ABSTRACT

Brain tumour detection based on automation of 3D images helps the medical field for
performing deep analysis. Traditional approaches use 2D images in medical applications but
in some cases, the system to identify the blocks or tumour regions it is essential to measure
depth along with length and breadth, which is not possible with 2D images. The proposed
system has designed a fine-tuned CNN which contains the convolution 3D layers with global
pooling layers, which has the advantage in creating single feature map for performing
classification rather than multiple feature maps. These maps help the model to interpret the
confidence level of each class label. In the proposed model, the layers that are implemented
for performing the feature extraction are frozen and weights are trained. Fine tuning process
helps the model to acquire similarities between the elements through mitigation learning. The
proposed model uses VGG-16 for retraining the model because it acquires good accuracy
while classifying the images. The first layers of VGG are stacked with odd numbered size
layers to get all the structural parameters. The last layers of VGG-16 are customized for
identifying the stage of tumour. The weights obtained in the initial layers are used to train the
model to learn about the complex structures.

Keywords: Fine Tune, Pre-trained Models, Feature Map, Classification, Complex Structure,
Tumour Regions.

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

This chapter defines brain tumor, how it will be formed in the human brain along with
its effects. The brain tumor has been classified into primary and secondary types based on the
kind of cells that make up the tumor. The process of detecting the type of brain tumor also be
explained.

1.1 Background

One of the deadliest neurological conditions is a brain tumour. Brain tumours develop
when the brain's cells expand abnormally and uncontrollably [29]. Brain tumours can be
divided into two categories: benign and malignant. Brain tumours can either be benign or
malignant, depending on whether they are cancerous or not [30]. Primary brain tumours and
secondary brain tumours are the two different kinds of cancerous or malignant brain tumours.
The benign tumours that begin in the brain are spreading tumours that have moved from a
different location. Compared to malignant tumours, benign tumours grow much more slowly.
The least invasive tumours are benign, and the most aggressive tumours are malignant [31].
The degree of risk relies on a number of characteristics, including the type of tumour, its
place of origin, size, and stage of development [32]. Tumours can be found inside the skull or
in the central spinal canal.

The size and position of the tumour affect the symptoms of a brain tumour. The brain
tissues may rarely sustain direct damage, and on occasion, the nearby brain tissues may
experience undue pressure. Extra pressure is likely to make the symptoms worse as the
tumour gets bigger over time. One of the key symptoms is a headache, which gets worse
when you wake up in the morning, even when you're asleep, and gets worse with activity,
sneezing, and coughing [33].

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is presently one of the most effective

technologies for identifying brain tumours. More precise images can be produced by this
MRI. The automatic defects identification in MRIs is quite helpful in a variety of diagnostic
and therapeutic applications [31]. It helps the researchers as well as medical practitioners to
study the brain by looking non-invasively to it. An instance of MRI images is illustrated in
fig. 1. Radiologists are given the opportunity to enhance their performance with the
assistance of automated techniques like computer assisted systems and artificial neural

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networks as a result of advancements in digital image processing. With the assistance of pre-
reading medical images, the computer assisted system aims to improve the technique's
predictive values by highlighting abnormalities' locations and analysing their characteristics
[31].

Fig. 1. Visual output of the brain tumor segmentation with ground truth.

One example of artificial intelligence is the neural network. It's a simulation of a

living neural network. The neural organisation of the brain is the foundation of neural
networks. [31]. It takes experience into consideration. A layer-organized collection of linked
neurons makes up a neural network. One of the working elements is the neuron. (PE). Each
cell is provided with input (Processing element). Processing elements process the supplied
input before delivering a singular output. A neural network is a type of information
processing system that functions similarly to neurons in that it has linked components [33]. In
the area of biomedicine, neural networks are an effective tool. It can record and depict
complicated input/output relationships. Neural networks are employed in a variety of
applications. Neural networks are frequently used in medical applications, particularly in

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classification issues like pattern identification. In this study, we employ neural networks to
identify brain tumours. The fact that neural networks are designed to learn by repeatedly
shifting input is one of their key characteristics [34].

1.2 Motivation

Since brain tumours are among the most dangerous neurological conditions, it is
crucial to identify and treat them as soon as feasible. Currently, the methods for finding brain
tumours rely on the judgement of the neurosurgeon and the radiologist, which increases the
risk of human error. And this procedure takes a lot of effort. In order to identify the brain
tumour as early as feasible, a Vanilla Neural Network is employed in this study. The doctor
in the hospital will benefit from this effort. The use of detectors may be able to spot
deterioration early, protect patients from harm while receiving treatment, and eventually
enhance patient outcomes. This study is useful for detecting cancer early in biomedical
settings. The efforts of doctors to find the brain tumour are lessened thanks to this study. The
study of behavioural neurological disorders using a basic neural network forms the basis of
the effort. Here, a simple neural network is used to identify the brain tumour. This effort will
assist us in utilising technology for societal good.

1.3Objectives

The main objectives of this work in which detecting the brain tumor by using Vanilla
Neural Network are as follows.

 To develop a Vanilla CNN based tumour detection system.

 To design a customized transfer learning model by fine tuning the VGG-Net
architecture.
 To compare machine learning metrics with the existing approaches to prove the state
of art.
 The main purpose of this work is to implement the automatic detection model which
is used to identify the abnormality of the brain tumor with the help of Vanilla Neural
Network.
 The main goal of this study is detecting the brain tumor by using magnetic resonance
images.

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  In order to improve the accuracy and yield used the automatic system to detect the
brain tumor by using Vanilla Neural Network.
 The important aim of this work is to reduce the time which is required to detect the
brain tumor.
 The next purpose of this work is to support the doctor and radiologist to detect the
brain tumor.

1.4 Thesis Organization

In Chapter 1, a brief introduction is explained about research work, motivation behind this
work, and objectives of this work.

In chapter 2, the prior work related to brain tumor detection is examined, the summary on the
optimization of neural network for brain tumor detection is elaborate.

In chapter 3, the problem statement is formulated along with the proposed model explanation
with its architecture.

In chapter 4, the working difference between existing and proposed was discussed. The deep
learning pre-trained models are explained which are used in proposed method.

In chapter 5, the results are discussed using dataset inputted into the proposed method.

In chapter 6, the work was concluded with proposed methods and accuracy acquired.

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 CHAPTER 2

RELATED WORK

2.1 Machine learning

Machine learning is a type of artificial intelligence that enables computers to learn from data
and improve their performance over time. There are several approaches to machine learning,
including supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning. Supervised
learning involves training a machine learning algorithm on a labelled dataset, where the
correct output is known. The algorithm learns to associate inputs with outputs and can then
make predictions on new, unlabelled data. This approach is commonly used in applications
such as image recognition and natural language processing. Unsupervised learning involves
training a machine learning algorithm on an unlabelled dataset, where the correct output is
not known. The algorithm learns to identify patterns and relationships in the data, without any
prior knowledge of what it is looking for. This approach is commonly used in applications
such as anomaly detection and clustering. Reinforcement learning involves training a
machine learning algorithm to make decisions based on feedback from its environment. The
algorithm learns to take actions that maximize a reward signal, while minimizing negative
consequences. This approach is commonly used in applications such as game playing and
robotics. Overall, machine learning approaches have revolutionized the way we approach
complex problems and have enabled us to make significant progress in areas such as
computer vision, natural language processing, and self-driving cars.

XGBoost

XGBoost (Extreme Gradient Boosting) is a popular machine learning algorithm that is used
for both regression and classification problems. It is a type of gradient boosting algorithm
that is designed to achieve better accuracy and speed for large and complex datasets.
XGBoost works by creating a series of decision trees, where each tree is trained to correct the
errors of the previous tree. The algorithm uses gradient descent to minimize the loss function,
which is a measure of the difference between the predicted values and the actual values. One
of the key advantages of XGBoost is its ability to handle missing values and outliers
effectively. It also incorporates regularization techniques to prevent overfitting, which can
occur when a model is too complex and fits the training data too closely. XGBoost has
become a popular choice for machine learning competitions, as it consistently achieves top

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results in benchmark tests. It is also widely used in industry applications, such as predicting
customer churn, fraud detection, and image classification. Overall, XGBoost is a powerful
machine learning algorithm that can handle large and complex datasets, while achieving high
levels of accuracy and speed.

Fig 2.1: XGBoost Architecture

2.2 Deep Learning

Deep learning is a type of machine learning that is based on artificial neural networks. It
involves training multiple layers of interconnected nodes to learn complex patterns in data.
Deep learning is used to solve a wide range of problems, such as image recognition, natural
language processing, and speech recognition. There are several approaches to deep learning,
including convolutional neural networks (CNNs), recurrent neural networks (RNNs), and
deep belief networks (DBNs). CNNs are commonly used for image and video processing
tasks. They are designed to recognize patterns in visual data by convolving filters over the
input image and pooling the results. CNNs have been used for applications such as facial
recognition, object detection, and self-driving cars.

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RNNs are used for sequential data, such as time series data, speech, and text. They are
designed to process data that has a temporal dimension, by maintaining a memory of past
inputs. RNNs have been used for applications such as speech recognition, machine
translation, and sentiment analysis. DBNs are a type of unsupervised deep learning algorithm
that is used for feature learning. They are designed to learn the underlying structure of data
by training multiple layers of restricted Boltzmann machines (RBMs). DBNs have been used
for applications such as image recognition, speech recognition, and recommendation systems.
Overall, deep learning approaches have revolutionized the way we process and analyze
complex data, enabling us to achieve breakthroughs in areas such as computer vision, natural
language processing, and speech recognition.

Transfer Learning

VGG16 is a pre-trained convolutional neural network model that was developed by the
Visual Geometry Group (VGG) at the University of Oxford. It is a deep learning model that
is trained on a large dataset of images, and is commonly used as a starting point for transfer
learning in computer vision tasks. The VGG16 model consists of 16 layers, including 13
convolutional layers and 3 fully connected layers. It has a fixed input size of 224 x 224
pixels, and is trained on the ImageNet dataset, which contains over 1.2 million images across
1,000 categories. One of the key advantages of the VGG16 model is its high accuracy on a
wide range of image recognition tasks.

One of the key advantages of the VGG16 model is its high accuracy on a wide range of
image recognition tasks. It has achieved state-of-the-art results on benchmark datasets such as
the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC), and has been used in
many real-world applications. Another advantage of the VGG16 model is its modular
architecture, which makes it easy to modify or extend for specific tasks. Researchers have
developed variants of the VGG16 model, such as VGG19 and VGGFace, that are optimized
for different types of image recognition tasks. Overall, the VGG16 pre-trained model is a
powerful and widely-used tool in computer vision research and applications. Its high
accuracy and modular architecture make it a popular choice for transfer learning and fine-
tuning in image recognition tasks.

Vanilla CNN

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Vanilla neural networks (NN) refer to standard artificial neural networks that are composed
of an input layer, one or more hidden layers, and an output layer. The term "vanilla" is used
to differentiate these basic neural networks from more complex architectures, such as
convolutional neural networks or recurrent neural networks. In vanilla neural networks, each
neuron in a layer is connected to every neuron in the previous and next layer, and each
connection has a weight associated with it, which determines its strength. The network is
trained using an optimization algorithm, such as gradient descent, to minimize a loss function
that measures the difference between the predicted output and the actual output. Vanilla
neural networks have been successfully applied to a wide range of tasks, such as image
classification, speech recognition, and natural language processing. However, they can be
limited by their shallow architecture and lack of specialized layers for specific tasks. Despite
their limitations, vanilla neural networks remain an important and foundational concept in the
field of artificial intelligence, and have paved the way for more advanced deep learning
architectures.

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 CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter looks at prior work in the domain of deep learning as well as research topics
involving brain tumour suggestions and campaign success prediction.

Soumick Chatterjee et al [1] identifying different brain tumour diseases through MRI is
getting a bit difficult. Using deep learning techniques, the model is trained multiple times,
and optimized values are derived. The authors used ResNet with convolution techniques to
derive the best parameters. This method is a combination of the 2D and 3D convolution
methods. The initial process started by inputting the images collected from BraTS, where
four different types of images were provided. Three models were used in the ResNet method.
In ResNet(2+1)D, three stages are present: the data are input to the stem, where the conv of
the 2+1D layer and followed by convolution blocks in the final block, pooling, and fc are
derived. In the ResNet mixed conv, as in the previous method, the conv consists of 3D and
2D layers, and the remaining layers are the same. The final method was ResNet 3D with
convolutional 3D layers. The validation technique was used to verify the method, and the
ResNet mixed conv achieved a high accuracy of 96.98%.

Iram Shahzadi et al [2] Identification of brain tumours through different images is

complicated by training the deep learning models, and the prediction will be quite easy.
Therefore, the CNN method was used, where this approach has different training models
among the four chosen. In this study, four phases were present: layers, image dimensionality,
parameter, and error percentage. The collection of data was derived from BRATS, which has
two tumor classifications: LG and HG. AlexNet considers eight layers with 60m parameters
and a 15.3% error rate. Similarly, in the remaining models, VGGNet has 19 layers, 138
parameters, and a 7.3% error rate; GoogleNet contains 22 layers, 4M parameters, and a 5.5%
error rate; and ResNet contains 152layers, 21to 60m and an error rate of 3.6 %. Among these,
VGGNet exhibits good performance, all of which are feature extractions. For classification,
LSTM was used in the RNN techniques. The structure of this is a slice of images followed by
pre-trained feature extraction models VGG16 and FC7, an LSTM method that has two layers
of the stacked structure, and the data are predicted in two parts. Hence, VGG16 with the
LSTM method achieved 84% accuracy.

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Mahmoud Khaled Abd-Ellah et al [3] have chosen the deep learning model to predict the
proper brain tumour-affected images. The data were collected from the BraTS in 2k16, where
different types of disease images were present in the dataset. Three different extraction
features are derived: AlexNet, VGG16, and VGG19. Here, AlexNet has only nine layers,
with a 99.5% of accuracy. To this end, R-CNN was used for better performance retrieval.
This method classifies images to classify them as objects. These are used in the log-loss
method for fine-tuning. The ECOC-SVM is used for the prediction of the image where the
data are also compared with different methods, where the proposed method only achieved
high performance. The validation techniques calculated three different parameters:
sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy. Hence the performance is more efficient.

Muhmmad Irfan Sharif et al [4] found an issue in deriving the glioma in two phases from
MRI. Feature extraction methods are used to predict accurate values that can be trained and
tested for optimized variables. Four datasets were considered for validating the techniques
BRATS2013–2017 data. In general, the images are inputted and contrasted with the pre-
trained inception model. The images are also travelled saliency-based to extract the
boundaries of the tumour that are travelled to compare according to pixels. The ground
images are also attached to pixel comparison, where validation is considered with dice and
error methods for it the images are provided. The pre-trained model is fine-tuned on the FC
that is travelled to the vector by concatenating the features. The images are directly connected
to DRLBP features, a vector is derived, and these are travelled to concatenation features that
are combined. The negative and zero features are replaced with the mean values. The
optimized value was selected, and the SoftMax classifier was used. Hence, the proposed
method achieved 98.3% of accuracy.

Raheleh Hashemzehi et al [5] have proposed a new method NADE which relates to the CNN
approach and is also known as the hybrid method. This method can identify optimized values
that are suitable for its parameters. In this case, forward propagation is used to derive the
backpropagated loss values. The input images have a CNN model related to the ReLU layers.
After certain layers, max pooling is attached at the end. The convolutional layers are known
as kernels. Certain layers are derived, a fully connected layer is used, the output is derived as
a two-part output, and the label of the loss function is backpropagated again. In the fully
connected layers, weights are derived, which are known as the loss or gain values. Now, all
the loss values are again travelled to kernels, which are updated, and the process continues.

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The CE-MRI dataset is a large dataset with different slices and large gaps. Hence, the
performances were calculated using four validation techniques with 95% accuracy.

Ouiza Nait Belaid [6] has focused on different brain tumour conditions which are identified
using images. The deep learning techniques can work efficiently with different image
detection processes so, the CNN-related pre-train models are used to detect the brain tumour
detected patients. Here the GLCM matrix is considered the real image where the features of
the image were extracted and used as the input. The VGG16 has trained techniques which
hold only trained images. The input for the CNN method has GLCM images, and real images
and process was performed for acquiring the best-optimized techniques. The work was
performed with three different inputs i.e. original, GLCM, and Feature image of GLCM
which works on VGG16 of CNN method and all the results are concatenated then a
classification method is applied for acquiring the optimized values. Here CE-MRI dataset
was used to verify the potentiality of the method. To evaluate the proposed method validation
techniques are applied where it has acquired 96.5% of accuracy.

Mohammad Shahjahan Majib et al [7] considered brain tumour images which can be
identified automatically by the system. The pre-trained model related to the CNN method is
VGG-SCNet was utilized to provide efficient outputs. The workflow of the method is
collecting the images from the Kaggle datasets where 253 images are a combination of
diseased and healthy persons. The images are input to the pre-trained model VGG16 carried
with convolution layers with max-pooling those are dropouts of the layers and flattens are
designed. The dense layer is the final layer to predict the output. Along with those machine
learning methods are used to identify the potentiality of the method. The pre-trained model
has the same structure as the CNN but the difference is at last the features of CNN vectors are
retrieved. Fourteen pre-trained models related to the CNN method are used for the
comparison. Hence three validation techniques are used for performance prediction where the
precision is 99.2%.

Neelum Noreen et al [8] detected a brain tumour identification or prediction issue with MRI
images. The image prediction is performed efficiently with deep learning models. Here two
pre-train models are introduced inception V3 and DensNet201. Data was collected from the
Kaggle site with 233 images with three different categories of tumour-diseased persons. In
inception, the conv layer is followed by inception layers. There are three different layers
where conv is connected to a block which contains average pooling, dropout, and FC.

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Parallelly the remaining two inceptions dense and E are connected to different blocks. Those
features are concatenated and connected to the feature concatenation block. Finally, a
softmax classification is used to predict the three different disease images. In densNet201, the
layers contain conv, max pooling, dense, and transition layers where each dense block is
connected to the three-block layer and it is continued for every transition layer all the features
are connected to the feature concatenation and the softmax layer predicts the output. The
evaluation was performed where the dense acquired 99.5% and the inceptionV3 acquired
99.3% of accuracy.

Subhashis Banerjee et al [9] have found an issue in brain tumour detection in MRI. Using
deep learning training models the work was proposed. In this, two different datasets are
collected TCGA-GBM and LGG. Here three different pre-trained sets are used in the
patchNet model containing convolution, normalization, and ReLU initially, pooling layers,
conv plus ReLU and fully connected layers are present. The SliceNet is similar but the
difference is the input size and at a time only one image is considered. In VolumeNet, at a
time three images are considered and the remaining layers are similar. In the end, the
concatenation layers were used to combine all three images. Finally, the fully connected layer
is used for the prediction of values. The evaluation was performed on five pre-trained models
among those volumeNet has achieved high accuracy at 97.19%.

Naeem Ullah et al [10] identified different brain tumours affected images using deep learning
models. The speciality of this method is the automatic detection and classification of three
different diseases. The working process of the method is data augmentation where the images
are clean, the resolution of images, and splitting. Later image resizing is performed those the
images are sent to pre-trained where convolution and pooling layers are worked. These layers
are also known for the feature extraction process. The next layer is the classification layer
where three layers are included in it. Finally, the three tumours are detected with high
performances. Seven different pre-trained methods are used for transfer learning and those
are evaluated. Here the data was tested, trained, and validated to provide the best accuracies
and performances. The dataset was collected from the Kaggle site which is an open source
and 2475 MRIs are available in it. Based on the validation InceptionResNetV2 has acquired
98.91% of accuracy.

In [11], Siar et al introduced a novel technique for tumor detection from brain imaging based
on the integration of an algorithm for feature extraction and CNN. Deep Neural Network

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(DNN) has been used by researchers to create a brand-new technique for detecting brain
cancers. In comparison to the conventional CNN, the proposed method's accuracy is
improved to 99.12% just on test data. The photos were recognized and categorized using the
Alexnet architect. Brain tumours come in two flavours: benign and malignant. The patient's
situation can swiftly get worse as a result of malignant tumors fasts spreading to other brain
tissues. The suggested method uses CNN to recognize and classify the tumor from brain
pictures. 153 patients were included in the analysis. The suggested solution makes advantage
of the SoftMax categorization. CNN's accuracy has a Softmax classifier 98.67% classification
rate.

In [12], Hollon et al describe a parallel approach that integrates deep convolutional neural
networks (CNNs), label-free optical imaging, and stimulated Raman histology to almost real-
time forecast diagnoses at the patient's bedside. The authors generate class-conditional
gaussian distributions for the mid- and top-level features (i.e., layer outputs) of the CNN
using gaussian discriminant analysis, which they then use to construct a confidence score
based on the Mahalanobis distance. High-magnification patches effectively avoid the
problem of introducing tunable hyperparameters to find an appropriate class-labeling method
because multiple class classifications for a single image are unusual. The top and bottom 3%
of each band's pixel resolution with brightness were eliminated to improve visual contrast,
and the photographs were resized.
 
In [13], Sidra Sajid et al published a study that used deep learning to separate and identify
brain cancers in MR images. For segmenting brain tumors, researchers have proposed a deep
learning-based technique. The most prevalent and potentially fatal brain tumors are gliomas.
A crucial aspect of computer-aided diagnostics for glioma patients is automated brain tumor
segmentation. The hybrid model makes use of the BRATS 2013 dataset's deep convolutional
neural network's effectiveness for MR image segmentation. The proposed method is tested
using 2D patches extracted from the BRATS 2013 dataset using a patch-based methodology.
On all important evaluation factors, it produces better results than cutting-edge methods. On a
pixel level, the model considers both global and local data.

In [14], Mohamed Deen et al presented a deep study based on tumor malignancy and
development rate, GLIOMAS are among the most prevalent brain tumors, and these come in
a variety of grades. Deen created coupled CNN-based deep learning data processing and

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grading models to simultaneously segment, detect, and grade LGG tumors from MRI data.
Using convolutional neural networks, the team created segmentation and evaluation models
for integrated deep learning. 110 patients participated in the trial. Due to inter-observer
variability, the segmented model created by the suggested U-net model had a mean DSC
value that was comparable to manual segmentations. Additional data sets must be used for a
more accurate assessment and to facilitate cross-validation just at clinical level using data
from different institutions. A reasonably straightforward Vgg16-based network design was
used for the proposed transfer learning. For the detection and categorization of gliomas,
researchers have created a deep-learning model. This model may have clinical uses.

In [15], Sultan et al. suggested a deep learning approach that uses convolutional neural
networks to classify various types of brain cancers using two publicly available datasets.
Geometric enhancement and a grayscale distortion are applied to the photographs (salt noise).
The input layer of the CNN, which contains the enhanced images resulting from the most
current pre-processing stage, is the first of the 16 layers and continues via the convolutions
and their activation procedures. The CNN method that has been suggested uses no
segmentation. Before training a CNN, the earlier stage requires another manual procedure to
pinpoint the tumor. One of the restrictions of deep learning prevents the system's structure
from being used to categorize a small number of images, the system can be enhanced to
handle a short dataset after training on a large dataset, though. Only two convolutional layers,
each with 64 kernels, were used by the authors.

In [16], Neelum Noreen et al present a method for the concatenation and extraction of multi-
level characteristics for the early detection of brain cancers. Because it was trained on the
Inception-v3 and DensNet201 deep learning models, this model is reliable. These two models
were used to evaluate two different brain tumor detection and classification scenarios. First,
characteristics from several activation functions were collected and integrated to classify
brain tumors using the pre-trained Inception-v3 model. The softmax classifier was then given
these features to categorize the brain tumor. Second, features were extracted from multiple
DenseNet blocks using pre-trained DensNet201. The Cross-Entropy loss function, also called
Softmax Loss, was employed by the authors. With noisy issues, the Adam Optimizer
optimization technique can manage sparse gradients. 

In [17], Mesut Togaçar et al. reported that a malignant tumor is a growth that develops inside
the cortex from the skull's tissues or other nearby areas and has an immediate negative impact

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on human existence. In a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) investigation, a brain tumor was
identified using a deep learning model. The suggested model includes residual blocks, a
hypercolumn method, and attention components. The BrainMRNet algorithm's classification
accuracy was better than that of earlier studies using the same dataset. The researchers
proposed a brand-new CNN system for classifying brain tumours. The researchers proposed
the most recent model that performs categorization on MR imaging of the brain. The analysis
involved 700000 persons. Future research is encouraged to develop the suggested model into
a model that can be applied to a variety of medical images and situations. 

In [18], Amin et al cite the use of a softmax classifier for tumor prediction and a sparse
autoencoder for feature acquisition in the planned work of this publication. To find brain
cancers in MRI scans, a deep learning model has already been put out. and it's been put to the
test on other datasets with success. The technique is evaluated using all BRATS difficult
datasets. Using generative models, brain tumor identification in 2013 obtained 0.88 PPV,
0.88 DSC, and 0.89 SE. This article presents a lightweight stack sparse auto-encoder (SSAE)
approach for the rapid detection of brain cancers. The use of the seed-growing method is
based on an ideal efficient threshold. In the study, 21 HGG instances were present. 

In [19], Venkatesan Rajinikanth et al stated that slices of MRI employing the Flair, T1C, and
T2 modalities were used independently for the experimental examination. Researchers have
suggested using 2D MRI slices to identify brain tumours using a deep learning algorithm. To
show how effectively the recommended deep learning architecture worked, ten-fold cross-
validation was applied. The primary goal of the research proposal was to locate and enhance
a viable deep-learning architecture. Many researchers have made and used various
suggestions to increase the detection performance on a particular class of brain MRI pictures.
The acquired deep characteristics and the SoftMax classification were used in a transfer
learning approach to perform the initial detection. A thorough comparative analysis with
different models, including random forest, KNN, decision tree, and SVM-RBF, was carried
out to increase classification accuracy. The results of past studies support this conclusion if
pre-trained handmade and deep features are combined. When the extracted features
are improved, the detection accuracy is improved.

In [20], Mostefa naceur et al emphasised that a brain tumour is an expanding cancerous cell
inside the major spinal canal or cortex. In addition to healthy tissue, glioblastoma tumours
can be divided into three subregions: peritumoral edoema, necrotic and non-enhancing

15
tumors,  and enhancing tumours. The Occipito-Temporal Pathway serves as inspiration for
the CNNs model that the authors suggest. The segmentation of brain pictures with
glioblastoma is now totally automated thanks to new Deep Convolutional Neural Networks
(CNNs). Gliomas don't move the tissue around them; instead, they overrun it, blurring the
lines of separation. The analysis included 13 patients. A difficult problem in the state-of-the-
art is getting a quick inference time. The quantity of parameters is one of the crucial
elements. These two are directly related to one another. The team suggests using a novel
architecture to provide synthetic data and account for various clinical circumstances.

In [21], Asaf Raza et al put out a composite DeepTumorNet model that recognizes and
categorizes BTs into the three primary categories of meningiomas, pituitary tumors, and
gliomas. Using MRI data, it has been demonstrated that a novel deep learning model is more
reliable than existing methods for the identification and categorization of brain tumours. The
suggested approach uses a Softmax classification layer enabling variety and a deep learning
mechanism for feature extraction. Studies using machine learning techniques, such as support
vector machines have been suggested. The study used three BT datasets that were openly
accessible. The authors admit that it is important to evaluate the database using a sizable
number of images of cancer-free brains and a small number of images of healthy brains. The
suggested model was able to extract attributes that were more exact, accurate, and
discriminative. According to the authors, future research should explore with the dataset
using a significant plethora of different brain MRIs and scans with brain cancer. The
suggested model was able to extract attributes that were more exact, accurate, and
discriminative. 

In [22], Díaz-Pernas et al provide a multiscale brain tumour classification and automatic

segmentation model based on Deep Convolutional Neural Networks. The recommended
neural model does not call for preprocessing input images to crop off the head or vertebral
column. It can decipher MRI scans from coronal, sagittal, and axial views that have
malignant tumours, gliomas, and pituitary tumours. The proposed model and the HVS
processing are quite cohesive. Pre-attentive as well as attentive vision are the two basic
modes in which the HVS processes visual stimuli. The neural network has close to three
million trainable parameters. Using a stochastic gradient descent technique with a beginning
learning rate of 0.005 and an inertial coefficient of 0.9, the suggested model was created for a
total of 80 epochs throughout each fold iteration.

16
In [23], Golda Tomsila et al examined a number of methods for detecting brain tumors using
image processing algorithms. The most effective technique for classifying MRI images is
SVM. Images from magnetic resonance imaging are classified using a different RBFNN
(Radial Base Function Neural Network) algorithm type dubbed the hybrid approach. The
authors found that FCM - Fuzzy C-Means is the most popular segmentation in the
publications the authors reviewed. The degree of accuracy was between 83% and 98.86%.
Wavelet Berkeley was employed by some previous approaches to segment images, which
was followed by discrete wavelet-based feature extraction and ultimately, SVM for
classification. The review made no mention of the methods' drawbacks. 

In [24], D Suresha et al studied the detection of brain tumors using image processing. A
technique has been created by researchers to detect brain cancers from magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) images. and released it. The suggested technique aids in the automatic
detection of brain cancers. By grouping the dots, the K-means is used to analyze the image's
retrieved features. This system recognizes the anomalies in the brain that the MR image
reveals. Many times, cancerous, malignant, or non-cancerous brain cells are used to describe
brain tumors. For the purpose of identifying brain cancers from an MRI picture, the authors
used data mining techniques with fuzzy C-means (FCM) and SVM algorithms. 700000
people were involved in the research. 

In [25], Saurabh Kumar et al provide two distinct approaches for separating a tumor from an
MRI image and identifying the kind of tumor. A group of nurses created a brand-new
technique for the early detection of brain cancers using magnetic resonance scans, which the
authors claim is significantly more accurate than the approaches now used. Generalization
and handling the complex feature area are two benefits of the Support Vector Machine
approach. Overall accuracy for the project is 97%. The suggested method divides
categorization into two steps: feature withdrawal using a neural network-based probabilistic
model for the International Journal of Information Sciences and Application, and wavelet
entropy based mostly on spider net plot (IJISA). The authors suggest that future studies might
include an investigation of the technique for automatically segmenting 3D tumors and
segmenting ROIs in different medical images.

In [26], Nandita Sharma et al presented on methods for identifying brain tumors using image
processing. One of the most crucial imaging methods in medicine, X-pillar imaging has been
utilized for further than a period to identify and classify brain and psyche malignancies.

17
People are cruelly influenced by mind tumors because of the unequal proliferation of cells
within the cerebrum. Current discovering methods use typical systems based on human
experience, which increases the possibility of a bogus zone. Cerebral tumors can be seen
using a method for producing pictures. There are two different types of cerebrum tumors:
benign and malignant. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) images should be able to detect
brain tumors.

In [27], Priyanka Rawat reported that the human body's brain is its most significant and
crucial component. Software that can identify brain cancers from magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) images have been created by a research team. On MRI pictures, techniques
for image processing are used. Tumor presence is determined by processing MRI pictures. A
few procedures are carried out to improve the image's quality. Information about the tumor's
warning symptoms is finally gleaned. Otsu's thresholding separates the image into foreground
and background regions, two kinds of regions. The fuzzy c-means algorithm applies fuzzy
logic by giving each pixel a membership value. The process of thresholding involves setting a
threshold and comparing various image pixels to that threshold.

In [28], Sheeba Khan et al indicated that the fastest-growing and most significant field in
modern times is medical image processing. The technique of detecting brain malignancies
through MRI scans is separated into four categories: pre-processing, feature extraction,
picture segmentation, and image classification. The authors outline the process for identifying
and extracting brain malignancies from MRI scans of patients. There are four distinct steps
that can be taken to identify brain tumors using MRI scans. Any sort of tumor can be
removed using this project very easily and effectively, however, the decision and diagnosis
must be made by a qualified medical professional. When the sample count is raised, the
average recognition error is decreased. This paper has given compelling proof that the PSO
algorithm's segmentation of brain tumors functioned well.

Table 3: Merits, Demerits, and Accuracy of different authors

S.
Author Algorithm Merits Demerits Accuracy
No,
The
Soumick The ResNet has
ResNet mixed classification is
1 Chatterjee good 96.98
CNN performed on
et al performance.
one image.
2 Iram VGG16 Using feature The derivation 84
Shahzadi et extraction models of the pixel is

18
 has increased the
al efficiency of the not appropriate.
method.
Mahmoud
Khaled VGG19, VGG16 MLSVM has good The size of the
3 99.55
Abd-Ellah and CNN performances. data is compact.
et al
If the dataset is
Muhmmad The SoftMax
large, it cannot
4 Irfan Sharif SoftMax classifier has good 98.3
predict high
et al performance.
accuracy.
The hybrid
Raheleh method has good
CNN-NADE No need of using
5 Hashemzehi efficiency while 95%
backpropagation.
et al predicting the
values.
No need for
VGG 16 GLCM images
Ouiza Nait This method is
6 as an input while 96.5
Belaid Highly efficient.
feature images
are utilized.
Mohammad The hybrid model No need of using
7 Shahjahan VGG-SCNet has acquired high machine learning 99.2
Majib et al performances methods.
The performance
differences
Neelum DensNet201 & DensNet has good 99.5,
8 between the
Noreen et al Inception V3 performances 99.3
methods are very
less.
Identification of
Subhashis VolumeNet has different
9 Banerjee et ConvNet acquired high diseases in 97.19
al accuracy. tumours was not
appropriate.
It is a hybrid
Working with a
Naeem method which has
10 InceptionResNetV2 large dataset is 98.91
Ullah et al great
difficult.
performance.
Softmax
classification is
10 Siar CNN applied, and Not reliable, 99.12
cropped images
are used
Uses Raman
Can be used to
histology to
deep convolutional develop more
12 Hollon diagnose, and can 94.6
neural networks models for other
be applied in real-
problems
time

19
 dropout It Consumes
hybrid regularizer avoids more time and
13 Sidra Sajid convolutional overfitting, the doesn’t take 91
neural network imbalance is also edema into
fixed consideration
segmentation and
grading models, Small dataset,
Mohamed coupled CNN-
14 the Sigmoid manual 95
Deen based deep learning
activation segmentation
function is used
16 layers, data Should be tested
deep learning
15 Sultan augmentation is on large datasets, 96.13
model
performed. fine-tuned
Can use data
Cross entropy,
pre-trained augmentation
Neelum Adam optimizer is
16 DensNet201 deep and fine-tuning 99.51
Noreen used pre-trained
learning, to avoid
models are used.
overfitting
residual blocks, a
Mesut hypercolumn Low resolution
17 BrainMRNet 96.05
Togaçar method are for the dataset
introduced
Fine tuning is High
lightweight stack
performed, High computational
sparse auto-
18 Amin pass filter using cost, need to 96
encoder (SSAE)
thresholds are tested on dense
approach
used, Faster datasets
Can use VGG 19
Can be used in ti improve the
Venkatesan Deelp Learning
19 real time,reliable performance, 98.17
Rajinikanth Architecture
results can add more
features
class-imbalance,
Performance
Deep and the spatial
Mostefa degradation, and
20 Convolutional relationship 90
naceur more feature can
Neural Networks among image
be extracted
Patches
ReLU is replaced
with Leaky ReLU,
21 Asaf Raza DeepTumorNet Overfitting 99.67
and SGD is used
to train the model.
Need manual
geometric
power,
augmentation and
applicability for
22 Díaz-Pernas Deep CNN grayscale 97.3
multiscale
distortion are
should be
used.
verified
23 Tomasila SLR reviewed different didn’t discuss -

20
 about the
segmentation and limitations of the
classification methods and
methods relativity to the
problem
uses binary
K-Means and
24 Suresha thresholding, small training
support vector 94.34%
faster detection of dataset,
machine
the tumors.
smoothing filter is
applied,  and
Saurabh SOM Clustering many
26 expensive due to
Kumar and SVM preprocessing 97%
SOM
Classification techniques are
applied to remove
noisy data.
X-pillar imaging
Seed region has been utilized,
26 Nandita growing Median channel is need to be
92.5%
segmentation, K- employed for the automated,
Means images.
Otsu’s
thresholding
Priyanka Otsu method, k-
27 segmentation is doesn’t handle
Rawat means, fuzzy c 91%
used, FCM noisy data
means
assigns weight for
the pixels.
very lengthy,
Sheeba reproducibility,
28 slow, and time-
Khan threshold technique and  uses 91.85%
consuming
grayscale images.
process.

21
 CHAPTER 4

PROPOSED WORK

This chapter explains the problem formulation of the research along with the
methodology for implementing the proposed model. In methodology, the framework will be
illustrated and techniques used in that model will be explained.

4.1 Existing System

• The CNN method is utilized for the prediction of optimized values.

• The weights are considered automatically by the machine.

• The proposed method uses pre-trained model like EfficientNet methods.

• The final layers are considered based on the automatic weight which has decreased
the performance.

4.2 Problem Statement

An automatic classification solution with excellent accuracy and performance has recently
been developed through a range of work and studies. Our proposed method has utilized both
machine learning and deep learning techniques. The machine learning XGBoost method was
considered for its efficiency and turning tree process. In deep learning pre-trained, Neural
Networks were used for its optimized prediction from the images. The working process starts
with a range of weights which are previously assigned. Followed by pre-training the model in
Vanilla NN where the conv and dense layers are present to predict the images more
accurately. The final layer holds the machine-learning algorithm XGBoost for its efficiency
and tree-pruning structure. Where assigning the weights before the execution can increase the
performance based on the user requirement and prediction can be estimated accordingly with
a simple idea.

4.3 Objective

To develop a Vanilla CNN based tumour detection system.

To design a customized transfer learning model by fine tuning the VGG-Net architecture.

To compare machine learning metrics with the existing approaches to prove the state of art.

22
4.4 Proposed Work

Initially, the framework of the model will be illustrated in Fig. 3. After that, the
techniques used in implementing the model is explained.

Fig. 4.1. Brain Tumor Detection Framework

In this study, the initial image database is collected to detect the brain tumor
accurately. For detecting the brain tumor, a vanilla neural network-based model is
implemented. For training the model, VGG16 algorithm is used. After that, for acquiring the
parameters from hidden vanilla NN layers, the XGBoost method is introduced on behalf of
Fully connected and Softmax layers.

In the proposed model, to work with the 3D images initially the model has created
Vanilla CNN because it can handle the gradient descent problem and fine tunes the VGG-16
based on the strong layers of vanilla CNN.

VGG16

 VGG 16 was proposed by Karen Simonyan and Andrew Zisserman in the visual
geometry group lab.

23
  VGG is the pre-trained model used for training the data for a single model and it will
be applied to several tasks related to it.
 VGG16 is object detection and classification algorithm which is able to classify 1000
images of 1000 different categories with 92.7% accuracy.
 It is one of the popular algorithms for image classification and is easy to use with
transfer learning.

Fig 4.2: VGG16 Architecture

XGBoost

 XGBOOST, which stands for Extreme Gradient Boosting, is a scalable,

distributed gradient boosting decision tree (GBDT) machine learning library.
 It provides parallel tree boosting and is the leading machine learning library for
regression, classification, and ranking problems.
 XGBoost is an optimized distributed gradient boosting library designed to be
highly efficient, flexible and portable.
 It implements machine learning algorithms under the gradient boosting framework.
 XGBoost provides a parallel tree boosting (also known as GBDT, GBM) that solve
many data science problems in a fast and accurate way.

Vanilla Neural Network

 The Vanilla CNN approach which is as same as linear regression. This is also an
extension of LR but has little difference.

24
  Where it adds an extra layer which has played a major role in improving computations
in the hidden layers.
 Here the Vanilla layer is denoted with an H letter and it can add n number of layers
which can improve the process. In this, the data has many neurons present with
additional neurons.
 Along with backpropagation methods the Vanilla CNN can be used.
 The nonlinear function is used for the Vanilla NN to make it more powerful and for
this activation function for the output layer and it also involves weights & bias in it.

The Vanilla NN calculates the sum of the weighted which is dependent upon n layers. Hence
this method has high performances and the best accuracy is retrieved.

Fig 4.3: Architecture of Fine Tuned VGG-16 in Proposed Model

Parameters in Fine-Tuning

The hyper parameters that need to be adjusted are the optimizer algorithm, activation
functions like ReLu, Sigmoid, etc, learning rate, epochs, and batch size [18]. In the second

25
stage, the number of layers must be tuned. This is not possessed by other conventional
algorithms. Several layers could influence accuracy.

 The learning rate hyper-parameter controls how quickly a method updates or learns

the parameters of a shape parameter. It is represented by the symbol.

 The number of neurons in each layer reflects the quantity of input variables in the
information being processed. Since there are exactly as many neurons in the output
layer as there are outputs, each input also has an identical number of outputs
connected to it.

 A neural network's training with all of the training examples for one cycle is known as
an epoch.

 The weighted total is calculated by the activation function, which then applies the bias
to determine whether or not to stimulate a neuron. The activation function seeks to
boost a neuron's output's nonlinearity.

 The batch size determines how many samples are evaluated before the algorithm is
modified. The number of epochs is the total number of complete iterations of the train
set. The minimum and maximum sizes for batches must both be greater than one and
the number of samples within the training dataset, respectively.

An optimizer is a method or procedure that adjusts the neural network's parameters and
learning rates. As a result, it aids in raising accuracy while lowering overall loss.

4.5 Algorithm for Fine Tuning

Input: Brain Images

Output: Classification of Images along with learning metrics

Begin:

1. Initialize feature matrix with zeros

2. Assign label to each feature matrix

3. for f,l in len(SynImg):

features=efficient_model.predict(f)

26
 features[l*n_jobs: (l+1)*n_jobs]features

4.class_multifeatures.compile(VGG_16()))

5. hxgb_space{initialize estimators, max depth, objective,learning_rate, gamma}

6. for i in hxgb_space

a. evaluatemin(trails,hxgb[i],iteartions=10)

7. test_labelsargmax(predictions(test_generator,evaluate))

8. train_labelstrain_generator.classes

9. for id_num in random(train_labels):

a. test_img[id_num]load_img(labels[id_num],size)

b. predict(test_img[id_num])

10. print(Confusion_Matrix(class_multi))

11. print metrics

End

27
 CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Dataset Description

In order to implement the system for detection of the brain tumor. The data is collected from
different sources for different classes of magnetic resonance images is considered. Figure 5.1
shows the data base which are collected for this implementation. The magnetic resonance
images for the detection of brain tumour. By considering the magnetic resonance images of
size 250×250 pixels. These magnetic resonance images are in the JPEG format.

Fig 5.1: Dataset images

28
5.2 Image Resizing

Fig 5.2: Image Dimension and Pre-Processing

In figure 5.2 the images are scaled based on the pre-processing instructions which can be
flexible for future extraction.

29
5.3 Execution of Vanilla CNN

Fig 5.3: Layer Optimization Values

30
In figure 5.3 the vanilla CNN layers are derived with each layer outputs and the optimized
parameters are obtained.

5.3.1 Epochs of Vanilla CNN

Fig 5.4: Epochs of Vanilla CNN

The epochs are executed each and every epoch individually out of it the accuracy and loss is
generated in figure 5.4. Parallelly the graph is generated based on the accuracy and loss up to
5 epochs in figure 5.5.

Fig 5.5: Graph Representation of Vanilla CNN Epochs Based on Accuracy and Loss

31
 Fig 5.6: Confusion Matrix of Vanilla CNN
The confusion matrix is typically a square matrix with the same number of rows and columns
as the number of classes in the dataset. Each row corresponds to the actual class labels, while
each column corresponds to the predicted class labels. The four cells of the matrix represent
the following:

True Positive (TP): the number of instances that were correctly predicted as positive

False Positive (FP): the number of instances that were incorrectly predicted as positive

False Negative (FN): the number of instances that were incorrectly predicted as negative

True Negative (TN): the number of instances that were correctly predicted as negative

The formula for each cell is as follows:

TP: the number of instances where the predicted label is positive and the actual label is
positive

FP: the number of instances where the predicted label is positive and the actual label is
negative

FN: the number of instances where the predicted label is negative and the actual label is
positive

TN: the number of instances where the predicted label is negative and the actual label is
negative.

32
In figure 5.6 derives the confusion matrix of optimized Vanilla CNN.

Table 5.1: Validation of Vanilla CNN

Index Precision Recall F1-Score Support
Img1 0.578947 0.916666 0.709677 24.000000
Img2 0.800000 0.333333 0.470588 24.000000
Accuracy 0.625000 0.625000 0.625000 0.625000
Macro Avg 0. 689473 0. 625000 0. 590132 48.000000
Weighted Avg 0.689473 0. 625000 0.590132 48.000000

Precision: Precision is a metric that measures the proportion of true positive predictions
among all positive predictions made by the model. It is calculated as:

Precision = TP / (TP + FP)

Recall: Recall is a metric that measures the proportion of true positive predictions among all
actual positive instances in the dataset. It is calculated as:

Recall = TP / (TP + FN)

F1-score: F1-score is a weighted average of precision and recall, and is a more balanced
measure than either of these metrics alone. It is calculated as:

F1-score = 2 * (Precision * Recall) / (Precision + Recall)

Support: Support is the number of instances in each class in the dataset. It is used to calculate
the weighted average of precision, recall, and F1-score.

Accuracy: Accuracy is a metric that measures the proportion of correctly classified instances
among all instances in the dataset. It is calculated as:

Accuracy = (TP + TN) / (TP + TN + FP + FN)

Macro Avg: The macro-averaging method, the evaluation metric is calculated for each class
separately and then averaged across all classes with equal weight. In other words, each class
is given the same importance or weight, regardless of its frequency or size in the dataset.
Macro-averaging can be useful when you want to evaluate the overall performance of a

33
model across all classes, rather than focusing on any particular class. However, it may not be
suitable for imbalanced datasets, where some classes have very few instances, since it treats
all classes equally.

Macro Average = (class A + class B + Class C) / Total number of classes

Weighted Avg: The weighted-averaging method, the evaluation metric is calculated for each
class separately, and then the weighted average of these metrics is computed. The weight
assigned to each class is proportional to its frequency or size in the dataset. This means that
classes with more instances contribute more to the weighted average than classes with fewer
instances.

Weighted average = (precision A * n A + precision B * n B + precision C * n C) / (n A + n B

+ n C)

5.4 Evaluation of Transfer Learning

Fig 5.8: Layer Optimization Values

Figure 5.8 evaluates each layer based on the transfer learning model vgg16 where the
parameters are derived.

34
 Fig 5.9: Epochs of Transfer Learning Based on Accuracy and Loss

In figure 5.9 each layer parameter is derived based on each epoch where accuracy and loss is
calculated and in figure5.10 the graph was derived for 10 epochs.

Fig 5.10: Graph Representation of Epochs Based on Accuracy and Loss

35
5.5 Evaluation of the Fine Tune VGG16

Fig 5.11: Epochs of the Fine Tune VGG16

In figure 5.11 each layer parameter is derived based on each epoch where accuracy and loss
is calculated and in figure5.10 the graph was derived for 10 epochs.

5.6 Brain Tumor Evaluation

By calculating each accuracy and loss for every approach the fine tune VGG16 has acquired
high performance with 85.14% of accuracy in table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Evaluation of Approaches

Model Accuracy Loss

Vanilla CNN 70.8% 0.68
VGG16 70.3% 0.59
Fine Tune VGG16 85.14% 0.31

36
 Fig 5.12: Prediction of Brain Tumour
By considering all the validation values the confusion matrix is derived with true label and
predicted labels in figure 5.12.

Table 5.2: Validation of Brain Tumour Detection Images

Index Precision Recall F1-Score Support
Img1 0.578947 0.916667 0.709677 24.000
Img2 0.800000 0.333333 0.470588 24.000
Accuracy 0.625000 0.625000 0.625000 0.625
Macro Avg 0.689474 0.625000 0.590133 48.000
Weighted Avg 0.689474 0.625000 0.590133 48.000

The validation techniques are used to identify the best parameters based on the proposed
approach showed in table 5.2.

37
 Fig 5.14: Predicted image of Brain Tumour
Finally the brain tumor effected images are derived in both the folders which are shown in
figure 5.14.

38
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

In recent times a variety of work and research has been done on brain tumour detection using
MRI for developing an automatic classification solution with high accuracy and performance.
Our model works with both machine learning approaches and deep learning approaches for
predicting high performance and increasing accuracy. Initially, the pre-trained concept from
vgg16, one of the finest approaches for training the pictures, is used by combining the three
techniques from ml and dl. The standard neural network, which has three layers and user-
assigned weights, performs admirably. The layer is then connected to the XGBoost machine
learning algorithm, which analyses the entire anticipated data and retrieves the healthy and
tumour-affected individuals.

39
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