Introduc)on

 to  Vectors  

November  2017  
 Basic  Concepts  
•  Physical  quan))es  are  either  scalars  or  vectors.    
•  A  Scalar  is  a  quan)ty  that  has  magnitude  only.  
•  Examples:  distance,  speed,  mass,  money,  
density,  temperature,  volume,  )me,  pressure,  
etc.  
•  A  vector  is  a  quan)ty  that  has  both  a  magnitude  
and  a  direc1on.  
•  Examples:  displacement,  velocity,  force,  
accelera)on,  momentum,  electric  and  magne)c  
field.  
  Geometrical  representa)on  
•  A  vector  is  represented  geometrically  by  a  
directed  line  segment.    
•  The  direc)on  of  the  arrow  at  one  end  of  the  
line  segment  specifies  the  direc)on  of  the  
vector,  and  its  length  describes  its  magnitude.  
                                         B
                   
                                                                               a  
                 A
       Figure  1:  An  example  of  vector  representa)on  
 Algebraic  Representa)on  
•  Vectors  are  not  only  geometric  quan))es,  but  
also  may  be  represented  algebraically.  
 
•  For  example  consider  the  vector  a  shown  below.  
This  vector  has  components  2  and  3  in  the  x  and  
y direc)ons  respec)vely.  Thus,  we  write  the  
vector  a = (2, 3).
 y
⇤

a
3

2
  ⇥ x

•  Similarly  the  three-­‐dimensional  vector  OP              shown  

below,  which  
ly the three-dimensional has  
vector ini)al  
v shown below, point   at  
which has the   origin  2,    5    and
components            3  
x, y and Oz (0, and  tas
0, 0)is written
directions erminal  point  at  P (2, 3, 5) and  
has  components   v2 35,and  
= ,(2, 3). 5 in  the  x, y and  z
€
direc)ons  is  wriRen  as  OP       = (2, 3, 5).
  Nota)on  of  Vectors  
     Symbolically,  vectors  can  be  denoted  in  any  of  
the  following  ways:  
•  Using  lowercase  boldface  type,  for  instance, a, k,
v, w, and  x.
•  In  handwri)ng,  where  boldface  type  is  either  
unavailable  or  unwieldy,  vectors  are  oTen  
represented  with  right-­‐poin*ng  arrow  nota*on  
!
above their names, for instance, as in v .

•  Shorthand  nota)ons  of  vectors  may  also  include  

*ldes  and  straight  lines  placed  above  or  below      
the name of the vector, for instance, as in v˜ and u.
 Nota)on  
•  A  vector  which  starts  from  point  A and  ends  at  
point  B is  denoted  by    AB.
   
•  Note  that  vectors  do  not  have  a  fixed  posi)on  in  
the  coordinate  
€ plane,  so  they  can  be  translated  
(moved)  without  changing  their  meaning.  
 
•  In  other  words,  regardless  of  their  loca)on,  two  
vectors  with  the  same  direc)on  and  magnitude  
are  the  same  vector.  
•  The  four  vectors  in  the  figure  below  have  the  
same  magnitude  and  direc)on.  Thus  they  
represent  equivalent  vectors;  that  is,  
AB = v = OP = w

                               Figure2:  Equivalent  vectors  

 Vector  Opera)ons  
Nega)ve  of  a  vector    
•  The  vector  −a is  a  vector  of  the  same  length  but  
opposite  direc)on  to  a.  Clearly  then,  in  the  
alterna)ve  nota)on,  the  nega)ve  vector      
!!!" !!!"
  −AB equals BA.
•   Algebraically,  we  have,  in  general,  that  if                            
a = (a, b, c) then  −a = (−a, −b, −c).  
•  For  example,  let  a = (2, 3).  The  nega)ve  of  a is        
−a = (−2, −3) as  shown  below.  
 -2
⇥

a -3
3 a

2
  Figure: A vector with its negation
Scalar  mul)ple  of  a  vector  
•  The  vector  ka (where  k is  a  scalar)  is  called  a  
scalar  mul)ple  of  a.
•  ka  is  a  vector  of  length  |k|  )mes  the  length  of  a.  
•  If  k > 0,  then  the  direc)on  of  ka  is  the  same  as  
the  direc)on  of  a.    
•  If  k < 0, then  the  direc)on  of    ka    is  opposite  to  
the  direc)on  of  a  .    
•  If  k = 0 or  a = 0 (or  both),  then    ka = 0.
•  The  figure  below  illustrates  the  rela)on  between  
a  vector  a  and  the  vectors   −a, 2a, 1 a and − 2 a
2 3
•  Algebraically,  we  have,  in  general,  that  if  
  v = (a, b, c) then kv = (ka, kb, kc).
 
For  example,    
       
If a = (2, 3) then 2a = (4, 6) and
 
  if v = (4, 8, 2) then 1 v = (2, 4,1).
2
 Vector  Addi)on  and  Subtrac)on  
•  Let  u = (x1, y1) and v = (x2, y2)    be  the  two  
vectors  in  the  plane.  The  sum  of  the  vectors u
and  v  is  the  vector  (x1+x2, y1+y2) and  is  denoted  
by u + v.  
•  Thus  the  vectors  are  added  by  adding  the  
corresponding  components.  
•  The  opera)ons  of  vector  addi)on  is  easy  to  carry  
out  in  terms  of  components.  As  illustrated  in  
Figure  below,    
•  if  u = (x1, y1) and v = (x2, y2)  then  
           u + v = (x1+x2, y1+y2).    
•  if  u = (x1, y1, z1) and v = (x2, y2, z2)  then  
           u + v = (x1+x2, y1+y2, z1+z2).    
 Subtrac)on  of  vectors  
•  Subtrac)on  of  two  vectors  is  just  a  special  case  
of  addi)on.  The  vector  u - v  is  defined  to  be    
      u − v = u + (−v)
•  The  following  theorem  state  basic  proper)es  of  
vector  addi)ons.  
   Theorem  
€
•  Let  u, v, w be  vectors,  and  let  k, l be  scalars.  
Then  the  following  rela)onship  hold    
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w"
# Associative law
k(lv) = (kl)v $
 u+ v = v+u Commutative law
(k + l)v = kv + lv "
  k(u + v) = ku + kv # Distributive law
$
 
u + (−u) = 0
u+0 = 0+u = u
  1u = u
•  Proof:  Exercise  
 Position Posi)on  
Vector Vector  
•  The  posi1on  
The position vector  
vector of  of a  pa oint  
point A in  2D
A in oro3D
2D   r  3space
D   is the v
space  itos  tA.he  Algebraically,
vector      OA
     if      point
 fÄ!
rom   the  coordinates
A has origin  to  
(a,Ab,.  c) then th
written identically, i.e. OA= (a, b, c).
•  Algebraically,  if  point A has  coordinates  (a, b, c)
then  the  posi)on  vector  of  A  is  wriRen  
iden)cally,    €i.e.     OA = (a, b, c). z
⇤

Ä!
A(a, b, c)
OA
€ c
⇥ y
a

b
x
 Basic Concepts Algebraic Representation

Vector   b etween  
Vector Between Two Points T wo   Points  
•  If  A  and  B  are  two  points  in 3D we  may  find  the   ⇥
!!!A" and B are two points in 3D we may find the vector AB.
If
vector  vector
AB, i.e.   the  vector  from  A  to  B, using  
A to B using vector notation addition
vector  addi)on.   z
⌅
 

B
*
⇥ ⇥
OB
⇤ y
⇧
⇥⇧
OA
⇧⌃
⇧
A
x Figure: Vector between two points

.
 •  From  the  sketch,  using  vector  addi)on,  we  see  
that      OA     + AB = OB
•   Thus  
  AB = OB − OA
€
                   =  posi)on  vector  of  B  −  posi)on  vector  of  A          
                   =  coordinates  of  B  −  coordinates  of  A.

•  This  gives  us  the  simple  rule  for  finding  a  vector  v  

between  two  points:  
v  =  end  point  −  star)ng  point
•  Example:  
Find the vector AB from A(1,−4,7) to B(−2, 5, 8).
  AB = end point − starting point
= (−2,5,8) − (1,−4,7)
= (−3, 9,1)
•  Example:  
     Determine  the  midpoint  of  the  points  A(1, 0, 4)
€and  B(5, 6, 12).
•   The  midpoint  M  of      AB
             can  be  found  by  vector  
addi)on.    
     
OM = OA + AM
1
= OA + AB
2
1
(
= OA + OB − OA
2
)
1
(
= OA + OB
2
)
1
= ((1, 0, 4) + (5, 6,12))
2
1
= (6, 6,16)
2
= (3, 3, 8)
 Length  (Magnitude  or  Norm)  of  a  Vector  
•  The  length  of  a  vector  u is  oTen  called  the  norm  
or  magnitude  of  u and  is  denoted  by        u        .  
•  It  follows  from  the  Theorem  of  Pythagoras  that  
the  norm  of  a  vector  u = (u1, u2) in  2-­‐space    is                      
2 2
                                       1                  2      .        [see  Figure  
u = u + u € below]      
•  Let  u = (u1, u2, u3)  be  a  vector  in  3-­‐space.  Using  
the  Figure  below  and  two  applica)ons  of  the  
Theorem  of  Pythagoras,  we  obtain  
2 2 2
u = (OR) + ( RP )
         
2 2 2
= (OQ) + (OS ) + ( RP )
2 2 2
= u +u +u
1 2 3

Thus
u = u12 + u22 + u32
•  The  length  (magnitude  or  norm)  of  the  vector          
u = (u1, u2,…, un)  in Rn is  
2 2 2
u = u + u +! + u .
1 2 n

       Example:    
•  Find  the  length  of  the  vector  v = (−1, 4, 7).
Solu1on:  
2 2 2
        v = v1 + v 2 + v 3

  2
= (−1) + 4 + 72 2

         
= 1+16 + 49 = 66.
 The  distance  between  two  points  
•  If  P1(x1, y1, z1) and  P2(x2, y2, z2)  are  two  points  in  
3-­‐space,  then  the  distance  d  between  them  is  the  
norm  of  the  vector      P    1  P    2        [see  Figure  below].    

€
•  Since     P1P2 = ( x 2 − x1, y 2 − y1, z2 − z1 )
     It  follows  from  the  defini)on  of  norm  that  
d = (x 2 − x1 ) 2 + (y 2 − y1 ) 2 + (z2 − z1 ) 2
€
 
•  Similarly,  if  P1(x1, y1) and  P2(x2, y2)  are    points  in  
2-­‐space,  then  the  distance  between  them  is  
given  by  
d = (x 2 − x1 ) 2 + (y 2 − y1 ) 2
•  A  vector  of  norm  1 is  called  a  unit  vector.  
•  The  length  of  the  vector  ku  is       ku = k u
€
 Unit  Vectors  
•  A  unit  vector  is  a  vector  whose  length  is  1.  
•  If  v  is  any  nonzero  vector,  then  the  vector    
    1
v̂ = v
  v
     is  a  unit  vector  in  the  direc)on  of  v [see  Figure  
below]. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

1
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"!!!!!!! ! !!!!!!
!
•  In  general,  we  may  convert  a  vector  v  into  a  unit  
vector  v̂
       which  is  parallel  to  v  using  scalar  
mul)plica)on,  i.e.  using  the  formula  
1
v̂ = v
  v
•  The  formula  for  calcula)ng  a  unit  vector  may  be  
rearranged  to  obtain    
                                    v = v v̂
•  This  shows  that  not  only  do  vectors  have  
magnitude  and  direc)on,  any  vector  may  be  
created  by  mul$plying  the  vector’s  magnitude  by  
its  direc)on.    
Example:    
     Find  a  vector  of  length  5  units  which  is  parallel  to  
v = (4, 7, 4).
Solu1on:    
•  The  magnitude  of  v  is  
2 2 2
4 + 7 + 4 = 16 + 49 +16 = 81 = 9.
•  A  unit  vector  parallel  to  v  is  thus    
    v 1
v̂ = = (4, 7, 4).
    v 9
•  The  required  vector  w  has  magnitude  5  and  
direc)on   1 9 (4, 7, 4).
•  Thus  
5 ! 20 35 20 $
w = (4, 7, 4) = # , , &.
€ 9 " 9 9 9 %
 
 
•  Simple  examples  of    unit  vector  are  the  standard  
unit  vectors.  
         i   = (1, 0, 0), j = (0,1, 0), k = (0, 0,1).
•  These  vectors  each  have  length  1  and  lie  along  
the  coordinate  axes  (see  the  Figure  below).    

                     Figure:  The  standard  unit  vectors.      

•  They  are  called  the  standard  unit  vectors  in  3-­‐
space.  Every  vector  v = (v1, v2, v3)  in  3-­‐space  is  
expressible  in  terms  of  i, j, and  k  since  we  can  
write  
v = v1 (1, 0, 0) + v2 (0, 1, 0) + v3 (0, 0, 1)
= v1i + v2 j + v3k
•  Example:  Express  the  following  vectors  in  an  
alterna)ve  form:  
     (a) (4,−5, 2) (b) 3i+7k (c) 5j+6k.
     Solu)on:  
(a) 4i−5j+2k (b) (3, 0, 7) (c) (0, 5, 6).