The main structure of a complete BMS for low or medium voltages is commonly made up of

three ICs: an analog front-end (AFE), a microcontroller (MCU), and a fuel gauge (see Figure 1).
The fuel gauge can be a standalone IC, or it can be embedded in the MCU. The MCU is the
central element of the BMS, taking information from both the AFE and fuel gauge and
interfacing with the rest of the system.

The AFE provides the MCU and fuel gauge with voltage, temperature, and current readings
from the battery. Since the AFE is physically closest to the battery, it is recommended that the
AFE also controls the circuit breakers, which disconnect the battery from the rest of the system
if any faults are triggered.The fuel gauge IC takes the readings from the AFE, then uses
complex cell modeling and advanced algorithms to estimate key parameters, such as the
state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH).

The fuel gauge uses its internal algorithm to run complex calculations that convert the voltage,
current, and temperature measurements into SOC and SOH outputs by analyzing the
relationship of these values with the specific cell model stored in its memory. The cell model is
generated by characterizing the cell across different temperature, capacity, and loading
conditions to mathematically define its open-circuit voltage, as well as resistive and capacitive
components. This model enables the fuel gauge’s algorithm to calculate an optimal SOC based
on how these parameters change across different operating conditions. Therefore, if the fuel
gauge’s cell model or algorithm are not accurate, the resulting calculation is not accurate, no
matter how precisely the AFE’s take measurements. In other words, implementing a highly
accurate fuel gauge has the largest effect on the BMS’s SOC accuracy.

The most important factors are the fuel gauge cell model and fuel gauge algorithm, followed by
the ability of the AFE to deliver a synchronous voltage-current reading for the cell resistance
calculation.
1. Flyback or forward converters: These are commonly used DC-DC converter
topologies for cell balancing. Flyback converters transfer energy from higher
voltage cells to lower voltage cells by storing energy in an inductor and then
releasing it to the lower voltage cells. Forward converters, on the other hand,
directly transfer energy without energy storage. Both topologies require
appropriate control and feedback loops to ensure proper balancing.
2. Charge transfer methods: Certain cell chemistries, such as lithium-ion, can
benefit from charge transfer-based balancing techniques. This involves
temporarily diverting charge from higher voltage cells to lower voltage cells
during the charging process. By transferring charge between cells, the voltage
imbalance is reduced. Charge transfer methods typically require additional
switches and control logic in the BMS.
 Project Plan and Research

Battery Management System:

The BMS will be used to monitor a battery pack and the various parameters associated with the
cells. The BMS doesn’t directly contribute to the working of the battery but acts as a device that
ensures the safety and optimal performance of the battery pack which also extends its lifespan.

Placement of BMS in the system:

Components and Expected Output:

The BMS measures factors like the temperature, voltage, current for each cell. These values
finally help determine the following factors:
1. State of Charge
2. State of Health
3. Cell Balancing
4. Temperature and its Corresponding Management System
These are the major outputs that are expected from an efficient BMS. Thus the major
components of the system comprise of the individual circuitry for determining the above
parameters, as well as the protection circuitry and a communication bus. The most important
component is the microcontroller which acts as the brain of the system. Other components such
as ADCs may also be used.
Important Functions of BMS:

Cell Balancing: It is important that the voltage level of all the cells in a battery pack is maintained
equally. This is ensured by the BMS during the processes of charging and discharging the cell.
Cell balancing is used to maximise overall capacity and increase the battery pack's longevity by
ensuring that the voltage levels across individual cells stay balanced.

They are two methods of cell balancing:

1. Passive cell balancing
2. Active cell balancing

Passive cell Balancing:

A resistor is connected across the cell as a load which drains out the energy in the form of
heat.When the cell voltage exceeds a certain threshold, the excess voltage is diverted across
the resistor, allowing the cell to discharge.

Active cell Balancing:

The energy is transferred from one cell to another using components like inductors and
capacitors. This has several advantages over passive cell balancing:
1. Loss of energy is avoided
2. Passive cell balancing also needs a separate cooling system
State of Charge(SoC):
This indicates the ratio of the current charge available in the battery to the charge available at
maximum charge.
There are different methods of determining the SoC:
1. Voltage method: Battery is calibrated by measuring the voltage at various known SoC
levels.
2. Coulomb Counting method
3. Kalman Filter method