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the ratio of zero-sequence reactance to positive sequence reactance is not greater than magnitude that the same cannot operate the ground fault relays and hence the ground
three (i.e., X0/X1 £ 3) and the ratio of zero-sequence resistance to positive sequence fault cannot be easily sensed. Due to these disadvantages, ungrounded systems are
reactance is not greater than one (i.e., R0/X1 £ 1) for any condition of operation. The not used these days.
coefficient of grounding, in this case, is less than 80% (i.e., cg < 80%). Thus, the The modern power systems operate with neutral grounding at every voltage level.
maximum line to ground voltage for effectively grounded system does not exceed In present-day power systems, there are various voltage levels between generation
80% of the line voltage. When the neutral is directly connected to the ground without and distribution. It is desirable to provide at least one grounding at each voltage
any intentional resistance or reactance (i.e., the neutral is solidly grounded), the con- level.
dition for effective grounding is satisfied since Zn = 0. Hence, the term ‘effectively Neutral grounding can be broadly classified into the following two categories:
grounded’ is now used in place of the older term solidly grounded’ for the reason of
(i) Effective grounding
definition.
(ii) Non-effective grounding
(xiv) Non-effective Grounding When an intentional resistance or reactance is
In effective grounding, the neutral is directly connected to ground without insert-
connected between neutral and ground, it is called non-effective grounding. The
ing any intentional impedance (resistance or reactance). Effective grounding was
coefficient of grounding for non-effective grounding is greater than 80% (i.e.,
previously called ‘solid grounding’. The coefficient of grounding of effectively
cg > 80%). Hence in this case, the maximum line to ground voltage of healthy lines in
grounded system is less than 80%. In non-effective grounding, the neutral is con-
the event of single line-to-ground fault is more than 80% of line to line voltage.
nected to ground through impedance (resistance or reactance). The coefficient of
(xv) Grounding Transformer A transformer intended primarily to provide a neu- grounding of non-effectively grounded system is greater than 80%.
tral point for grounding purposes is called ‘grounding transformer’. Grounding trans-
former is also called ‘earthing transformer’. Ungrounded System
This is power system without an intentional connection to ground. However, it is
4.8.2 Neutral Grounding (Neutral Earthing) connected to ground through the natural shunt capacitance of the system to ground.
Neutral grounding or neutral earthing means electrically connecting the neutrals The ungrounded system is also called isolated neutral system.
of the system (i.e., the neutral points of star-connected 3-phase windings of power In an isolated neutral system, the voltage of the neutral is not fixed and may float
transformers, generators, motors, grounding transformers etc.) to low resistance freely. Under balanced system conditions, the voltage of the neutral is held at ground
ground (ground electrode/ground mat) either directly or through some circuit ele- due to the presence of the natural shunt capacitance of the system. The three-phase
ment (resistance or reactance). The neutral grounding is an important aspect of the conductors have, then, the phase voltages with respect to ground. Thus, as shown in
power system design since the performance of the system in terms of the faults, sta- Fig. 4.69(a), in the normal balanced system, neutral (N) equals ground (G) and hence,
bility, protection, etc., is greatly affected by the state of the neutral. Neutral ground- VaN = VaG, VbN = VbG, and VcN = VcG. When a ground fault occurs on any conductor,
ing does not have any effect on the operation of a 3-phase system under balanced the phase-to-neutral voltages and the phase-to-ground voltages are quite different.
steady-state conditions. With a ground fault on any line conductor, the faulted line conductor assumes the
However, the currents and voltages during ground fault conditions are greatly voltage of ground and so, the voltage of the neutral with respect to ground attains the
influenced by the type of grounding of neutral. There are three classes of neutral voltage of the conductor. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.69(b). The neutral is thus, shifted
grounding: ungrounded (isolated neutral), impedance-grounded (resistance or reac- from
__ ground and the two healthy lines b and c will experience the line voltage (i.e.,
tance), and effectively grounded (neutral solidly grounded). An ungrounded neu- ÷3 times the phase voltage) with respect to ground.
tral system is connected to ground through the natural shunt capacitance. Neutral From Fig. 4.69(b), the voltage drop around the right-hand triangle bGN is given
grounding (neutral earthing) is also called ‘system grounding (system earthing)’. by.
In earlier years, power systems were operated without neutral grounding. Such VbG – VbN – VNG = 0 (4.151)
systems were called ungrounded systems or isolated neutral systems. The operation
and around the left-hand triangle CGN
of the ungrounded system was thought to be natural at that time because the ground
connection was not useful for the actual transfer of power. Many difficulties were VCG – VCN – VNG = 0 (4.152)
being encountered in ungrounded systems as the systems were growing in terms Also,
of power transmitted, voltage level and distance of transmission. Ungrounded sys- VaN + VNG = 0 (4.153)
tems experience repeated arcing grounds and overvoltages of the healthy lines during From the basic equations,
single line to ground fault. The overvoltage causes stress on the insulation of the lines
and equipment and may result in insulation breakdown. The ground fault protection VaG + VbG + VcG = 3 V0 (Where, V0 = zero-sequence voltage) (4.154)
of ungrounded systems is difficult because the capacitive fault current is so small in VaN + VbN + VcN = 0 (4.155)
maximum voltage across healthy lines may become equal to line-to-line value. The 6. Since the system neutral is almost invariably displaced during ground faults,
phasor diagram showing currents for single line to ground (L-G) fault on phase c is the equipment require insulation for higher voltages.
illustrated in Fig. 4.74(b). Capacitive currents Ica and Icb lead voltages Vac and Vbc by 7. The system becomes costlier than the effectively grounded system.
90°. Fault current If lags behind the phase voltage of the faulted phase c by an angle (iii) Reactance grounding In this case, the neutral is grounded through impedance,
f, which depends upon the grounding resistance R and impedance of the system up the principal element of which is reactance (i.e., the impedance is having predomi-
to the fault point F. The fault current If can be resolved into two components; one in nant reactance and negligible resistance)
phase with the faulty phase voltage (If cos f) and the other lagging the faulty phase as hown in Fig. 4.75. In fact, whether a
a
voltage by 90° (If sin f). system is reactance grounded or effec- N
tively grounded depends upon the ratio of b
3Ic
X0/X1. For reactance grounded system,
Reactance
a VaN
3Ic c
X0/X1 ratio is more than 3.0 whereas it is less
N 3 Ic Icb = 3Ic than 3.0 for effectively grounded system.
b
Vac Reactance grounding lies between effec-
N
Icb = 3Ic
F
tive grounding and resonant grounding. The
R c Ica = 3Ic f value of reactance is such that the ground Fig. 4.75 Reactance grounded system.
Ica = 3Ic VbN
Ø If G fault current is within safe limits.
ca = c
cb = c V Vbc Since reactance grounding provides additional reactance, the capacitive currents
If
If are neutralized. Hence this method of neutral grounding may be used for grounding
3 Ic If sinf
Ica + Icb = 3Ic the neutral of circuits and equipment where high charging currents are involved such
(Phasor sum) as transmission lines, underground cables, synchronous motors, synchronous capaci-
(a) Ground fault on line c (b) Phasor diagram tors, etc. For networks where capacitance is relatively low, resistance grounding is
preferred.
Fig. 4.74 Resistance grounded system
(iv) Resonant grounding (arc suppressing coil grounding) Resonant grounding
is a special case of reactance grounding. In this case an iron-cored reactor connected
The lagging component of the fault current (If sin f) is in phase opposition to the
between the neutral and ground is capable of being tuned to resonate with the capaci-
resultant capacitive current (phasor sum of Ica and Icb). If the value of grounding
tance of the system when a line-to-ground (L-G) fault occurs [Fig. 4.76(a)]. The
resistance R is so adjusted that If sin f is equal to resultant capacitive current, the
iron-cored reactor is known as arc suppression coil or Peterson coil or ground fault
arcing ground is completely eliminated and the operation of the system becomes
neutralizer. Arc suppression coil (Peterson coil or ground fault neutralizer) is pro-
that of effectively (solidly) grounded system. If the value of grounding resistance R
vided with tappings which permit selection of reactance of the coil depending upon
is made sufficiently large so that the lagging component of the fault current (If sin f)
the capacitance to be neutralized. The capacitance to be neutralized depends upon
is less than resultant capacitive current, the operation of the system approach that of
the length of the transmission line. The phasor diagram for fault on phase c is shown
ungrounded system with the risk of transient overvoltages due to arcing grounds.
in Fig. 4.76(b).
Resistance grounding is usually employed for the systems operating at voltages
between 3.3 kV and 33 kV. 3Ic
a 3 Ic VaN
The following are the main features of resistance grounded systems.
1. The ground fault current is materially lower than that in effectively grounded 3 Ic
b 3 Ic
system but higher than capacitive ground fault current.
2. The ground fault relaying is simple and satisfactory. F 3 Ic N
c
3. The power dissipation in the grounding resistance has damping effect. This L VbN
3 Ic 3 Ic GV
eliminates arcing ground and improves the stability of the system. C C
cN
In case of resonant grounding, the value of the inductive reactance of the arc sup- (v) Voltage transformer ground- a
pression coil is such that the fault current IL exactly balances the charging current. In ing In this method of neutral
N
an ungrounded system, when a ground __ fault occurs__ on any one line, the voltages of
grounding, the primary of a single- b
coil
interruption due to transient line-to-ground faults which will not be possible with limb are wound differentially, under nor-
Voltage
other methods of grounding. In this method of grounding, the tendency of a single mal conditions, the total flux in each limb Relay
phase to ground fault developing into two or three-phase fault is decreased. is negligibly small and, therefore, the
transformer draws very little magnetis-
Normal time-rating of arc suppression coils used on systems on which permanent
ing current. The grounding transformer is
ground faults can be located and removed promptly is ten minutes whereas continu-
of short-time rating, usually 10 seconds to Fig. 4.78 Voltage transformer
ous time-rated coils are used on all other systems. In such cases, it is also usual to
1 minute. Therefore, the size of such trans- grounding of neutral.
provide automatic means as shown in Fig. 4.77 to bypass the arc suppression coil
former is small as compared to the power
after some time. If for any reason more current flows through the arc suppression
transformer of the same rating.
coil, a circuit breaker closes after a certain time-lag and the ground-fault current
flows through the parallel circuit by-passing the arc-suppression coil. If a zig-zag transformer is not available for grounding, a special small size star-
delta transformer can be used without loading the delta side as shown in Fig. 4.79(b).
The circuit breaker (C.B.) which is normally open is closed by the trip coil when
This transformer is also known as grounding transformer and it is a step-down trans-
the relay operates after a predetermined time. Thus the fault current is by-passed
former. The star connected primary is connected to the system and its neutral is
through the resistor branch.
grounded. The secondary is in delta and generally does not supply any load but pro-
vides a closed path for triple harmonic currents to circulate in them. Under normal
212 Power System Protection and Switchgear Fault Analysis 213
conditions, the current in the transformer a deals with grounding of non-current carry- System
is only its own magnetizing current. ing metallic parts of the equipment to ensure
However, large current may flow in the b safety of personnel and protection against
Generator
event of a single line to ground fault con- lightning. Equipment grounding is also
dition. Hence, it should be of sufficient c called ‘safety grounding’.
rating to withstand the effect of line to Under fault conditions, the non-current
ground faults. carrying metallic parts of an electrical
Present Practice in Neutral Grounding installation such as frames, enclosures,
(i) Generally, one grounding is provid- supports, fencing, etc., may attain high
ed at each voltage level. In power voltages with respect to the ground so that
Transformer any person or stray animal touching these
system, there are various voltage
levels between generation and dis- R or approaching these will be subjected to
voltage which may result in the flow of a Star-delta transformer
tribution. At least one grounding is
normally provided at each voltage current through the body of the person or Fig. 4.79(b) Star-delta trans
the animal of such a value as may prove former for grounding.
level.
fatal. The magnitude of the tolerable cur-
(ii) Grounding is provided at the power Fig. 4.79(a) Zig-zag transformer for
neutral grounding rent flowing through the body is related to duration.
source end and not at the load end.
It has been found experimentally that the safe value of the current which a human
If power source is delta connected, grounding is provided by means of ground-
ing transformer rather than grounding at load end. body can tolerate is given by
0.165
(iii) Grounding is provided at each major source bus section. Ib = _____
_ for t < 3 secs (4.164)
(iv) The generators are normally provided with resistance grounding whereas ÷t
synchronous motors and synchronous capacitors are provided with reactance and Ib = 9 mA for t > 3 secs (4.165)
grounding. where Ib is the rms value of the body current in amps and t is the time in seconds
(v) When several generators are operating in parallel, only one generator neutral
is grounded. If more neutral are grounded, disturbance is created by the zero Tolerable Step and Touch Voltages
sequence components of the circulating currents. When a fault occurs, the flow of fault current to ground results in voltage gradient
(vi) When there are one or two power sources, no switching equipment is used in on the surface of the ground in the vicinity of the grounding system. This voltage
the grounding circuit. gradient may affect a person in two ways, viz., step or foot to foot contact and hand
to both feet or touch contact.
(vii) When several generators are connected to a common neutral bus, the bus is
grounded either directly or through reactance. Step voltage
(viii) Effectively (solid) grounding is used for the systems of low voltages up to It is the voltage between the feet of a person standing on the floor of the substation,
600 volts and for systems of high voltages above 33 kV whereas resistance or with 0.5 m spacing between two feet (i.e., one step), during the flow of ground fault
reactance grounding is used for systems of medium voltages between 3.3 kV current through the grounding system. Fig. 4.80 shows the circuit for step contact.
and 33 kV. Rf is the grounding resistance of one foot (in ohms), and Rb is the resistance of body
(in ohms).
4.8.3 Equipment Grounding (Safety Grounding) The grounding resistance of one foot (Rf) may be assumed to be 3ps where ps is
Equipment grounding means electrically connecting non-current carrying metallic the resistivity of the soil near the surface of ground. Rb is assumed to be 1000 ohms.
parts (i.e., metallic frame, metallic enclosure, etc.) of the equipment to ground. The Therefore, tolerable value of the step voltage is given by [from Fig. 4.80(b)].
object of equipment grounding is to ensure safety against electrical shocks to operat-
ing personnel and other human or animal bodies by discharging electrical energy to Vstep = (Rb + 2Rf) Ib (4.166)
ground. Equipment grounding also ensures protection against lightning. If insulation Substituting the values of Rb, Rf and Ib [from Eqs. (164) and (165)], we get
fails, there will be a direct contact of the live conductor with the metallic parts (i.e., _
frame) of the equipment. Any person in contact with the metallic part of this equipment Vstep = (1000 + 6ps) 0.165/÷t for t < 3 sec (4.167)
will be subjected to electrical shock which can be fatal. Thus equipment grounding = (1000 + 6ps) 0.009 for t > 3 sec