Cyclotron

 A cyclotron is a machine that accelerates charged particles or ions to high

energies. It was invented to investigate the nuclear structure by E.O Lawrence
and M.S Livingston in 1934. Both electric and magnetic fields are used in the
cyclotron to increase the energy of the charged particles. As both the fields are
perpendicular to each other, they are called cross fields.
In a cyclotron, charged particles accelerate outwards from the centre along a
spiral path. These particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a static magnetic
field and accelerated by a rapidly varying electric field. Cyclotron is used to
accelerate protons, deutrons and α - particles.

Principle
 Cyclotron works on the principle that a charged particle moving normal to a
magnetic field experiences magnetic lorentz force due to which the particle
moves in a circular path.
Construction

It consists of a hollow metal cylinder divided into two sections D1 and

D2 called Dees, enclosed in an evacuated chamber. The Dees are kept separated
and a source of ions is placed at the centre in the gap between the Dees. They
are placed between the pole pieces of a strong electromagnet. The magnetic
field acts perpendicular to the plane of the Dees. The Dees are connected to a
high frequency oscillator.
 
Working:
When a positive ion of charge q and mass m is emitted from the source, it is
accelerated towards the Dee having a negative potential at that instant of time.
Due to the normal magnetic field, the ion experiences magnetic lorentz force
and moves in a circular path. By the time the ion arrives at the gap between the
Dees, the polarity of the Dees gets reversed. Hence the particle is once again
accelerated and moves into the other Dee with a greater velocity along a circle
of greater radius. Thus the particle moves in a spiral path of increasing radius
and when it comes near the edge, it is taken out with the help of a deflector plate
(D.P). The particle with high energy is now allowed to hit the target T.
  
When the particle moves along a circle of radius R with a velocity v, the
magnetic Lorentz force provides the necessary centripetal force.
Bqv = (mv2 ) / R.......(1)
R=mv2/qvB
i.e. R= mv/qB.....(2)
The radius of the circular path is proportional to the velocity v of the particle.
The time (T) taken to complete the half circle is,
T=2πR/v
ie for half cycle; T/2= πR/v
T/2=πmv/qBv
T/2 =› πm/qB
Or T=2πm/qB
It is clear from equation that the time taken by the ion to describe a semi-circle
is independent of
 (i) the radius (r) of the path and (ii) the velocity (v) of the particle
Since frequency =1/T
Thus, f=qB/2πm.......(3) this is called cyclotron frequency or gyro frequency.
 For the working principle of cyclotron, the essential condition is that there must
be a resonance between the alternating voltage applied between the dees and the
circular motion of ions due to the magnetic field. i.e. the frequency of electric
field should be equal to the frequency of circular path in magnetic field. If the
ions reach the gap at improper phase they may be retarded and not accelerated.

The maximum energy acquired by the particle:

If the max.Velocity of the charged particle at the time of emergence from the
cyclotron is Vmax, and radius of the circular path is Rmax, Then
qvmaxB= mv2max/Rmax
vmax=qBRmax/m............(4)

The momentum gained by the particle

mvmax=qBRmax
and maximum kinetic energy of the particle is,
=mv2max/2
= ½ (mq2B2R2max/m2)
=K.E=q2B2R2max/2m.........(5)
Hence it is clear that for obtaining higher KE, the strength of magnetic field and
radius of dees should be large as possible. 
  

Limitations
 
a.     Maintaining a uniform magnetic field over a large area of the
Dees is difficult.
 
b.     At high velocities, relativistic variation of mass of the particle
upsets the resonance condition.
 From eq 5 it is clear that the KE of the particle can be increased to any
extent by increasing the radius of dees. But it is not true, because
when the velocity of the particle become comparable with the
speed of light c, ie the Particle acquire the relativistic speed, then
from the theory of relativity, the mass of particle increases in
velocity according to relation

√
2
v
m=mo / 1− 2
c

 i.e. v≈c
m=mo/√ 1−1
m=mo/0
i.e. m tends to infinite.
But by the relation of gyro frequency
F=qB/2πm
If m tends to infinite, frequency will tends to zero.

c.      At high frequencies, relativistic variation of mass of the electron

is appreciable and hence electrons cannot be accelerated by
cyclotron.
Betatron

A Betatron was developed by D W Kerst to accelerate the electrons to

high energies.

Principle
The principle of the Betatron is same as that of the transformer. In
transformer, if an alternating current is passed through the primary
coil an alternating magnetic field will appear in the coil. This field
produces an induced e.m.f. in the secondary coil. Similarly the
changing magnetic flux induces an e.m.f. tangentially along a
circular path for the electron which accelerates the electrons to
high energies. The electrons is kept accelerating in circular path of
constant radius with the help of increasing magnetic field.
Construction
The Betatron is consists of an evacuated doughnut chamber in
which electrons are produced by indirectly heated cathode. The
doughnut tube is placed between two strong electromagnet such
that, when the a.c current is passed in the electromagnets the flux
increases in the centre of doughnut (single coil).
Working:
When the electron appears at K (cathode) in doughnut tube and the
electromagnets are energized the magnetic field increases, the
increasing magnetic field has two effects
(i) Induced e.m.f. is produced in electron orbit by changing
magnetic flux that gives an additional energy to electron.
According to Faraday’s law,

induced  ........1
ii) A radial force (magnetic force) is produced by action of magnetic
field whose direction is perpendicular to the electron velocity
which keeps the electron moving in circular path. The force is
balanced by centripetal force, i.e

,............2
The particle acceleration occurs only with increasing flux (the
duration when the flux increases from zero to a maximum value)
i.e., the first quarter of the a.c. cycle (T/4 sec), after this the flux
starts decreasing which result in decreasing velocity therefore the
electron is kept in the tube only for T/4 sec. As the electrons get
faster they need a larger magnetic field to keep moving at a
constant radius, which is provided by the increasing field.

Betatron Condition

Induced e.m.f in the coil from Faraday’s law of electromagnetic

induction

Work done on an electron in one rotation

d∅
W =−¿e
dt

Work done = tangential force F on electron X distance travelled in one

revolution,

(3)
The electron moves in circular path. The magnetic force is balanced
by centripetal force, i.e
Since momentum p is mass X velocity, and force is defined as rate of
change of momentum. i.e.

In order to maintain path of constant radius (r is constt.)

(4)
Equations 3 and 4 are equal, equating both

Integrating the above equation

(5)
The relation is known as Betatron condition. It shows that the rate of
change of magnetic flux within the orbit of radius r is always twice
that it would have been if the magnetic field intensity were uniform
throughout the orbit.
 Bainbridge mass spectro-meter is an instrument used for the accurate
determination of atomic masses. A schematic diagram of this spectrometer is
shown in Fig.

Atoms with  one  or  more electrons  removed,  have  a  net positive charge and
they become positive ions. A beam of positive ions produced in a discharge tube
is collimated into a fine beam by two narrow      slits   S1  and       S2. This fine 
beam        enters  into  a       velocity selector. The velocity selector allows the
ions of a particular velocity to come out of it, by the combined action of an
electric and a magnetic field. The velocity selector consists of two plane parallel
plates P1 and P2, which produces a uniform electric field E and an
electromagnet, to produce uniform magnetic field B (represented by the dotted
circle). These two fields are at right angles to each other and to the direction of
the beam.
 The electric field and magnetic field are so adjusted that the deflection
produced by one field is nullified by the other, so that the ions do not suffer any
deflection within the velocity selector. Let E and B be the electric field intensity
and magnetic induction respectively and q be the charge of the positive ion. The
force exerted by the electric field is equal to qE and the force exerted by the
magnetic field is equal to Bqv where v is the velocity of the positive ion.
 
qE = Bqv
 
v = E/B
 
Only those ions having this velocity v, pass out of the velocity selector and
then through the slit S3, to enter the evacuated chamber D. These positive ions
having the same velocity are subjected to another strong uniform magnetic field
of induction B’ at right angles to the plane of the paper acting inwards. These
ions are deflected along circular path of radius R and strike the photographic
plate. The lighter ions having the larger path radius. If the mass of an ion is M,
its charge q and its velocity v then

Then

Or
The radius of the path in the deflection chamber is directly proportional to
the mass of the ion. The detection is done by photographic plate when the ions
fall on it.

Since q, B, B’, E and R are known, the mass of the positive ions and hence
isotopic masses can be calculated.
Linear separation
This method of analysis is very accurate and can detect differences in the
masses of two ions as small as one part in 109.
If M1 and M2 are the masses of two isotopes and if x1 and x2 are the
distances from S3. The linear separation

Put v=E/B

If B=B’