places or situations from which escape
might be difficult or embarrassing
PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS OF PANIC ATTACKS CAN BE REPRODUCED BY:

Carbon Dioxide

Yohimbine - drug that arouses the sexual instinct, induces

veneral desire and increases pleasure and performance.

Caffeine - stimulant found in the leaves and beans of the

coffee tree and in small amounts in cocoa which increases
brain activity, alertness, attention, and energy.
PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS OF PANIC ATTACKS CAN BE REPRODUCED BY:

Epinephrine - (Adrenaline) used along with

emergency medical treatment to treat life-
threatening allergic reactions

Exposure to stress associated with losses or

certain situations

Low serotonin levels

Sadness - an internal state that signals the need for affiliation and
functions to motivate individuals to seek supportive social
relationships.

Depression - Iis a syndrome characterized by thoughts of self-

worthlessness, excessive guilt, death and/or suicide.

Reserpine - antihypertensive drug which produces long lasting

depletion of monoamines
SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) - are a class of
antidepressants that help treat depression symptoms.
Mechanisms dealing with Stress

Coping mechanisms are the strategies

people often use in the face of stress
and trauma to help to manage difficult
or painful emotions.
Significant life events whether positive
or negative can cause psychological
stress.
Coping mechanisms are used to
manage an external situation that is
creating problems for an individual.
Defence mechanisms can change a
person's internal psychological state.
Coping Styles and Mechanisms
Problem-focused coping strategies are
typically associated with methods of
dealing with the problem in order to
reduce stress, while emotion-focused
mechanism can people handle any
feelings of distress that result from the
problem.

Coping mechanisms can also be

categorized as active or avoidant.
Commonly used coping mechanisms are :

1. Support 2. Relaxation 3. Problem-solving

Commonly used coping mechanisms are :

4. Humor 5.Physical Activity

Commonly used coping mechanisms are :

6. Defense 7. Adaptive 8. Avoidance

Commonly used coping mechanisms are :

9. Attack 10. Behavioural 11. Cognitive

Commonly used coping mechanisms are :

12. Self-Harm 13. Conversion

 Coping Mechanisms and Mental Health

People who are able to adjust to stressful or

traumatic situations through productive
coping mechanisms may be less likely to
experience anxiety, depression, and other
mental health concerns as a result of painful
or challenging events.

A therapist or other mental health

professionals can often help people develop
and improve their coping skills.
 TIPS FOR TALKING TO YOUR THERAPIST
ABOUT YOUR COPING MECHANISMS

Share your feelings and thoughts as openly as possible

Imagine that you’re talking to a close confidante
Be open-minded
Journal your thoughts and feelings
Apply your learning
 Types of Coping
Strategies
Appraisal-focused (Adaptive Cognitive),
Problem-focused (Adaptive Behavioral),
Emotion-focused, and
Occupation-focused Coping

Mr. Wayne Weiten

 Appraisal-focused
(Adaptive Cognitive)
The appraisal-focused strategies (Adaptive Cognitive),
are those coping mechanisms which involve the change
of mindset or a revision of thoughts.

Denial is the most common coping mechanism under this

category.
Emotion-focused
The emotion-focused strategies include the alteration of one's
emotions to tolerate or eliminate the stress.

Emotion-focused strategies involve:

Releasing pent-up emotions.
Distracting oneself.
Managing hostile feelings.
Meditating.
Mindfulness practices.
Using systematic relaxation procedures.
 Problem-focused
(Adaptive Behavioral)
The problem-focused strategies (Adaptive Behavioral),are
those that modify the behavior of the person.

A good example of this is learning how to cook a family dinner

upon knowing that your spouse's family would come over to
your house this weekend.

The three problem-focused coping strategies identified by

Folkman and Lazarus are:
taking control,
information seeking, and
evaluating the pros and cons.
Occupation-focused
Coping
Occupation-Focused directed towards lasting
occupation(s), which generates positive feedback

E.g. 'Being a consultant helps me plan my own working

hours.'
Healthy techniques of psychological research to help to
reduce stress on a short- and long- term basis.

Take a break from the stressor

Give yourself permission to step away from stressors, let
yourself have time to do something else, it can help you have a
new perspective or practice techniques to feel less
overwhelmed. It's important to not avoid your stress. Even just
20-minutes to take care of yourself is helpful.

Exercise
Exercise benefits your mind just as well as your body. Even a
20- minute walk, run, swim or dance session in the midst of a
stressful time can give an immediate effect that can last for
several hours.
Healthy techniques of psychological research to help to
reduce stress on a short- and long- term basis.

Smile and Laugh

Our brains are interconnected with our emotions and facial
expressions. When people are stressed, they often hold a lot of
the stress in their face. So laughs or smiles can help relieve
some of that tension and improve the situation.

Get social support

When you share your concerns or feelings with another person,
it does help relieve stress. But it's important that the person
whom you talk to is someone whom you trust and whom you
feel can understand and validate you.
Healthy techniques of psychological research to help to
reduce stress on a short- and long- term basis.

Meditate
Meditation and mindful prayer help the mind and body to relax
and focus. Mindfulness can help people see new perspectives,
develop self-compassion and forgiveness. Much like exercise,
research has shown that even meditating briefly can reap
immediate benefits.
Affective Disorders
affective disorders are a set of psychiatric diseases, also called
mood disorders. The main example types of affective disorders are
depression, bipolar disorder and anxiety disorder

Psychiatric evaluation
-A psychiatric evaluation is essential to help Identify the disorder
and help you get the best treatment for your condition.
Example of Psychiatric
Evaluation
Description of behaviors
Description of symptoms
Effects of behaviors or symptoms
Psychiatric interview
Diagnostic assessment
Treatment Planning
Example of Psychiatric
Evaluation
Description of behaviors
Description of symptoms
Effects of behaviors or symptoms
Psychiatric interview
Diagnostic assessment
Treatment Planning
Depression
Depression, or major depressive disorder, is characterized by
feeling of extreme sadness and hopelessness it can result loss of
interest and pleasure in activities that were once enjoyable.

Dysthymia- Dysthymia is a less severe form of depression than

major depressive disorder, but it can still significantly impact a
person's quality of life and ability to function in daily activities.

Depression is a complex condition that can have multiple causes,

including genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological
factors. It can occur as a result of a traumatic life event, such as
the death of a loved one, a major illness, or a relationship breakup.
It can also develop without any identifiable trigger.
Common Symptoms of
Depression:
Persistent feelings of sadness,
emptiness, or hopelessness
Loss of interest in activities once
enjoyed
Changes in appetite or weight
Difficulty sleeping or sleeping too much
Fatigue or lack of energy
Feelings of worthlessness or guilt
Difficulty concentrating or making
decisions
Thoughts of self-harm or suicide
 Psychotherapy
Also known as talk therapy, psychotherapy involves
meeting with a mental health professional to explore
and address the underlying causes of depression
Medication
Antidepressant medications, such as selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or serotonin-
norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), can be
effective in treating depression by altering the levels
of certain chemicals in the brain
Lifestyle changes
Making positive changes to your lifestyle, such as
getting regular exercise, eating a healthy diet,
reducing stress, and getting enough sleep, can also

Treatment
help improve symptoms of depression.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

In severe cases of depression that have not
responded to other treatments, ECT may be
recommended. ECT involves applying a brief
electrical current to the brain while the patient is
under anesthesia.
Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar disorder also known as manic-depressive illness means
having periods of depression, and periods of mania.

Mania-When you feel extremely positive and active, but mania

also makes you feel irritable, aggressive, impulsive and even
delusional

Hypomania- Milder form of mania, It is characterized by an

elevated or irritable mood, increased energy, and decreased need
for sleep, but these symptoms are not as severe as those seen in
a full manic episode.
 Bipolar I

Types of Bipolar
This type of bipolar disorder involves at least one manic or
mixed episode, which can be preceded or followed by
hypomanic or major depressive episodes.

Disorder and
Symptoms Symptoms of Manic and
Mixed Episodes
Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
Decreased need for sleep
More talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking
Racing thoughts or flight of ideas
Distractibility
Increase in goal-directed activity or psychomotor agitation
Excessive involvement in activities that have a high potential
for painful consequences (e.g., spending sprees, sexual
indiscretions, or foolish business investments)
 Bipolar II
This type of bipolar disorder involves at least one hypomanic

Types of Bipolar episode and at least one major depressive episode.

Disorder and
Symptoms of Hypomanic
Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity

Symptoms
Decreased need for sleep
More talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking
Racing thoughts or flight of ideas
Distractibility
Increase in goal-directed activity or psychomotor agitation
Excessive involvement in activities that have a high potential
for painful consequences (e.g., spending sprees, sexual
indiscretions, or foolish business investments)
Symptoms of Depressive Episodes
Feelings of sadness, hopelessness, worthlessness, or guilt
Loss of interest or pleasure in most activities
Changes in appetite or weight
Changes in sleep, such as insomnia or hypersomnia
Fatigue or loss of energy
Difficulty concentrating or making decisions
Thoughts of death or suicide
Types of Bipolar
Disorder and
Cyclothymic Disorder
This type of bipolar disorder involves frequent periods of

Symptoms hypomanic and depressive symptoms that do not meet the

criteria for a full hypomanic or major depressive episode.

Symptoms
Hypomanic Symptoms
Depressive Symptoms
Fluctuations Between Symptoms
Types of Bipolar
Disorder and
Other Specified and Unspecified Bipolar
Disorders:
Symptoms These categories are used for bipolar disorders that do not
fit the diagnostic criteria for the other types of bipolar
disorder.

Other Specified Bipolar Disorder Symptoms

this type of bipolar disorder may include recurrent hypomania
without depression, brief or subthreshold hypomania or
depression, or bipolar disorder that does not fit into any of
the other categories.

Unspecified Bipolar Disorder Symptoms

This category is used when the symptoms of a bipolar

disorder cause significant distress or impairment in
functioning
Treatment
Medication
Mood stabilizers, such as lithium, valproic acid, or
lamotrigine, are often used to help control manic or
hypomanic symptoms and prevent relapse.
Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy or
interpersonal therapy, can help individuals with bipolar
disorder learn to manage their symptoms, improve their
coping skills, and develop healthy habits and routines.
Lifestyle Changes
Lifestyle changes, such as getting regular exercise,
maintaining a healthy diet, getting enough sleep, and avoiding
drugs and alcohol, can help individuals with bipolar disorder
manage their symptoms and improve their overall health and
well-being
Lifestyle Changes
Support groups, such as the National Alliance on Mental
Illness (NAMI), can provide individuals with bipolar disorder
and their families with information, resources, and emotional
support.
Anxiety disorders
There are several different types of anxiety disorders. All are
characterized by feelings of nervousness, anxiety, and even fear.
The classification include:

Social anxiety: Anxiety caused by social situations. People with

social anxiety disorder sometimes called ("social phobia") have a
marked fear of social or performance situations in which they
expect to feel embarrassed, judged, rejected, or fearful of
offending others.
 The symptoms of the
disorder include:
Feeling highly anxious about being with other people and
having a hard time talking to them
Feeling very self-conscious in front of other people and
worried about feeling humiliated, embarrassed, rejected,
or fearful of offending others
Being very afraid that other people will judge them
Worrying for days or weeks before an event where other
people will be
Staying away from places where there are other people
Having a hard time making friends and keeping friends
Blushing, sweating, or trembling around other people
Feeling nauseous or sick to your stomach when other
people are around
 Psychotherapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is the most
effective form of psychotherapy for anxiety
disorders. Generally a short-term treatment, CBT
focuses on teaching you specific skills to improve
your symptoms and gradually return to the activities
you've avoided because of anxiety.

Medication
Several types of medications are used to help relieve
symptoms, depending on the type of anxiety disorder
you have and whether you also have other mental or
physical health issues. For example:
Certain antidepressants are also used to treat
anxiety disorders.

Treatment
An anti-anxiety medication called buspirone may
be prescribed.
In limited circumstances, your doctor may
prescribe other types of medications, such as
sedatives, also called benzodiazepines, or beta
blockers. These medications are for short-term
relief of anxiety symptoms and are not intended
to be used long term.
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Anxiety, fear, and flashbacks caused by a traumatic event. It is a
serious potentially debilitating condition that can occur in people
who have experienced or witnessed a natural disaster, serious
accident, terrorist Incident, sudden death of a loved one, war,
violent personal assault such as rape, or other life-threatening
events.

Generalized anxiety disorder: Anxiousness and fear in general,

with no particular cause. People with generalized anxiety disorder
display excessive anxiety or worry for months and face several
anxiety-related symptoms. Generalized anxiety disorder
symptoms include:
Generalized anxiety disorder
symptoms include:
Restlessness or feeling wound-up or on edge
Being easily fatigued
Difficulty concentrating or having their minds go blank
Irritability
Muscle tension
Difficulty controlling the worry
Sleep problems (difficulty falling or staying asleep or
restless, unsatisfying sleep)
 Psychotherapy
Several types of psychotherapy, also called talk
therapy, may be used to treat children and adults
with PTSD. Some types of psychotherapy used in
PTSD treatment include:
Cognitive therapy
Exposure therapy
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
(EMDR)

Medication
Several types of medications can help improve
symptoms of PTSD:
Antidepressants.
Anti-anxiety medications.

Treatment
Prazosin.
DO YOU SOMETIMES HAVE SUDDEN ATTACKS OF ANXIETY
AND OVERWHELMING FEAR THAT LAST FOR SEVERAL
MINUTES?
PANIC DISORDER
People with panic disorder have frequent and unexpected panic
attacks. These attacks are characterized by a sudden wave of fear
or discomfort or a sense of losing control even when there is no clear
danger or trigger. Not everyone who experiences a panic attack will
develop panic disorder.

Panic disorder often begins in the late teens or early adulthood.

Women are more likely than men to develop panic disorder.
 What are the signs and symptoms of
panic disorder?

anxiety and fear
Sudden and repeated panic attacks of overwhelming
A feeling of being out of control, or a fear of death or impending doom during a panic
attack
An intense worry about when the next panic attack will happen
A fear or avoidance of places where panic attacks have occurred in the past
Physical symptoms during a panic attack, such as:
-Pounding or racing heart
-Sweating
-Chills
-Trembling
-Difficulty breathing
-Weakness or dizziness
-Tingly or numb hands
-Chest pain
-Stomach pain or nausea
WHAT CAUSES
GENETIC PREDISPOSITION
ANXIETY STEMMING FROM CHILDHOOD
OF PANIC RESPONSE TO THE CHALLENGES OF ADULTHOOD
DISORDER
These factors all have one thing in common and it is: They
are not your fault. The root causes of panic attacks are
also clues as to what may trigger an attack now. For
example, attacks that stem from childhood may be
triggered by encounters with family members who caused
harm in your early years, or from situations that remind you
of things that happened. Panic attacks that stem from
specific challenges associated with adulthood can be
anticipated or avoided if you employ the right coping tools
and can predict the triggers.
How is panic
disorder treated?
Panic disorder is generally treated with
psychotherapy (sometimes called “talk
therapy”), medication, or both. Speak with a
health care provider about the best treatment
for you.
PSYCHOTERAPHY

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), a research-supported type of psychotherapy, is

commonly used to treat panic disorder. CBT teaches you different ways of thinking,
behaving, and reacting to the feelings that happen during or before a panic attack.
The attacks can become less frequent once you learn to react differently to the
physical sensations of anxiety and fear during a panic attack.

Exposure therapy is a common CBT method that focuses on confronting the fears
and beliefs associated with panic disorder to help you engage in activities you have
been avoiding. Exposure therapy is sometimes used along with relaxation exercises.
MEDICATION

Antidepressants, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

(SSRIs)
and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)
Beta-blockers
Anti-anxiety medications, such as benzodiazepines
How can I support myself and
others with panic disorder

Educate Yourself

Communicate

Know When to Seek Help

Obsessive-
Compulsive Disorder
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is
a common, chronic, and long-lasting
disorder in which a person has
uncontrollable, reoccurring thoughts
("obsessions") and/or behaviors
("compulsions") that he or she feels the
urge to repeat over and over.
 What are the signs and symptoms of
obsessive-compulsive disorder?

Obsessions are repeated thoughts, urges, or mental images that

cause anxiety. Common symptoms include:
Fear of germs or contamination
Unwanted forbidden or taboo thoughts involving sex, religion,
or harm
Aggressive thoughts towards others or self
Having things symmetrical or in a perfect order
 What are the signs and symptoms of
obsessive-compulsive disorder?

Compulsions are repetitive behaviors that a person with OCD feels

the urge to do in response to an obsessive thought. Common
compulsions include:
Excessive cleaning and/or handwashing
Ordering and arranging things in a particular, precise way
Repeatedly checking on things, such as repeatedly checking to
see if the door is locked or that the oven is off
Compulsive counting
 What are the signs and symptoms of
obsessive-compulsive disorder?

Can't control his or her thoughts or behaviors, even when those

thoughts or behaviors are recognized as excessive
Spends at least 1 hour a day on these thoughts or behaviors
Doesn’t get pleasure when performing the behaviors or rituals,
but may feel brief relief from the anxiety the thoughts cause
Experiences significant problems in their daily life due to these
thoughts or behaviors
Some individuals with OCD also have a tic
disorder. Motor tics are sudden, brief, repetitive
movements, such as eye blinking and other eye
movements, facial grimacing, shoulder
shrugging, and head or shoulder jerking. Common
vocal tics include repetitive throat-clearing,
sniffing, or grunting sounds.
RISK FACTORS
GENES

Twin and family studies have shown that people with first-
degree relatives (such as a parent, sibling, or child) who have
OCD are at a higher risk for developing OCD themselves. The
risk is higher if the first-degree relative developed OCD as a
child or teen. Ongoing research continues to explore the
connection between genetics and OCD and may help improve
OCD diagnosis and treatment.
RISK FACTORS
Brain Structure and Functioning
Imaging studies have shown differences in the frontal cortex
and subcortical structures of the brain in patients with OCD.
There appears to be a connection between the OCD symptoms
and abnormalities in certain areas of the brain, but that
connection is not clear. Research is still underway.
Understanding the causes will help determine specific,
personalized treatments to treat OCD.
RISK FACTORS
Environment
An association between childhood trauma and obsessive-
compulsive symptoms has been reported in some studies.
More research is needed to understand this relationship better.
In some cases, children may develop OCD or OCD symptoms
following a streptococcal infection—this is called Pediatric
Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with
Streptococcal Infections (PANDAS).
How is OBSESSIVE -COMPULSIVE
DISORDER treated?

Sometimes people with OCD also have other

mental disorders, such as anxiety, depression,
and body dysmorphic disorder, a disorder in
which someone mistakenly believes that a part
of their body is abnormal. It is important to
consider these other disorders when making
decisions about treatment.
PSYCHOTERAPHY
Research shows that certain types of psychotherapy,
including cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) and other related
therapies (e.g., habit reversal training) can be as effective as
medication for many individuals. Research also shows that a
type of CBT called Exposure and Response Prevention (EX/RP)
—spending time in the very situation that triggers
compulsions (e.g. touching dirty objects) but then being
prevented from undertaking the usual resulting compulsion
(e.g. handwashing)—is effective in reducing compulsive
behaviors in OCD, even in people who did not respond well to
SRI medication.
MEDICATION
Serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs), which
include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
(SSRIs) are used to help reduce OCD
symptoms.
SRIs often require higher daily doses in the
treatment of OCD than of depression and may
take 8 to 12 weeks to start working, but some
patients experience more rapid improvement.
Thank You!