Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology

Luis A. Anchordoqui

Department of Physics and Astronomy

Lehman College, City University of New York

Lesson IX
April 12, 2016

arXiv:0706.1988
L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 1 / 30
Table of Contents

1 The Early Universe

Standard Model
Equilibrium Thermodynamics

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 2 / 30

 The Early Universe Standard Model

The Standard Model is our most modern attempt to answer two simple questions
that have been perplexing (wo)mankind throughout the epochs:
What is the Universe made of? Why is our world the way it is?

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 3 / 30

 The Early Universe Standard Model

Wilmaaaaaa... I’ve discovered what I believe to be

the elementary basic particle: a small stone

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 4 / 30

 The Early Universe Standard Model

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L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology .EUTRON
4-12-2016
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5 / 30 œvʵÕ
 The Early Universe Standard Model

World’s largest microscope + Large Hadron Collider

CMS

LHC
LHCb
ALICE
SPS ATLAS

p
Pb PS

Remarkably + 70% of energy carried into collision by protons

emerges perpendicular to incident beams
@ transverse energy E⊥ + rough estimate of resolution length
` ≈ }c/E⊥ ≈ 2 × 10−19 TeV m/E⊥
√
For collisions @ s = 13 TeV + `LHC ≈ 2 × 10−20 m
L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 6 / 30
 Antiparticles
The Early Universe Standard Model

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 7 / 30

 Antiparticles
Antiparticles
The Early Universe
Standard Model

ay, March 4, 2014

Tuesday, March 4, 2014

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 7 / 30
 The Early Universe Standard Model

Three generations of quarks and leptons

Fermion Short-hand Generation Charge Mass Spin

up u I 2.3+ 0.7
−0.5 MeV
charm c II + 23 1.275 ± 0.025 GeV 1
2
top t III 173.21 ± 0.51 GeV
Quarks d 4.8+ 0.5
down I −0.3 MeV
strange s II − 13 95± 5 MeV 1
2
bottom b III 4.18 ± 0.03 GeV
electron neutrino νe I < 2 eV 95% CL
muon neutrino νµ II 0 < 0.19 MeV 90% CL 1
2
tau neutrino ντ III < 18.2 MeV 95%CL
Leptons electron e I 0.511 MeV
muon µ II −1 105.7 MeV 1
2
tau τ III 1.777 GeV

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 8 / 30

 The Early Universe Standard Model

Now + an understanding of how world is put together

needs theory of how quarks and leptons interact with one another
L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 9 / 30
 The Early Universe Standard Model

4 fundamental forces of Nature

Forces can be characterized on basis of 4 criteria

1 types of particles that experience force

2 relative strength of force
3 range over which force is effective
4 nature of particles that mediate force

electromagnetic force is carried by the photon

strong force is mediated by gluons
W and Z bosons transmit weak force
quantum of gravitational force is called graviton

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 10 / 30

 The Early Universe Standard Model

Force carriers

Force Boson Short-hand Charge Mass Spin

Electromagnetic photon γ 0 0 1
Weak W W± ±1 80.385 ± 0.015 GeV 1
Weak Z Z0 0 91.1876 ± 0.0021 GeV 1
Strong gluon g 0 0 1
Gravitation graviton G 0 0 2

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 11 / 30

 The Early Universe Standard Model

Gravitation and electromagnetism have unlimited range

largely for this reason they are familiar to everyone
Weak force and strong force cannot be perceived directly
because their influence extends only over a short range
no larger than radius of atomic nucleus
Relative force strength for protons inside a nucleus

Force Relative Strength

Strong 1
Electromagnetic 10−2
Weak 10−6
Gravitational 10−38

Though gravity is most obvious force in daily life

on nuclear scale it is weakest of four forces
and its effect at particle level can nearly always be ignored
L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 12 / 30
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L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology N

4-12-2016 13 / 30
), and SU(3)

The Early Universe

Hadrons
Standard Model

qq̄ (quark + antiquark) mesons integral spin → Bose-Eisntein statistics

qqq (three quarks) baryons half-integral spin → Fermi-Dirac statistics

ay a

ular
be
tations
G Keystone of any theory of strong interactions
explain peculiar rules for building hadrons out of quarks
L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 14 / 30
 The Early Universe Standard Model

Baryons and Mesons

Structure of meson is not so hard to account for:
since meson is made out of quark and antiquark
assume quarks carry some property analogous to electric charge

Binding of quark and antiquark

explained on principle that opposite charges attract
just as they do in electromagnetism

Structure of baryons is far profound enigma

To describe how three quarks can produce bound state

we must assume that three like charges attract

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 15 / 30

 The Early Universe Standard Model

Color
Analogue of electric charge is property called color
Rules for forming hadrons
require combinations of quarks to be “white” or colorless
Quarks are assigned the primary colors + red, green, and blue
Antiquarks have complementary “anticolors”
cyan, magenta and yellow
Each of the quark flavors comes in all three colors
introduction of Strong
color charge triples number of distinct quarks
Interaction
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L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 16 / 30

 The Early Universe Standard Model

Gluons
Quanta of color fields are called gluons
(because they glue the quarks together)
There are 8 of them: they are all massless
they have a spin angular momentum 1
they are massless vector bosons like the photon
Also like photons + gluons are electrically neutral
!Ȱ % Ȱ %Ȱ
but they are not color-neutral
Strong Interaction
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 %
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L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY)
 ,&#*1

Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 17 / 30

 Electroweak Theory
The Early Universe Standard Model
takesWeak
threeInteractions
crucial clues from experiment
➢ The existence
Charge-changing ofinteractions
weak left-handedmediated
weak-isospin
by W ± doublets
are chiral

➢ The
Neutral weakuniversal strength
interactions ofZthe
involving 0 weak interactions

act on both left-handed and right-handed particles

➢ The idealization that neutrinos are massless
L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 18 / 30
 we add to The
theEarly
weak-isospin
Universe family
Standard Model symmetry
a weak-hypercharge phase symmetry

The electroweak theory then implies two sets of gauge bosons

a weak isovector ☛

a weak isoscalar ☛

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 19 / 30

 The Early Universe Standard Model

Electroweak Symmetry Breaking

Electroweak symmetry breaking

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 20 / 30

 Yukawa Interactions
The Early Universe Standard Model

Yukawa coupling

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 21 / 30

 The Early Universe Equilibrium Thermodynamics

Because early universe was in thermal equilibrium

particle reactions can be modeled using tools of thermodynamics

Number density, energy density, and pressure

of weakly-interacting gas of particles with g degrees of freedom
written in terms of its phase space distribution function f (~p )
g
Z
n = f (~p )d3 p
(2π )3
g
Z
ρ = E(~p ) f (~p )d3 p (1)
(2π )3
g |~p |2
Z
P = f (~p ) d3 p
(2π )3 3E

p
c = 1 and h̄ = 1 + E = m2 + p2

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 22 / 30

 The Early Universe Equilibrium Thermodynamics

For a particle species in kinetic equilibrium + occupancy f

given by Fermi-Dirac or Bose-Einstein distrubutions

1
f (~p ) = (2)
e(E−µ)/T ±1

T + temperature
µ + chemical potential (if present)
± corresponds to either Fermi or Bose statistics

Take |µ|  T and neglect all chemical potentials

when computing total thermodynamic quantities

All evidence indicates + this is good approximation

to describe particle interactions in super-hot primeval plasma

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 23 / 30

 The Early Universe Equilibrium Thermodynamics

For particle species of mass m

g ∞ ( E2 − m2 )1/2
Z
ρ = E2 dE
2π 2 m e E/T ± 1
Z ∞
g ( E2 − m2 )1/2
n = E dE (3)
2π 2 m e E/T ± 1
Z ∞
g ( E2 − m2 )3/2
P = dE
6π 2 m e E/T ± 1
Useful formulae

Z ∞ n −1
z
dz = Γ(n) ζ (n) (4)
0 ez − 1
Z ∞ n −1
z 1 n
dz = (2 − 2) Γ ( n ) ζ ( n ) (5)
0 ez +1 2n

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 24 / 30

 The Early Universe Equilibrium Thermodynamics

For nondegenerate (T  µ) relativistic species (T  m)

 1
π2
ζ (3) gT 3 for bosons
n = 3 1 3 for fermions
2 ζ ( 3 ) gT
( 4 2π
π 4
ρ = 30 g T for bosons
(6)
7 π 2
4
8 30 g T for fermions
P = ρ/3
ζ (3) = 1.20206...
For nonrelativistic particle species (T  m)
statistical quantities follow Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
+ there is no difference between fermions and bosons
mT 3/2 −m/T
 
n = g e
2π
ρ = mn (7)
P = nT  ρ
L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 25 / 30
 The Early Universe Equilibrium Thermodynamics

Internal energy U can be considered to be function

of 2 thermodynamic variables among P, V , and T
These variables are related by equation of state
Choose V and T to be fundamental variables
Internal energy + U (V, T )
Differentiate U
   
∂U ∂U
dU = dV + dT (8)
∂V T ∂T V

Combine (8) with first law

dU = TdS − PdV (9)

to obtain     
∂U ∂U
TdS = + P dV + dT (10)
∂V T ∂T V

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 26 / 30

 The Early Universe Equilibrium Thermodynamics

Since internal energy is function of T and V

we may also choose to view S as a function of T and V
This gives rise to differential relation
   
∂S ∂S
dS = dT + dV (11)
∂T V ∂V T

Substituting (11) into (10) and equating dV and dT parts

∂U ∂S
=T (12)
∂T ∂T
and
U + PV
S= (13)
T
Define entropy density s = S/V

s = ρ+P (14)

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 27 / 30

 The Early Universe Equilibrium Thermodynamics

Average energy per particle

For nondegenerate relativistic species
( π4
30ζ (3)
T ' 2.701 T for bosons
h Ei = ρ/n = 7π 4
(15)
180ζ (3)
T ' 3.151 T for fermions

For non-relativistic species

3
h Ei = m + T (16)
2

For photons + thermodynamic quantities computed rather easily

π2 4 1 4ργ 2ζ (3) 3
ργ = T ; pγ = ργ ; sγ = ; nγ = T (17)
15 γ 3 3Tγ π2 γ

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 28 / 30

 The Early Universe Equilibrium Thermodynamics

For T  mi + total energy density is

!
7 π2 4 π2
ρrad = ∑ gB + 8 ∑ gF 30
T ≡
30
gρ ( T ) T 4 (18)
B F

gB( F) + total number of boson (fermion) degrees of freedom

sum runs over all boson (fermion) states with mi c2  kT

7/8 due to difference between Fermi and Bose integrals

(18) + defines effective number of degrees of freedom gρ ( T )

by taking into account new particle degrees of freedom
as temperature is raised

Change in gρ ( T ) (ignoring mass effects) is +

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 29 / 30

 The Early Universe Equilibrium Thermodynamics

Effective numbers of degrees of freedom in the standard model

Temperature New particles 4gρ ( T )

T < me γ’s + ν’s 29
me < T < mµ e± 43
mµ < T < mπ µ± 57
mπ < T < Tc∗ π’s 69
Tc < T < mcharm - π’s + u, ū, d, d,¯ s, s̄ + gluons 247
mc < T < mτ c, c̄ 289
mτ < T < mbottom τ± 303
mb < T < mW,Z b, b̄ 345
mW,Z < T < mHiggs W±, Z 381
m H < T < mtop H0 385
mt < T t, t̄ 427

*Tc + confinement–deconfinement transition between quarks and hadrons

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 4-12-2016 30 / 30