Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

CHAPTER THREE

FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS

3.1 Critical flow

As described in chapter 2, the critical state of flow through a channel is characterized by several
important conditions.

Recapitulating:

1) The specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge,

2) The discharge is a maximum for a given specific energy,

3) The specific force is a minimum for a given discharge,

4) The velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in a channel of small slope,

5) The Froude number is equal to unity,

Lecture Note 1
Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

6) The velocity of low in a channel of small slope with uniform velocity distribution is
equal to the celerity of small gravity waves in shallow water caused by local
disturbance.

Vc =

Discussions on critical stage of flow have referred mainly to a particular section of a channel, known
as the critical section. If the critical state of flow exists throughout the entire length of the channel or
over a reach of the channel, the flow in the channel is critical flow. The slope of a channel that
sustains a given discharge at a uniform and critical depth is called the critical slope (Sc). A slope of
the channel less than the critical slope will cause a slower flow of sub critical state for the given
discharge, as will be shown later, and hence, is called a mild or sub critical slope. A slope greater
than the critical slope will result in a faster flow of supercritical state, and is called a steep or
supercritical slope.

A flow at or near the critical state is unstable. This is because a minor change in specific energy at or
close to critical state will cause a major change in depth. This fact can also be recognized in the
specific energy curve. It can be observed also that, which the flow is near the critical state, the water
surface appears unstable and wavy. Such phenomena are generally caused by the minor changes in
energy due to variations in channel roughness, cross-section, slope or deposits of sediment or debris.
In the design of channel, if the depth is found at or near the critical depth for a greater length of the
channel, the shape or slope of the channel should be altered, if practicable, is order to secure greater
stability.

The criterion for a critical state of flow

is the basis for the computation of critical flow. Two major applications of critical, flow theory are
flow control and flow measurement.

The section factor for critical flow computation

Take the criterion for a critical state of flow

Substituting v = Q/A gives

Equation 3-1

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Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

But Z = is defined in section 2.1 as the section factor for critical flow computation

(When is not assumed to be unity Z = )

The above equation stages that the section factor Z for a channel section at a critical state of flow is
equal to the discharge divided by the square root of g. Since the section factor Z is a function of the
depth, the equation indicates that there is only one possible critical depth for maintaining the given
discharge in a channel and similarly that, when the depth is fixed, there can be only one discharge
that maintains a critical flow and makes the depth critical in the given channel section.

Equation 3.1is a very useful tool for the computation and analysis of critical flow in an open channel.
When the discharge is given, the equation gives the critical section factor Zc and, hence the critical
depth yc. On the other hand when the depth and, hence the section factor are given, the critical
discharge can be computed by the following form.

Q =

Q =

Computation of critical flow

Computation of critical flow involves the determination of critical depth and velocity (yc & vc) when
the discharge and the channel section are known. The methods illustrated by examples are given
below. On the other hand, if critical depth and channel section are known, the critical discharge can
be determined from the relation Q =

Algebraic method: For a simple geometric channel section, the critical flow can be determined by an
algebraic computation using the basic equations.

Example 5

For a trapezoidal channel with base width b = 6.0 m and side slope m = 2, calculate the critical
depth of flow if Q = 17 m3/s.

Solution

The criterion for critical state of flow is the basis for the computation of critical flow viz.

Lecture Note 3
Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

The hydraulic depth (D) and water area of the trapezoidal section are expressed in terms of the depth
y as

A = (b+ my) y = (6 +2 y)y

B2 = B + 2my = 6 + 4y

Substituting the above relations in gives

Simplifying,
7.4 (3+ 2y) = [(3+y) y]3
By trial and error, the critical depth is approximately,
yc = 0.84 m

and the corresponding critical velocity is

Vc =
Method of design chart: the design chart for determining the critical depth can be used with great
expediency. In developing a chart for this purpose, it is convenient to define the section factor for
critical flow computation as discussed before. Substituting V = is the criterion for critical state

of low yields after simplification

The left hand side of the above equation is by definition the section factor for critical flow Z, and the
right hand side of the equation is a function of only the channel shape and the depth of flow. A design
chart for the purpose of solving the critical depth problem is given is figure . . . . .

Example 6

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Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

A circular channel 0.91 m in diameter conveys a flow of 0.71 m3/s; estimate the critical depth of
flow.

Solution

For complex designed sections which can not be treated by either the analytical method or the design
chart method, a graphical method may be used. This method is also applicable to natural channels. In
this procedure, a curve of yc versus Z is constructed such that for a specific value of Z = the
value of yc may be estimated.

Example 7

A trapezoidal channel with b = 6.0 m and m = 1.5 conveys a flow 17 m3/s ; estimate the critical
depth of flow.

Solution

The first step in solving this problem is to construct a y versus Z curve (figure). The value of the
section factor is then computed from given data

Then from the figure yc = 0.85 m.

Yc

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Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

Z=
Control section (flow control)

The control of flow in an open channel or at a structure means the establishment of explicit
relationship (one to one relationship) between the stage (water level) and the discharge of flow. When
the control of flow is achieved at a certain section of a channel or structure, this section is called the
control section. Holding a fixed stage –discharge relationship, the control section is always suitable
for gauging station since it is always suitable site for developing the discharge rating curve, a curve
representing the depth – discharge relationship.

At critical state of flow a definitive stage discharge relationship can be established and represented by
t he equation Z = . This equation theoretically independent of the channel roughness and other
uncontrolled circumstances. Therefore, the critical flow section is a control section.

Control sections occur at entrances and exists to channels and at changes in channels slopes, under
certain conditions. A gate in channel can be a control for both the upstream and downstream reaches.
When a flow changes from sub- critical to super –critical conditions or vice versa, the water depth
must pass through the critical depth. The change from sub critical to supercritical occurs in a control
section. The change from super –critical to sub –critical is only possible by means of a hydraulic
jump.

A small change in downstream conditions (depth or discharge) of a flow will and cannot change the
upstream conditions when the upstream depth is critical or less than critical (yupstream = < yc). In this
case downstream conditions do not control the flow.

All super – critical (rapid) flows are controlled by upstream conditions and computations of surface
profiles start at the upstream end of a channel. However, sub –critical (or tranquil) flows will be
affected by small changes in downstream conditions and therefore the latter controls these flows. Sub
critical or tranquil flow computations start at the downstream end of a reach and are carried out in an
upstream direction.

If a flow over a spillway passes through critical stage at the channel, the depth can be computed there
fore a given discharge or the discharge can be found from the given (measured) water depth. In case
of steep channel the computation proceed in the downstream direction.

A change in a channel slope from mild to steep causes the flow to pass through critical stage at the
beak in slope. Computation advance both upstream and downstream from the control section at the
break.

Example of a control section is for example a reservoir (pool) created by a dam and the water
flowing over the dam through an overflow spillway. Different flow conditions might occur in the
channel downstream of the spillway.

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Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

If the channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and remains critical throughout the
channel. In the proximity of the dam, however, the flow in the reservoir is sub critical and the
reservoir surface will approach the horizontal. At the downstream end of the reservoir, near the
spillway a so called drawdown curve will develop, extending in an upstream direction, starting at a
section near the spillway crest. The drawdown curve will be asymptotic to the upstream reservoir
level.

If the channel upstream of the spillway has a mild slope, the flow near the entrance is initially
subcritical. In the presence of the dam, the reservoir level will be raised for a long distance (upstream
from the spillway crest). The additional height in water level is required to build up enough energy
head, necessary to convey water over the spillway crest. This effect of raising the water level
upstream of s spillway is known as a backwater curve.

When in channel the bottom slope changes and the flow at that point alters from sub –critical to super
–critical, then the slope upstream of the break is mild, because the upstream flow is sub critical and yn
> yc. At the break the depth passes through critical depth. This point called the control section since
the depth at the break controls the upstream depth.

A similar situation occurs when water from a reservoir enters a canal in which t he uniform depth is
smaller than the critical depth (yn < yc). In this case the depth passes through critical depth in the
vicinity of the entrance. Once again, this section is the control section. By measuring the depth at the
control section, a reasonably accurate value of Q can be computed.

Change from sub critical to supercritical flow at a change in slope

Another example where critical depth occurs is that of a free outfall with sub –critical flow upstream
of the outfall. Since friction produces a constant decrease in energy in the direction of flow, it is clear
that at the outfall the total energy is less than at any point upstream. As critical depth is the value for
which the specific energy is a minimum, one would expect critical depth to occur at the outfall.
However, the value for the critical depth is derived on the assumption that the water is flowing in
straight and parallel flow lines. However at the free outfall gravity forces create curved streamlines.
So that the depth at the brink (outfall) yb is 0.72 *yc. Critical depth occurs somewhere upstream of the
brink (between 3 yc and 10 yc). For super –critical flow conditions; upstream of the outfall, on drop
down curve develops.

Flow measurement

It was mentioned in the preceding article that, at a critical control section, the relationship between
the depth and the discharge is explicit, independent of channel roughness and other uncontrollable
circumstances such an explicit relationship between stage –discharge relationship offers a theoretical
basis for the measurement of discharge in open channels

Based on the principle of critical flow, various devices for flow measurement have been developed.
In such devices the critical depth is usually created by the construction of a low hump on the channel
bottom, such as a weir, or by contraction in the cross- section, such as a critical flow flume. (venturi
flume) (Example, par shall flume). The use of a weir i. a simple method, but it causes relatively high
head loss. If water contains suspended particles, some will be deposited in the upstream pool formed

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Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

by the weir, resulting in a gradual change in discharge coefficient. These difficulties, however, can be
overcome at least partially by the use of critical -flow flume.

Example 8
Derive an equation showing critical discharge through a rectangular channel section in terms of the
channel width and the total heads.

Solution

- For the rectangular section

- At critical state of flow the depth

But yc = 2/3 H

Replacing

Q = 1.7 B.H 3/2

- Broad –crested – weir

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Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

Figure 3-1 Curve for Determining Critical Depth

3.2 Uniform flow

Uniform flow in open channels has the following main characteristics

a. the depth, water area, velocity, and discharge at every section of the channel are constant;
b. the energy line, water surface, and channel bottom are all parallel; i.e. their slopes are all
equal Sf = Sw = So

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Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

Uniform flow is considered to be steady only, since unsteady uniform flow is practically nonexistent.
In natural streams, even steady uniform flow is rare, for rivers and streams in natural states scarcely
ever experience a strict uniform flow condition. Despite this deviation from the truth, the uniform
flow condition is frequently assumed in the computation of flow in natural streams. The results
obtained from this assumption are understood to be approximate and general, but they offer a
relatively simple and satisfactory solution to many practical problems.

Establishment of uniform flow

When flow occurs in an open channel, the water encounters resistance as it flows downstream.

This resistance is generally counteracted by the components of gravity forces acting on the body of
the water in the direction of motion. A uniform flow will be developed if the resistance is balanced by
the gravity forces, i.e., the head loss due to turbulent flow is exactly balanced by the reduction in
potential energy due to the uniform decrease in the elevation of the channel. The magnitude of the
resistance, when other physical factors of the channel are kept unchanged, depends on the velocity of
flow.

If the water enters the channel slowly, the velocity and hence the resistance are small and the
resistance is outbalanced by the gravity forces, resulting in an accelerating flow in the upstream
reach. The velocity and the resistance will gradually increase until a balance between resistance and
gravity force is reached. At this moment and afterwards the flow become uniform. The upstream
reach that is required for the establishment of uniform flow is known as the transitory zone. In this
zone the flow is accelerating and varied. If the channel is shorter than the transitory length required
by the given conditions, uniform flow couldn't be attained. Towards the end of the channel the
resistance may again be exceeded by the gravity forces and the flow may become varied. In general,
uniform flow can occur only in very long, straight, prismatic channels where a terminal velocity of
flow can be achieved.

For purposes of explanation, a long channel is shown with three different slopes (figures given during
your lecture or refer Ven Te Chow) : sub critical, critical and supercritical. At the sub critical slope
the water surface in the transitory zone appears adulatory. The flow is uniform in the middle reach of
the channel but varied at the two ends. At the critical slope (middle sketch) the water surface of the
critical flow is unstable. Possible undulations may occur in the middle reach, but on the average the
depth is constant and the flow may be considered uniform. At the supercritical slope the transitory
water surface passes from the sub critical stage to the supercritical stage through a gradual hydraulic
drop. Beyond the transitory zone the flow is approaching uniformity. The depth of uniform flow is
called the normal depth. In the figures the long dashed lines represents the normal- depth line,
abbreviated as N. D. L, and the short dashed or dotted lines represents the critical –depth line, or C. D
.L.

3.3 Computation of Uniform flow

For computational purposes, the average velocity of a uniform flow can be computed approximately
by one of a number of semi empirical uniform flow equations. All of these equations have the form

V = CRx Sy
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Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

Where
V = average velocity
R = hydraulic radius
S = channel longitudinal slope
C = resistance coefficient
X and y coefficients

The popular two equations are the Chezy equation, developed in 1769, and the Manning equation,
developed in 1889.

The chezy equation can be derived from the definition of uniform flow with an assumption regarding
the form of the flow resistance coefficient, with reference to the figure below, the definition of
uniform flow requires that the forces resisting flow exactly equal the forces causing motion. The
force causing motion is

Figure 1-2 Forces on a column of flowing water

F = W sin =  A L sin 

Where: W = weight of third within control volume

R = third specific weight (98)
L = control volume length
 = Longitudinal slope angle of a channel.

If  is small, which is usually the case, then sin   S0. Thus

F = AL So = gAL S0

For a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter p, the force of resistance is

Ff =  * P * L

Equating F = Ff
 * P * L = g AL So

 is shear stress along the perimeter, if we let shear velocity V* = the above equation
implies.

 =  V*2
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Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

V* is known as shear velocity.

From experiments it is shown that the force per unit area of the channel perimeter resisting motion.
Ff, is proportional to the square of the average velocity or

Ff  V2

Therefore, for a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter P, the force of resistance can also be
written as

Ff = KLPV2

Where K = constant of proportionality. Setting the force casing motion equal to the force resisting
motion, i.e. F = Ff.

Where the subscript associated with s has been dropped. For convenience define.

C =

The resistance coefficient, c, defined as is commonly known as the Chezy C and in practice is
determined by either measurement or estimate. The coefficient of resistance defined by the above
equation is not dimensionless but has dimensions of acceleration; i.e. length /time2 or LT-2.

Substituting this gives the famous Chezy Formula

V = C

Where V is the mean velocity is m/s, R is the hydraulic radius in m, S is the slope of energy line
(m/m), and C is a factor of flow resistance, called Chezy’s C.

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Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

The Manning equation is the result of a curve fitting process and thus is completely empirical in
nature. In application of the Manning equation, it is essential that the system of units being used be
identified and that the appropriate coefficient be used. In the SI system of units, the Manning
equation is

V = 1/n R2/3
Where n = Manning resistance coefficient. As was the case with the chezy resistance coefficient, n is
not dimensionless but has dimensions of TL-1/3 or in the specific case of the equation above S/m1/3.

From the viewpoint of modern fluid mechanics, the dimensions of the resistance coefficients C and 
and to take these dimensions into account where appropriate.

Since the chezy and Manning equations describe the same phenomena, the coefficients C and n must
be related setting equation (*) is equal to equation (**), i.e Vchezy = VManning yields.

C = 1/n R1/6

Calculation of Normal Depth and Velocity

From the previous section:

 The Manning equation gives V = 1/n R2/3 S1/2

 The Chezy equation gives V =

and by law of conservation of mass this equations, when multiplied by the flow area, yields an
equation for uniform flow rate or

 Manning Q = 1/n AR2/3S1/2

 Chezy Q = C AR1/2 S1/2

In Manning equation the parameter 1/n AR 2/3 and in the Chezy equation the parameters CAR1/2 are
called the conveyance of a channel section. It is measure of the carrying capacity of a channel
section; since it is directly proportional to Q.

 Manning K = 1/n AR2/3 =

 Chezy K = CAR1/2 =
The above two equations are used to compute the conveyance when the geometry of the water area
and the resistance factor or roughness coefficient are given. Since Manning formula is used
extensively, most of the following discussions and computations will be based on Manning’s
equation.

Conveyance of a channel section increases with in increase in hydraulic Radius R or with decrease in
the wetted perimeter.

K  R  1/P Q = 1/n AR2/3 S1/2

Lecture Note 13
Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

Q = 1/n K S1/2
From a hydraulic viewpoint, therefore, the channel section having the least wetted perimeter for a
given area has a maximum conveyance; such a section is known as
the best hydraulic section.

In Manning’s equation the parameter AR2/3 is termed as the section factor for uniform flow
computation; it is an important element in the computation of uniform flow. From Manning’s
equation

AR2/3 =

The right side of the equation contains the values of n, Q, and S; but the left side depends only on the
geometry of the water area. Therefore, it shows that, for a given condition of n, Q, and S, there is
only one possible depth for maintaining uniform flow, provided that the value of AR2/3 always
increases with increase in depth, which is true in most cases. This depth is the normal depth. When n
and S are known at a channel section, from the equation there can be only one discharge for
maintaining a uniform flow through the section, provided that AR2/3 always increases with increase of
depth. This discharge is the normal discharge.

When the discharge, slope, and roughness are known, this equation gives the section factor AR2/3 and
hence, the normal depth yn. On the other land, when n, s and yn, hence the section factor are given, the
normal discharge Q can be computed from

Q = 1/nAR2/3 S1/2

This essentially the product of the water area and the velocity defined by the Manning formula.

In general, the most difficult and tedious normal flow calculation occurs when Q, the shape of the
channel, bottom slope and n are known and yn must be estimated. In such cases, an explicit solution is
not possible and problem must be solved by

 Trial and error (Algebric method)

 Numerical method (using computer)
 Design chart (using graph)

In order to simplify the computation, dimensionless curves showing the relation between depth and
section factor AR2/3 have been prepared for rectangular, trapezoidal, and circular channel sections.
This self explanatory curves will help to determine the depth for a given section factor AR2/3, and the
vice versa.

In the case of a closed conduit having a gradually closing top, the value of AR2/3 will first increase
with depth and then decrease with depth when the full depth is approached, because a maximum

Lecture Note 14
Open Channel Hydraulics Chapter 3

value of AR2/3 usually occurs in such a condition at a depth slightly less than the full depth.
Consequently, it is possible to have two depths for the same AR2/3.

Example 9

Given a trapezoidal channel with a bottom width of 3m, side slope 1.5, a longitudinal slope of 0.0016
and estimated on of 0.13, find the normal depth of flow for a discharge of 7.1m3/5.

Solution:

With

Then the following table in constructed by assuming values of y and computing corresponding values
of AR2/3 matches the value computed from the problem statement, the corrected value of yn has been
determined

Trial y, m A, m2 Pm R, m AR2/3

2.50 16.88 12.01 1.40 21.16

2.55 17.4 12.19 1.43 22.06
2.6 17.94 12.37 1.45 22.98
2.61 18.0 12.39 1.45 23.08
2.70 19.04 12.73 1.49 24.08

Resistance Coefficient Estimation

The primary difficulty in using either the Manning or Chezy equation in practice is accurately
estimating an appropriate value of the resistance coefficient. In general, it is expected that n and c
should depend on the Reynolds number, of the flow (Reynolds number reflect the effect of viscosity
in relation to inertia), the boundary roughness, and the shape of the channel cross-section.

Lecture Note 15