The Journal of Environmental Education

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Ecotourism as Environmental Learning

James R. Kimmel

To cite this article: James R. Kimmel (1999) Ecotourism as Environmental Learning, The Journal
of Environmental Education, 30:2, 40-44, DOI: 10.1080/00958969909601869
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Published online: 31 Mar 2010.

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 The Journal of Environmental Education, 1999, Vol. 30, No. 2 , 4 0 4 4

Ecotourism as
Environmental Learning
JAMES R. KIMMEL

ABSTRACT: Commercialecotourism is a rapidly growing part of the global tourism

industry. Although potential negative impacts must be addressed, ecotourism offers
a substantial opportunity for environmental learning. However, simply taking visi-
tors to unique sites does not guarantee learning. In the present article, methods to
emphasize the learning content of ecotourism, while retaining the entertainment
value, are identifled. A Smithsonian Institute study trip led by the author is dis-
cussed as an example.

T he rapidly increasing popularity of ecotourism offers a

great opportunity for experiential environmental learn-
ing. In the present article, I identify methods to increase the
learning content of ecotourism and describe an example of
learning-oriented ecotourism. Ecotourism companies can
benefit by emphasizing the substantive learning content of
their activities, and their clients can have satisfying learning
experiences within the context of their leisure activities.
Tourism is one of the leading industries in the world, and
its growth is expected to continue at a high rate (Jefferson,
1995). Although a substantial part of tourism is the “sun,
surf, and sand” variety, the fastest growing segment is eco-
tourism (Cater, 1993). For example, annual visits to Kakadu
National Park in Australia increased 24% between 1982 and
1990 (Moore & Carter, 1993). According to Moore and
Carter,
Underpinning these growth scenarios for tourism and travel
will be the continuing world-wide trend in environment or
“green”tourism. It can be expected that ecotourism will con-
tinue to intensify towards the year 2000 as issues associated
with urban congestion and crowding, atmospheric pollution,
James R. Kimmel is an associate professor in the Depart-
ment of Geography and Planning at Southwest Texas State
University.
40
increased leisure time, more flexible work options, work-
related stress and concern for the natural environment con-
tinue to develop. Green tourism will progressively become a
powerful force in shaping destination appeal and driving
market demand. Environmental awareness will become
enshrined within the business plans of airlines, travel agents,
hotel chains and all the other tourism-related service links.
(p. 124)
Obviously, ecotourism is not a small or ephemeral phenom-
enon.
There is substantial concern about the potential negative
impacts of ecotourism and the necessity to plan and regulate
ecotourism to prevent such impacts (Blangy & Nielsen,
1993; Orams, 1995; Padgett & Begley, 1996). There clear-
ly have been abuses and mismanaged activities. Better plan-
ning and regulation are essential. However, ecotourism has
the potential to enhance environmental learning, especially
in parts of the population that are not directly involved in
education, such as retired individuals (Hall, 1992; Jefferson,
1995). Increased emphasis on environmental learning as
part of ecotourism could help prevent or reduce its negative
impacts.
Ecotourism, Ecolearning
The body of literature on environmental learning is
extensive, as evidenced by articles in this and a variety of
other journals. Much of that literature focuses on organized
 Kimmel
school groups or other activities primarily aimed at youth.
Nevertheless, many of those approaches are applicable to
tourism as environmental learning.
A not-so-hidden agenda for most of us who teach about
the environment is a desire that our students develop an
affection for their world, with the hope that such affection
will lead to careful treatment. Newhouse (1990) noted con-
cern over the lack of “love” that youths have for the natural
world; she stated that the analytical approach of biology
education
does not encourage an understanding and appreciation for
natural systems, and without this appreciation how can one
even know or care about what is imperiled in nature? In a
world where fewer and fewer people ever see an intact
ecosystem in their daily lives, this issue may be critically
important. (p. 29)
I t is pertinent that an eminent geographer, Peirce Lewis,
stated in his presidential address to the Association of
American Geographers that he became a geographer be-
cause of his love of maps and his “topophilia . . . visceral
passion for the earth-more particularly, some magic or
beloved place on the surface of the earth” (Lewis, 1985, p.
467).
Miles ( 199 I ) also emphasized the emotional aspects of
wilderness learning:
Learning about wilderness is not like learning arithmetic or
economics or how the political system works. It is more akin
to learning what is beautiful about a Mozart concerto, a
Rembrandt painting, or a Shakespearean sonnet. To appreci-
ate wilderness is to value a human heritage. (p. 6)
Helping people learn to love the earth is a high calling
and one that can be carried out through ecotourism. Eco-
tourism avoids much of the counterproductive baggage that
often accompanies standard education. People participate
out of choice, there are no tests or grades, the sites are excit-
ing and often exotic, and participants expect to learn in an
enjoyable manner-a description of this teacher’s nirvana.
Although wilderness learning can and should have an
emotional content, Miles ( 1987) emphasized that such
learning does not always happen without direction and lead-
ership:
Wildernebs education, by definition. requires leadership to
realize the learning potential of the place. Outdoor education
has always suffered from the commonly held belief that
some intrinsic quality of the outdoors was inevitably educa-
tive. Some people are prepared to grow in consequence of
encountering nature and wild places, and need no help; but
others need guidance. (p. 38)
The focus then turns to who guides ecotourists through this
kind of learning. how they do it, and how it can be made
more effective.
Ecotour leaders currently run the gamut from river guides
with no environmental education to experienced scientists.
The quality of interpretation ranges widely, although the
disparity in quality is not necessarily directly related to
qualifications.The ecotourism market has developed rapid-
41
ly, exceeding the supply of qualified guides. In addition, the
pay and working conditions for guides are often such that
only young people with few responsibilities are willing to
take the jobs. Weiler and Davis (1993) observed,
Given the roles that tour leaders are expected to play, and the
skills and knowledge that tour operators expect, there
appears to be a considerable need for tour leader training.
Individuals with excellent communication/interpretative
skills, organizational and leadership abilities, as well as envi-
ronmental expertise and knowledge are surely few and far
between.
In Australia, education and training in the area of environ-
mental knowledge is available through universities and col-
leges. What appears to be lacking, then, is training in the area
of tour leadership and environmental interpretation tech-
niques. (p. %)
Weiler and Davis (1993) criticized tour leaders for focus-
ing on the tourist to the neglect of the environment. They
maintained that in addition to the common roles of organizer.
entertainer. group leader, and teacher, tour leaders should
have additional duties, as described in the Australian Tourism
Industry Association Code of Envimnmental Practice:
The tour leader’s role is to modify and correct visitor behav-
iour to ensure that it is environmentally responsible. In addi-
tion, with respect to information, the tour leader’s role is “to
enhance visitors’ appreciation and understanding of their sur-
roundings within the conservation objectives for the area.”
(Weiler & Davis, 1993, p. 93)
The goals and expectations described above are lofty hut
somewhat ambiguous. Table I contains a list of guidelines
developed by Miles (1991) for taking students into the
wilderness. Those guidelines provide a structure within
which the environmental learning content of ecotourism
and the quality of service for the participants can he en-
hanced simultaneously. I learned from experience that i t is
essential to have a theme that ties together the various activ-
ities and concepts. In the next section, I analyze a learning-
oriented ecotourism trip in terms of the goals and organiza-
tional concepts discussed above.
Smithsonian Institution Study M p
Purpose and Participants
The Smithsonian Institution sponsors study trips for its
members in a wide variety of locations. The Smithsonian
contracted with me to serve as the study leader for a week-
long trip through the lower canyons of the Rio Grande in
southwestern Texas, east of Big Bend National Park. 1 am a
geographer and have spent a large amount of time in the Big
Bend region since 1968.
The purpose of the Smithsonian trip was to provide ;in
enjoyable, entertaining context in which the participants
could learn about the Chihuahuan Desert, the Rio Grande,
the history and prehistory of the region, and the modem cul-
ture. The 16 participants ranged from a family with 2 teen-
age daughters to a 72-year-old woman; the group included
a variety of younger, middle-aged, and recently retired peo-
ple. None of the participants had a formal background in
42 The Journal of Environmental Education
TABLE 1. Guidelines for WUderness Learning
~~~
Identify and describe program and activity objectives as
clearly and completely as possible.
Establish a high level of expectation for and in the learn-
ers.
Be a model learner.
Be organized but also flexible and serendipitous.
Be learner centered.
Emphasize the process of discovery, inquiry, and meaning
rather than just learning facts.
Provide challenge, but emphasize success.
Help people see challenges as problems that can be ana-
lyzed and solved.
Whenever possible, use settings that provide opportuni-
ties for immediate and appropriate reinforcement.
Integrate group and individual challenges.
Use a judicious integration of information assimilation
and experiential processes.
Require, structure, and organize for reflection.
From Miles (1991. pp. 7-9).
NJW.
ecology, geology, geography, or other relevant disciplines.
The participants were from New Hampshire, New Mexico,
New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Wisconsin.
A local outfitter provided transportation and other logis-
tics. Eight inflatable rafts were rowed by guides. An inflat-
able kayak was shared by various participants. The outfitter
prepared all meals, and the participants slept in tents on
sandbars for 6 nights. The trip cost $950 per person, not
counting transportation to Midland, Texas.
Although the trip was a “study” trip, it was intended to be
enjoyable and entertaining. Most of the participants had no
previous experience with deserts. My personal goal was to
introduce the participants to the region in such a way that
they would develop an awareness of desert environments
and perhaps come to share my love of the region.
The concept of ecological adaptation provided a theme
for the variety of information and topics that would be
encountered during the week. Adaptation was a useful
theme because it facilitated discussion about the various
ways life forms had adapted to the arid environment. The
use of adaptation as a theme also helped participants devel-
op perspectives that they could transfer to other environ-
ments.
Instructional Approaches and Problems
Direct instruction was limited because most of the time
was spent on the boats, which were typically scattered
along a half-mile or more of the river. I changed boats daily
and sometimes twice a day, but I had limited direct contact
with the participants for most of the trip. Therefore, I used
three periods of the day when I could gather the participants
for short lectures, discussions, and excursions. The first
period was when the boatmen were loading the boats in the
morning after breakfast. The second and third periods were
when the boatmen were preparing lunch and dinner. I used
the morning session to tell the participants what we would
see during the morning and to pose questions that would
then serve as discussion topics for later sessions. At lunch.
I reviewed what we had seen in the morning, responded to
individual questions, and discussed the questions posed in
the morning. That was often done in the context of a short
hike up a side canyon where we could see geologic features.
plants, and animal tracks. The early evening was usually
used for short hikes and discussions of what we had seen
during the day.
The major content topics of the various learning activities
are illustrated in Table 2. The geological and climatic char-
acteristics of the region set the context within which to dis-
cuss how life forms adapted. I continually watched for
examples to illustrate concepts.
Proper interpretative material can enhance the learning
experience of ecotourism. Lists of books should be sent to
participants well before the trip. About some areas, such as
national parks, there is a wealth of books and other publica-
tions on natural and human history, geology, wildlife, and
specific features of the area. Lists of those publications and
TABLE 2. Content Organization for Smithsodan
Study M p on the No Grande
Geology
Geologic and geomorphic processes and sequence of
events in the region
Climate
Precipitation processes and seasonality
Temperature variations and seasonality
Soils
Soil-forming processes
Soils in arid climates
Floodplain soils
Ecological processes
Adaptation as an ecological process
Means of adaptation to arid environments
Ecological diversity in the region
Prehistory of the region
Evidence
Sequence of habitation
Adaptive strategies
History of the region
Sequence of settlement and events
Adaptive strategies of Spanish and Anglo-Americans,
compared with those of Native Americans
Current conditions
Interface between First World and Third World
Conflicts over land-use priorities
Environmental degradation
Management alternatives as adaptive strategies
 Kimmel
ordering information can usually be obtained from the visitor
center of the park. However, sometimes that material is too
detailed. It is also difficult for participants to carry several
books. Thus, it is a good idea for the trip leader to bring a “ref-
erence library” if that is logistically possible. There may be no
useful material about areas that are not in state or national
parks. In such cases, the trip organizers should take it upon
themselves to develop at least basic interpretative materials.
Discussion
Miles’s (1991) guidelines for taking students into the
wilderness provide a useful context within which to analyze
the Smithsonian study trip. Miles’s first recommendation
was to “identify and describe program and activity objec-
tives as clearly and completely as possible” (p. 7). ’Wo fac-
tors limit one’s ability to specify learning objectives for
nature tourism. First, the entertainment function of the trip
must be given a high priority. Participants pay a substantial
amount of money for their experience and have the right to
enjoy it. However, learning can and should be enjoyable,
and a statement of general learning objectives can increase
the satisfaction level of the trip. The second factor that lim-
its setting objectives is the variety of background of the par-
ticipants, which may not be known until they gather at the
location. In more structured educational settings, such as
those that Miles (1987, 1991) discussed, there is probably
greater homogeneity of participants and the variations are
usually known when the experience is planned.
General learning objectives for tourism can be stated. My
major objective was to help participants develop an atTec-
tion for the region through understanding its geography and
natural history. After the trip was completed, 3 of the 16 par-
ticipants seriously considered moving to the region, which
indicated some degree of success in achieving the objective.
Miles’s (1991) second guideline was to “establish a high
level of expectation for and in the learners” (p. 8).The char-
acter of an ecotourism vacation does not readily lend itself
to the kinds of expectations that might be imposed on stu-
dents in a more orthodox setting. The guide or the study
leader must be much more subtle in establishing expecta-
tions. However, Miles’s (1991) next point-to “be a model
learner”-provides a subtle means to establish expecta-
tions. Enthusiasm and a sense of discovery are essential
parts of the model. Enthusiasm is essential in an extended
trip because of the rigors of primitive camping. The wind-
storm that blows sand into the food, tents, and clothing can
be used to help understand climatic patterns of the region.
The rattlesnake near the women’s latrine can be used to help
people understand the ecology of a riverine environment as
well as help them learn to be observant!
Discovery is an essential part of the model learner. Miles
( 199 I ) suggested that one “emphasize the process of dis-
covery, inquiry, and meaning rather than just learning facts”
(p. 8). I made it clear from the outset that I did not know
every plant, bird, and rock in the region. I encouraged the
participants to use field guides, and I learned from their dis-
43
coveries. Several of the boatmen were good amateur natu-
ralists, and we often asked their opinions. By using ecolog-
ical adaptation as a theme, I was able to pose questions
regarding life forms in the region. I asked questions such as
“Why are leaves small and cuticles thick?’ “Why are there
many forms of reptiles in the region?’ “Why do so many
plants have thorns?” and “Why do people often wear broad-
brimmed hats?” The discussions that resulted from those
questions helped the participants discover much about the
region. Setting a context for discovery allowed the partici-
pants to become actively involved in their own learning
process. That is perhaps ecotourism’s greatest potential for
providing effective environmental learning.
Miles (1991) also stated, “Whenever possible, use set-
tings that provide opportunitiesfor immediate and appropri-
ate reinforcement” (p. 8). He also recommended the use of
“a judicious integration of information assimilation and
experiential processes” (p. 9). Unfortunately, some partici-
pants found reinforcement to our discussions of the rigors of
an arid climate when they did not follow our admonitions to
drink plenty of water and began to suffer the discomfort of
the early stages of dehydration. Swollen lips caused by lack
of sunblock and wet gear due to failure to close dry bags
properly all presented experiential learning opportunities,
but ones that had to be handled very gingerly on a 7-day trip.
Miles (1991) recommended that those leading wilderness
learning “be organized but also flexible and serendipitous”
(p. 8). The general organization illustrated in Table 1 and the
organization of learning activities shown in Table 2 were
designed to make use of examples as they appeared. Hot
springs, cougar tracks, rattlesnakes, boats stuck in rapids-
all were useful in illustrating various concepts and informa-
tion about the region. The guide/instructor must be continu-
ally alert to points of interest that can be used for illustration.
That relates to another of Miles’ (1991) points: “Be learner
centered” (p. 8). The trip must be continually viewed from
the participants’ standpoint. The exotic tamarisk trees along
the river bank and the color of the river water are common
to the guide/instructor but are new to the participants and
provide excellent opportunities to focus their attention on the
environmental processes that shape the landscape.
Being learner centered is both a strength and potential
weakness of tourism. The touristflearner is the customer,
and successful organizations cater to the needs of the cus-
tomer. However, as Weiler and Davis (1993) observed, out-
fitters and guides may focus on the customer to the detri-
ment of the environment. Part of the learning offered to the
customer must be how to respect and care for the environ-
ment and local people.
Miles’s (1991) final guideline was to “require, structure,
and organize for reflection” (p. 9). That is an appropriate
way to emphasize the environmental learning function of
tourism. Personal journals have long been used in experien-
tial education and are also a tradition in travel. Participants
in ecotourism should be encouraged and guided in keeping
journals. Another method is to use a group problem-solving
44 The Journal of Environmental Education
session. The last night on the river, I challenged the group to
identify management priorities for the 186 miles of the river
we had traveled, which is a National Wild and Scenic River.
We had encountered various conflicting uses of the river,
including fishermen in jet boats. I wanted them to think
about their experience on the river and how their values and
expectations might be reconciled to other uses. I moderated
the discussion, and the group developed several well-consid-
ered management concepts. Discussion of management
issues allowed us to reconsider our own ecological adapta-
tion to the river, thus bringing closure to the theme of the hip.
During the farewell dinner at the historic West Texas
hotel where we spent our last night, I took a more humor-
ous approach to stimulating reflection. The group had
developed a tangible closeness after 7 days on the river. I
described the group as a tribe and identified an adaptive
function of each of the individuals, based on the personal
characteristics for which they had become known. The
woman who kept wandering off represented curiosity and
knowledge. The man from New Hampshire with his dis-
tinctive accent represented diffusion of language and cul-
ture. The woman who continually lost whatever was not
attached to her became the keeper of special artifacts.
Otto-to whom the world adapts-was the head man.
Although that was all in fun and I did not try to use it as an
obvious learning experience, the overall effect was to rein-
force how vulnerable a small band of people is in an arid
environment and, conversely, how vulnerable that environ-
ment is to both natural and human forces of change.
Conclusions
Ecotourism is a large and rapidly growing business
throughout much of the world. It presents risks of damage
to vulnerable environments, and there is substantial need for
better planning, management, and regulation. However,
ecotourism brings many people into environments in which
they can learn about the locale and learn environmental
principles that can heighten their awareness of and commit-
ment to environmental protection in general. Ecotourisni
presents an important opportunity to advance the cause of
environmental education. A greater sense of the education-
al role of ecotourism and more research on appropriate
methods and materials are needed. There must be a clear
statement of objectives, more appropriate interpretative
material, and an emphasis on the professional preparatioii
of tour guides.
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