Discrimination and prejudice: the

experience of female students in

male-dominated education

Erica Neuman

Psychology, bachelor's level

2022

Luleå University of Technology

Department of Health, Learning and Technology
 Abstract
Research has shown that female students experience discrimination and prejudice in male-dominated
higher education, which in turn could result in a lower sense of belonging. This study collected data
from 53 female students in different majors and countries with the help of two surveys (one in
Swedish and one in English). The aim of the study was to highlight the experience of women in male-
dominated education. The survey had statements that the participants were asked to rate on a five-
point Likert scale and open-ended questions where they were encouraged to write based on their own
experience with discrimination and prejudice. The results were analyzed with thematic analysis and
with Spearman’s rho correlations. The findings support the hypothesis that women experience
discrimination and prejudice in male-dominated education. Both male classmates and male professors
have acted in a discriminating way and have questioned women’s abilities. However, the female
students rated the instances as “not severe”. The findings found no support for the hypothesis that
female students would feel a lack of belonging. Further measures are needed in order to eliminate
discriminatory behavior (e.g., hire more female professors, equality education for all professors).

Key words: Female students, Male-dominated, Post-secondary Education, Discrimination, Sense of

belonging
 Sammanfattning
Forskning har visat att kvinnliga studenter upplever diskriminering och fördomar i mansdominerad
högre utbildning, vilket kan resultera i en lägre känsla av tillhörighet. Den här studien samlade in data
från 53 kvinnliga studenter i olika huvudämnen och länder med hjälp av två enkäter (en på svenska
och en på engelska). Syftet med studien var att belysa kvinnors upplevelser i mansdominerad
utbildning. Enkäten hade påståenden som deltagarna ombads betygsätta på en femgradig Likert skala
och öppna frågor där de uppmuntrades skriva baserat på deras egna upplevelser av diskriminering och
fördomar. Resultaten analyserades med tematisk analys och med Spearman’s rho korrelationer.
Resultaten ger stöd för hypotesen att kvinnor upplever diskriminering och fördomar i mansdominerad
utbildning. Både manliga klasskamrater och manliga professorer hade agerat på ett diskriminerande
sätt och ifrågasatt kvinnors förmågor. Däremot värderade de kvinnliga studenterna händelserna som
”inte allvarliga”. Resultaten fann inget stöd för hypotesen att kvinnliga studenter skulle känna brist på
tillhörighet. Vidare åtgärder krävs för att eliminera diskriminerande beteende (till exempel anställa
mer kvinnliga professorer, jämställdhetsutbildning för alla professorer).

Nyckelord: Kvinnliga studenter, Mansdominerat, Eftergymnasial utbildning, Diskriminering, Känsla

av tillhörighet
 Discrimination and prejudice: the experience of female students in male-
dominated education
Background
Most of the students in higher education in the western countries are women (Fiske &
UNESCO, 2012). Despite this, women are still underrepresented in the STEM fields (science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics). Psychology is a subject that has more women than men
while economics has more men, which suggests that there are gender imbalances in non-STEM fields
as well (Ganley et al., 2018).
To belong is a fundamental human need that can shape the way people think and feel
(Baumeister & Leary, 1995). In an academic setting it describes the magnitude of which students feel
that others accept, include and support them (Goodenow, 1993). The students who feel that they
belong in the academic environments are more motivated and participate more in the classroom
(Walton & Cohen, 2007; Walton et al., 2012).
Previous research has shown that women might experience less feelings of belonging to their
major in STEM fields (Cheryan & Plaut, 2010; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). This is because of sexism,
threats to their social identity, and worries about not fitting in (O’Brien et al. 2015b) Studies show that
a lower sense of belonging in female STEM students is connected to their belief of how others view
women’s abilities. If the students thought that others held negative stereotypes about women’s
capacity, the students felt a lower sense of belonging (Ahlqvist et al., 2013; Good et al., 2012). This in
turn insinuates that women who view the environment to be biased, might be deterred from entering
such environments. Students had a higher sense of belonging if they thought that their colleagues saw
math as an ability you can gain and not something you have a natural talent for (Good et al., 2012). In
turn, this means that a lack of sense of belonging can influence their decision to leave STEM (Findley-
Van Nostrand & Pollenz, 2017).
In order to succeed, it is crucial that women feel like they are part of the program they are
studying (Rincón and George-Jackson 2016). Several studies have highlighted this importance
(Dasgupta, 2011; Freeman et al., 2007; Good et al., 2012; Walton & Cohen, 2011). Factors that can
influence this sense of belonging within women are therefore important to study. A study by Fisher et
al., (2020) shows that female role models had an important and positive impact on female students’
sense of belonging. Female students, who read encouraging letters from female role models, were
more likely to remain in STEM classes (Herrmann et al., 2016). Similar findings show that reading
biographies of accomplished women in STEM made the female students feel a stronger fit to STEM
(Shin et al., 2016). Research by Powell et al., (2011) shows that a discipline with a dearth of women
signals to young girls that it is unattractive for them and should be avoided. This lack of women likely
correlates with a bad environment for the few women that are in that field. These findings insinuate
that simply adding more women into the mix might not be the solution unless something is done about
the quality of the environment itself.
Female students might feel that they need to put in more effort to be able to succeed in male-
dominated fields (Smith et al., 2013). Motivation to enter and remain in STEM, as well as a sense of
belonging to those fields, varied based on concerns regarding the effort expenditure. Motivation
decreased in women who felt that they needed to do more work than men in order to do well (Smith et
al., 2013).
Gender discrimination is based on gender perceptions and is a common form of discrimination
(de la Torre-Pérez et al., 2022). Gender inequality issues were believed by chemistry and biology
students to be limited to male-dominated fields, but studies show that even women in more gender-
balanced fields experience discrimination. A study by Fisher et al., (2020) on biology and chemistry
students show implicit discrimination towards female students where their male peers dismiss their
contributions and underestimate their capability in the classroom. The same study found that women
often felt disrespected and that the male students did not take them seriously simply because of their
gender.
Both female and male faculty members within STEM show signs of subtle gender bias
(Grunspan et al., 2016). Male students got more mentor time (Moss-Racusin et al., 2012), more
opportunities to answer questions in class (Eddy et al., 2014) and got replies to their emails more often
than their female peers (Milkman et al., 2015).

4
 Research has shown that female students in STEM experience discrimination and stereotypes
(Walton et al. 2015). Many studies also talk about the “chilly climate” that women face in STEM
(Blickenstaff, 2005; Blackburn, 2017). This climate refers to an environment where individuals are
treated unfairly (Seaton, 2011). Female engineering students and female students in computer science
think that men and women are treated differently in their fields (Heyman et al., 2002). These fields
also feel less supportive and less welcoming to women (Morris & Daniel, 2008).
A study by Ganley et al., (2018) found that choice of major was related to perceived
discrimination, possibly in the shape of stereotyping and actual discrimination. Female students in
non-STEM fields such as social sciences, arts and humanities face less discrimination (Steele et al.,
2002). Gender differences across majors might be impacted by discrimination, both real and potential,
which could cause women to pursue majors where they believe they will face less gender
discrimination (Cheryan, 2012). Fields that are stereotypically seen as more masculine tend to have
larger gender gaps, STEM and non-STEM fields included (e.g., engineering, computer science,
economics, business):(Cheryan, 2012). This shows the importance of making sure that the perceived
gender bias that women experience is included in the efforts that aim to improve the
underrepresentation of women (Ganley et al., 2018).
Previous research highlights the fact that women in STEM and non-STEM fields experience
similar issues related to gender. This suggests that these issues are not limited to STEM but to fields
that are male dominated. The topic of discrimination and the environment that female students
encounter during their studies are important to research in order to increase equality and decrease the
gender gap. Most of the research is conducted abroad, which means the situation could look different
in Sweden.

Purpose / aim
The aim of the study is to examine female students in male dominated post-secondary education.
The study focuses on their thoughts, sense of belonging and experiences of discrimination and
prejudice based on their gender.

Qualitative questions
Have female students experienced gender discrimination and prejudice and if so, in what way?

Quantitative questions
Do the female students feel accepted by their peers? Do the female students feel a sense of
belonging to their major?

Hypothesis
Female students experience gender discrimination and might feel a lack of belonging, which we
expect the current study to replicate.

Method
Participants
Table 1 shows descriptive data for the participants. The inclusion criteria for this study were (1)
identifying as female and (2) studying in a male-dominated post-secondary education. The data was
collected from April to May of 2022. Fifty-three women took part in this study with an age span of 18-
46 (Mdn= 22, M=23.8, SD=5.4). Participants that did not fit the criteria of a male-dominated program
were excluded from taking part in the study (e.g., psychology and sociology students) according to
Swedish population statistics (Statistikmyndigheten SCB, 2019). The participants were enrolled in
different institutions across several countries. Some of the majors represented in the data included
engineering, civil engineering and computer science.

5
Table 1

Participants Frequency Percentage (%)

N 53 100
Swedish survey answers 34 64.15
English survey answers 19 35.85
University students 44 83.02
College (or equivalent) students 9 16.98
Currently studying 45 84.91
Currently not studying 3 5.66
Finished their degree 5 9.43

Survey
The data was collected with the help of a mixed method survey using Google forms. The survey
was created in English and translated into Swedish in a separate survey so that the participants could
choose which language they wanted to use.

Survey questions
The survey consisted of a mix of statements, some of which had been previously used by other
researchers and some that were original for this study (see Appendix A, Table 2).
Some of the statements were modified to fit the current study (e.g., “in my major” was added to
the sentence “I feel like an outsider”). On top of that, some own examples of gender discrimination
and experienced prejudice were added. These were derived from the researcher’s own experience and
influenced by situations reported in previous research. Both the statements and the examples could be
answered on a five point-scale ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”.
The survey was split into five parts (see Appendix A, Table 2). The first part consisted of initial
background questions about the participant (e.g., age, what program they are studying / studied). The
second part examined their sense of belonging, where they were told to pick the alternative that best fit
them. To make it easier to answer, the questions were grouped into smaller blocks to prevent the
participants from forgetting which answers were which on the scale. The third part was constructed in
the same way but focused on the teaching environment. The fourth part started with a definition of
gender discrimination: “Gender bias or discrimination occurs when someone is treated unfairly due to
their gender.” (Robnett, 2016) and the questions were related to that. The last part focused on
experienced prejudice and was defined as: "an unfair and unreasonable opinion or feeling, especially
when formed without enough thought or knowledge" (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.).
The survey had open-ended questions where the participants could write their own examples or
thoughts in addition to rating the statements. These were placed after each section (see Appendix A,
Table 2). Most of the questions were mandatory (e.g.,Which program do / did you study?) except for a
question that was only applicable to those who already graduated (“If you answered yes on the
previous question, what year did you graduate?”).

Procedure
The survey was published using various online methods (emails to students and lecturers,
Facebook, Instagram, reddit) to create a snowball effect. The survey was pilot tested by two students
before it was sent out to a broader audience. The researcher took feedback comments into
consideration and made changes to the survey accordingly to make it as inclusive as possible. The
participants got information about the survey and its purpose before giving their consent to participate.
They were told that the survey could take up to 15 minutes to answer. The survey was divided into
different sections and the participants could go back and forth between the pages to make additional
changes.

6
Data Analysis
Qualitative
After data collection, the survey responses were collected in a Google excel sheet. Thematic
analysis was used to analyze the data (Howitt, 2013). The open-ended questions were gathered in a
Google document to make the coding easier. Once the open-ended answers were collected, each row
was given a number. This made it easier to keep track of the material. The material was then read
again by the researcher to make inductive codes. This was done by giving the rows suitable labels to
describe their content. One code could consist of 1-3 rows of data. Once the initial coding was done,
the labeled codes were moved to a separate document for further analyzing. The codes were read again
and sorted into bigger groups depending on their topic. One group was split into two, creating two
smaller groups. Once the codes were all sorted, the groups were evaluated, and irrelevant codes were
excluded from the analysis. These included examples given outside of the campus environment. The
final groups were then decided as the themes.

Quantitative
The rated survey responses were assigned scores, depending on whether they had a negative or a
positive meaning. Positive items such as “I feel like I belong in my major” were scored “Strongly
agree” = 5 and “Strongly disagree” = 1. Negative items such as “I feel like an outsider in my major”
were reversed scored with “Strongly agree” = 1 and “Strongly disagree” = 5. The items related to a
sense of belonging were scored and added together for each participant to create a composite score.
The same was done with the items relating to discrimination. The scores for the items “My major has
female professors” and “My major has female role models that I look up to” were also combined to
create a composite score.
For the quantitative analysis, the variables were defined in IBM SPSS (version 28). Spearman’s
rho was used to examine the relationships between the variables, since the variables were ordinal data.
The answers to the open-ended questions regarding frequency and severity of discrimination and
prejudice were made into bar graphs to better visualize the material.

Ethics
The survey started with an introduction in which the participants learned the purpose of the
study. They were informed that their participation was voluntary, that they would remain anonymous
and that they could discontinue at any time. They were also told that any collected information would
only be used for educational purposes and if they had any questions, they could email the researchers.
To ensure that the participants understood and agreed to these terms, they were asked to click a
checkbox. This way they were able to consent to being a part of the survey and the study.

Results
First, the data will be analyzed in a quantitative way, followed by a thematic analysis. Fifty-
three women from male-dominated majors responded to the survey. Sense of belonging and
discrimination was significantly positively correlated with a medium effect size r= .507, 95% BCa CI
[0.241, 0.711], p= <.001. No significant correlation was found between sense of belonging and female
professors/role models r=.041, 95% BCa CI [-0.253, 0.328], p=.772. The open-ended questions
will be presented with bar graphs. Figure 1 shows that the majority (79,25%) felt a sense of belonging
to their major and acceptance from their classmates (77,36%). As seen by Figure 2 to Figure 7, some
participants chose not to answer some of the questions.

7
Figure 1
Sense of belonging to their major and acceptance from classmates

Figure 2 shows that more women gave examples of discrimination than those who left it empty. More
women were also able to provide examples than those who outright stated that they had never
experienced any kind of discrimination.

Figure 2
If you have experienced gender discrimination, please add some examples

Most women stated that the discrimination was not that serious (Figure 3) and that it did not occur that
often (Figure 4).

Figure 3
How severe would you say the gender discrimination towards you have been?

8
Figure 4
How often would you say you have experienced gender discrimination?

The same trend can be seen with prejudice, with more women providing examples than those that
specifically stated that they have not experienced prejudice (Figure 5).

Figure 5
If you have experienced prejudice in the campus environment, please add some examples

It is said that the prejudice is not that serious (Figure 6) and that it does not occur that often (Figure 7).

Figure 6
How severe would you say the prejudice towards you have been?

9
Figure 7
How often would you say you have experienced prejudice?

Thematic analysis
Twenty-four women gave examples of gender discrimination (Figure 2), and 21 women gave
examples of prejudice (Figure 5) in the open-ended questions. The examples were analyzed with a
thematic analysis and the result will be presented with the following themes: prejudice about women’
abilities, discrimination from classmates, discrimination from professors and lack of female role
models.

Prejudice about women’s abilities

This theme describes the prejudice that female students have experienced within their
educational program. Prejudice as mentioned earlier, is defined as “an unfair and unreasonable opinion
or feeling, especially when formed without enough thought or knowledge" (Cambridge Dictionary,
n.d.).
Female students report that most of their experience with prejudice relates to comments and
beliefs about their abilities. They report that their male peers find them less capable and less
knowledgeable about “technical things”, with peers being surprised when a woman knew how to use a
certain machine. One student said that she has heard comments like: “I can do that, and you can do
this that is easier”. Another one report that her male classmates question her competence and find her
to be “stupid”. A third one says they find her to be less knowledgeable in class: “sometimes my male
classmates don’t think I know the same amount, especially in programming and math”. This occurs
even though both the female and the male students have attended the same classes. One student
mention that if she is struggling with a task, she gets help faster than if it was a male classmate
struggling. However, she adds that this is most likely implicit and can also be because she is younger
than most of her friends.
On the other hand, a few students report that they are also expected to know a lot before the
course even starts: “that the program you’ve chosen to study is also your biggest interest in life, so you
already know everything before stepping into the classroom.” Another student mentions the
expectations on her versus on the male students: “I haven’t experienced direct discrimination, more of
a general perception that as a woman you’re hard-working (duktig) and expected to take more
responsibility”.
Comments about strength were also common: “Girls can’t do this because they’re weaker.” One
student reported that she often gets comments asking if she is strong enough to lift certain objects.

Discrimination from classmates

This theme describes discrimination that female students have experienced from male
classmates. Both actions and comments are covered in this theme.
Female students report that they have been bullied by their male classmates, both verbally and
by actions. One bachelor student got a chunk of her hair cut off by a male classmate, who also liked to
comment about her appearance. Another student had tools torn out of her hands and was left to clean

10
up on her own. Some classmates laughed when a woman got a question wrong in class and followed it
up by saying: “of course she got it wrong, she’s a girl”.
The female students report several instances of discriminating and misogynistic comments. The
comments range in severity from being called a “bitch” to receiving death threats. A male student also
told a female student how he would kidnap her. It was reported that some male students openly share
their view on women’s rights, which made a female student uncomfortable. One mentions that she, on
a weekly basis, hears degrading comments about women from male classmates while she is seated in
the study areas. Another student states that she has “been called a feminist as if it was a bad thing.”
One had a male student tell her that she was not chosen to present a project based on merit but to score
“girl points”.
Female students report that they have experienced discrimination while working in smaller
groups. One reports that she is not taken seriously because she dresses in a feminine way. Another one
reports that she was called a know-it-all when she was simply stating her opinion. A third one got
asked if she needed help, even though it was unwanted, and the guy offering was doing worse than
her.
One of the most common minor themes was female students reporting that they have been
interrupted, dismissed and ignored when talking. Several of the women state that they have made
suggestions that were ignored only to have a man say the same thing a few minutes later and getting
everyone’s approval and praise. In several of the situations the women report that they were not
believed when they gave their opinion, even though they had expertise in the area. One mentions that
she only got her suggestions approved when another male student supported them.
Some of the instances can be labelled as sexual harassment. One woman had her butt slapped
and was grinded against by a male peer. Another participant reports that her butt got kicked. A male
classmate tried to tie a female student’s hands together and made comments about sexual bondage.
Some classmates openly questioned a female student’s lesbian label, saying that she was only
“experimenting” and that she was “too pretty to be a lesbian.”

Discrimination from professors

This theme describes discriminating comments and actions made by professors. One professor
made comments about a female student’s appearance and told her that she might understand how to do
a certain task if she spent less time doing her hair. One student mentions that a female professor was
referred to as “girl with the sexy accent” by a male professor. The same student adds that she has been
dismissed when asking questions in class and has not been listened to despite being correct. Another
professor said that women cannot be good at that specific major because of biology. One student mention
that she has been interrupted during presentations and forgotten by professors. Another student reports
that she was given back-handed comments from a tutor and was treated differently than the male students
while being the only girl in class: “He also made comments whenever I was late to class because of
work, which I would inform him of beforehand, yet he wouldn't make comments about any of the males
in my class if they were late.“ The same student mention another professor that would give less detailed
answers to female students when they asked a question, while he would do the opposite if it was a male
student asking. The participant describes this professor as being uncomfortable around women and
“awful to deal with”. Another professor lectured a female student and questioned her menstrual pains,
accusing her of lying about the pain intensity to get out of class. Another student mention that she had
trouble getting help when asking for it, even after making it clear that she would not be able to handle
the task.

Lack of female role models

This theme describes the lack of female role models that was brought up by the female students.
Several of the students talk about the fact that there was a lack of female staff. One student mention
that she had zero female instructors in her program. Another one state that she has some female
teachers, but that most of them are male. It is mentioned by a student that she wishes there were more
female role models. One student talk about the effects of the lack of female role models in class:

11
 In some of my classes, there have been only 2 other girls in a class of 50+ students. The professors
and TAs were also all male. This is not itself an issue, but it creates a lack of understanding and
support from the professors and TAs for students that are struggling more due to societal impacts.
The result is that a student like myself that has many complex gender and identity impacts does not
feel supported or seen even after talking directly to my professors, peers, or TAs.

On the other hand, a few students take the opportunity to mention female role models. One talks
about how a female professor always made sure to ask how she was doing and how she would offer
her support and advice on her career path. The same student notes that: “I always thought that student
professor relationships like this have positive effects on learning experiences, and this specific
professor is one I'll always remember.” This student also say that the head of her department was
female, which was encouraging even if they did not interact as much. Another student mentions a
female professor and how she brings respect from the male professors in the department. She notes
that it is clear that everyone respects her.

Discussion

The aim of the study was to examine female students and their experience with discrimination
and prejudice in male-dominated majors. The study also focused on their sense of belonging and
feelings of acceptance.
The results show that female students do experience discrimination and prejudice in male
dominated post-secondary education. The examples given by the students show that both classmates
and professors have been the source of the discrimination. The fact that some professors treated men
and women differently in the classroom align with previous research (Eddy et al., 2014; Grunspan et
al., 2016). The findings show that there was a significant relationship between sense of belonging and
discrimination. While no claims about causality can be made, it is an important finding to include
because it highlights the experience of women in male dominated majors.
However, the results also show that women rated the discrimination and prejudice as not severe
and that they do not experience it often. It is important to note that severity is subjective and might
depend on the situations themselves. Factors, such as self-esteem, might influence perceived severity
(Kucharska, 2017).
It might be difficult to remember or recognize instances of discrimination and prejudice, which
might explain why some left the answer empty. Another explanation is that some might not have
understood the difference between discrimination and prejudice, causing them to add all their
examples in the discrimination section. Evidence for this is that several students in the prejudice
section wrote to refer to the discrimination section, where they had added their answers. Another thing
to consider is where the baseline lies. We speculate that if a female student often experience
discrimination but rated it as not severe, this might be because it is normalized for her and therefore
not considered to be something out of the ordinary. A previous study found that women who report
more gender discrimination might suffer less in terms of ill health, due to higher educational
attainment (Andersson & Harnois, 2020). In other words, being able to recognize discrimination is not
equivalent to the amount of suffering.
The findings suggest that female students feel like they belong in their major and that they get
accepted by their classmates. But the results also show that female students got dismissed, had their
suggestions ignored by male peers and were not believed to be as knowledgeable. This aligns with
previous research by Fisher et al., (2020) who found that biology and chemistry students show implicit
discrimination towards the female classmates. The same study found that sense of belonging in female
students was positively impacted by female role models, while the current study found no such
relationship. However, the results of the current study suggest that female role models are important
for learning experience and for making the female students feel supported and understood. A lack of
female professors and students was expressed to be a factor that caused a lack of understanding. This
is important to consider when working to improve the campus environment for female students. The
results suggest that in order to create a better-quality environment for female students there needs to be
an increase in female professors as well as a better understanding of women in general. This is

12
supported by another study that state that something needs to be done about the quality of the
environment itself and simply adding more women might not be enough (Powell et al., 2011).
The findings of the current study support the hypothesis that women experience gender
discrimination. It could also be that female students would feel a lack of belonging, which the findings
found no support for. This differs from previous research that show that sexism (O’Brien et al. 2015b)
and negative views of women’s abilities were related to a lower sense of belonging in female students
(Ahlqvist et al., 2013; Good et al., 2012). An explanation for the present findings could be that the
female students were aware of how male-dominated their major was and aware of what it might entail,
before entering the field. This could mean that the women in these majors were prepared for this type
of behavior and therefore are able to put up with more. This could also be an explanatory factor as to
why the students rated the discrimination and prejudice as not severe. In turn, this could mean that
women who were not ready to face such an environment never considered going into the major in the
first place. Therefore, those women might not be represented in the data.

Method discussion
This study differs from previous studies in the sense that it uses original questions in addition to
previously validated questions. These questions ask the participants to rate the severity of their
experiences as well as how often they occur. The questions also include examples that aim to capture
specific situations that the participants might have experienced. Although there are limitations to using
non-validated questions, the specific examples might have helped the participants remember instances
of discrimination and prejudice.
Another way this study differs from previous ones is the fact that it collected data through
online surveys. This approach was less time-consuming and was able to generate more examples of
discrimination and prejudice than if the same number of interviews had been conducted. The open-
ended questions gave the participants the opportunity to raise their voice and report their experiences,
which in turn meant that the research questions could be answered.
Women in more gender-balanced fields were excluded from participating, since previous
research has shown that they also experience discrimination (Fisher et al., 2020). This was controlled
by 1) asking the participants to estimate how many students they think are women in their major (in
percentage) and 2) compare the estimations to Swedish population statistics (Statistikmyndigheten
SCB, 2019).
One factor to consider is the fact that by making most questions mandatory, participants had to
write something in order to proceed with the survey. This meant that several students simply entered
characters (e.g., - or .) or stated that the question was “not applicable” (n/a). In turn, these answers are
difficult to analyze since there could be different reasons as to why the participant chose that answer
(e.g., have not experienced discrimination/prejudice, cannot think of examples, does not want to
share). The questions were mandatory to make sure that the participants took a moment to really
consider the question and think back on their experiences.
One of the limitations of the study is that it cannot make claims about causality between
discrimination and a sense of belonging. This relates to the findings where women gave examples of
discrimination but rated the instances as “not severe”. No clear connection between the two variables
could be found in the thematic analysis that would point at the direction of the relationship.
However, the chosen method provided a good insight into the experience of many women
across many countries and programs. The inclusion of both a Swedish and an English survey meant
that a bigger sample could be examined and therefore, the results are more representative of female
students in male-dominated majors than if a smaller sample had been used.

Conclusions
Both the correlational findings and qualitative examples suggest that female students experience
prejudice and discrimination in male dominated majors. Even though they feel a sense of belonging to
their major and a general acceptance from their classmates, measures should be considered to
eliminate the discriminating behavior that these women face. These measures should include hiring
more female professors, since the findings show evidence of the importance of female visibility in
these majors. It would also be important to make sure that all professors are educated about equality

13
and have the tools to erase discriminatory behavior and bias, both from within themselves and when
they notice it among students. Another measure for universities themselves could include research into
how female students experience their majors and classes. By doing so, it could highlight specific
issues in specific majors, which could help to improve the environment for the women in those majors.

Further research
Further research could examine why the female students rated the discrimination and prejudice
as not severe while they were able to provide that many examples. It would also be interesting to see if
female students in female dominated majors would rate the severity in a similar way. More research
could help highlight the factors that improve retention and identify problem-areas within specific
majors. This could benefit the universities since it could help bring more women into male-dominated
education, which in turn could influence the labor market. Not to mention that it would also benefit the
women, since more of them might feel encouraged to enter these majors and pursue their interests, if
the quality of the environment was better.
Further research could also try and identify personality factors that might influence female
students and their retention in male-dominated majors. This could highlight any differences in
personality that could explain why some female students handle male-dominated programs better than
others. In turn, this could help identify possible changes to be made in order to make sure that all
women, regardless of personality factors, can excel in said major.

14
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 Appendix A
Table 2
Survey questions
Theme Item Reference

Belonging I feel I belong within my department. Trujillo, G., & Tanner,

K. D. (2014).
I feel like I belong in my major (original: I feel like I belong in the Fisher, C. R.,
field of science) Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H. (2020).
I feel like an outsider + in my major Fisher, C. R.,
Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H. (2020).
I don’t think that my gender will affect how others view me in my Fisher, C. R.,
major Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H. (2020).
I feel accepted by my classmates Own
I think my gender and my major are very compatible Fisher, C. R.,
Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H. (2020).
I think I have experienced difficulties in my major because of my Fisher, C. R.,
gender Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H. (2020).
I think my gender will be an important factor in the type of career I Fisher, C. R.,
decide to pursue Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H. (2020).
I don’t think I would pursue certain fields because of my gender Fisher, C. R.,
Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H. (2020).
I see myself as a part of the campus community. Trujillo, G., & Tanner,
K. D. (2014).

I feel a sense of belonging to the campus community. Own

I feel that I am a member of the campus community. Own
Do you wish to comment on any of the above statements? Own

Teaching I am satisfied with my academic experience. Trujillo, G., & Tanner,

environment K. D. (2014).
People at the university / college accept me (original: People at the Trujillo, G., & Tanner,
[university] accept me) K. D. (2014).

I feel comfortable at the university / college (original: I feel Trujillo, G., & Tanner,
comfortable at the [university]) K. D. (2014).
 Theme Item Reference

Teaching I feel respected + by my professors Fisher, C. R.,

environment Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H.
I wish I could fade into the background and not be noticed Fisher, C. R.,
Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H.
I try to say as little as possible Fisher, C. R.,
Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H.
I wish I were invisible Fisher, C. R.,
Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H.
I enjoy being an active participant Fisher, C. R.,
Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H.
My major has female professors Own
My major has female role models that I look up to Own
I find it difficult to be an active participant in class Own
I see myself represented in the course material (for example, in Own
pictures or examples in my textbooks)

What percentage of students in this major do you estimate are Fisher, C. R.,
women? If you write 0%, this means that there are no women in Thompson, C. D., &
your major, while 100% means that all of the students are women. Brookes, R. H. (2020).
Do you wish to comment on any of the above statements? Own

Gender I don’t feel seen by my professors Own

discrimination
My professors treat men and women equally in the classroom Own

A professor has dismissed my opinion during class Own

I've received hateful or degrading comments from classmates Own

I've received hateful or degrading comments from a professor Own

I have experienced discrimination in the classroom Own

My major is more welcoming to men than it is to women Fisher, C. R.,
Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H. (2020).
I don't get taken seriously Own
I have been treated unfairly because of my gender Own
 Theme Item Reference

Gender I don't feel welcomed by my male classmates Own

discrimination
I've been interrupted while answering a question in class Own
Women have a hard time succeeding in my major Fisher, C. R.,
Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H. (2020).
Women in my major experience discrimination Fisher, C. R.,
Thompson, C. D., &
Brookes, R. H. (2020).
If you have experienced gender discrimination, please add some Own
examples below. (You're allowed to be as detailed as you want.)
How severe would you say the gender discrimination against you Own
have been?
How often would you say that you have experienced gender Own
discrimination

Experienced My classmates think that I'm less capable because of my gender Own
prejudice
My professors think that I need more help than others because of Own
my gender
The professors don't think I can handle myself Own
My classmates don't think I can handle myself Own
I get help even though I didn't ask for it Own
I get more help than my male peers because of my gender Own
I often feel that prejudice exists in the classroom Own
Other people don't think that I should be in this major because of Own
my gender
Other people don't think that I will succeed in this major Own
If you have experienced prejudice in the campus environment, Own
please add some examples. (You're allowed to be as detailed as
you want.)
How severe would you say the prejudice against you have been? Own

How often would you say that you have experienced prejudice? Own