Strain

CE 211
MECHANICS OF SOLIDS I
Strain
CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Stress & Strain: Axial Loading

• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the
deformations in the structure as well as the stresses induced
under loading. Static analyses alone are not sufficient.
• Considering structures as deformable, allows determination of
member forces and reactions.
• Determination of the stress distribution within a member also
requires consideration of deformations in the member.
• This lecture is concerned with deformation of a structural
member under axial loading.
Strain (Linear): Strain (Linear) is defined as the deformation

(elongation or contraction) per unit length at any point. To
designate strain notation ε is used.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
CE 211
Normal Strain
Figure 1 Figure 2
P Figure 3
σ = = stress σ=
2P P
=
A 2A A P
δ σ=
ε= = normal strain δ A
L ε= 2δ δ
L ε= =
2L L
CE 211
Stress-Strain Test
Figure 4: This Machine is Used Figure 5: Test Specimen with tensile

to Test Tensile Test Specimens Load

CE 211
Stress-Strain Diagram : Ductile Materials
(a) (b)
Figure 6

CE 211
Stress-Strain Diagram : Mild Steel
Figure 8: Necking
of Ductile Steel
Specimen
Figure 7: Stress-Strain Diagram for Ductile Steel

CE 211
Engineering and True Stress-Strain Diagrams for Mild Steel
Figure 9: Comparison of Tension and Compression Monotonic Stress-Strain Diagrams

CE 211
Stress-Strain Diagram : Brittle Materials
Figure 10: Stress-Strain Diagram for a Typical Brittle Material

CE 211
Stress-Strain Diagram : Different Materials
Figure 11: Typical

Stress-Strain Diagram
for Different Materials
CE 211
Hooke’s Law : Modulus of Elasticity
• Below the yield stress: 𝜎𝜎 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝐸𝐸 = Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity

• Strength is affected by alloying, heat treating,
and manufacturing process but stiffness
(Modulus of Elasticity) is not.
Figure 12: Stress-Strain Diagrams

for Iron and Different Grades of
Steel
CE 211
Poisson’s Ratio
• For a slender bar subjected to axial
loading:
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥
𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 0
𝐸𝐸
• The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the
other directions. Assuming that the
material is isotropic (no directional
dependence),
𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 = 𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧 ≠ 0
• Poisson’s ratio is defined as :

Lateral Strain 𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧
𝑣𝑣 = =− = −
Figure 13 Axial Strain 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥
CE 211
Generalized Hooke’s Law

• For an element subjected to multi-axial
loading, the normal strain components
resulting from the stress components
may be determined from the principle
of superposition. This requires:
1. Strain is linearly related to stress
2. Deformations are small
• With these restrictions:

𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 = + − −
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸
𝑣𝑣𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 = − + −
𝑣𝑣𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧 = − − +
Figure 14 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸
CE 211
Example 1:
Consider a carefully conducted experiment where
an aluminum bar of 50-mm diameter is stressed in
a testing machine, as shown in Fig. 15. At a certain
instant the applied force P is 100kN, while the
measured elongation of the rod is 0.219 mm in a
300-mm gage length, and the diameter's dimen-
sion is decreased by 0.01215 mm. Calculate the
constant 𝑣𝑣 of the material.
Solution:
Transverse or lateral strain: Figure 15
∆𝑡𝑡 0.01215
𝜀𝜀𝑡𝑡 = = − = −0.000243 mm/mm
𝐷𝐷 50
In this case, the lateral strain 𝜀𝜀𝑡𝑡 is negative, since the diameter of the
bar decreases by ∆𝑡𝑡 .
CE 211
Axial strain:
∆ 0.219
𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎 = = + = 0.00073 mm/mm
𝐿𝐿 300
Poisson’s Ratio:
𝜀𝜀𝑡𝑡 −0.000243
𝑣𝑣 = − =− = 0.333
𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎 0.00073

CE 211
Thermal Strain and Deformation

With changes in temperature, solid bodies change their dimensions. If
the temperature increases, generally a body expands, whereas if the
temperature decreases, a solid body will contract. Ordinarily, over a
limited range of temperature change this expansion or contraction is
linearly related to the temperature increase or decrease that occurs. If
the body material is homogeneous and isotropic, it has been found that
the thermal strain 𝜀𝜀𝑇𝑇 caused by a change in temperature ∆𝑇𝑇, measured
in degrees Celsius ℃ or Fahrenheit ℉ , can be expressed as :
𝜀𝜀𝑇𝑇 = 𝛼𝛼∆𝑇𝑇 ... ... ... ... ... ... (1)

where 𝛼𝛼 is a property of the material, referred to as the coefficient of
linear thermal expansion. The units of a measure strain per degree of
temperature. They are 1⁄℉ in the U.S. customary system of units, and
1⁄℃ in the SI system.
CE 211
Equal thermal strains develop in every direction for

unconstrained homogeneous isotropic materials. For a
body of length 𝐿𝐿0 subjected to a uniform temperature,
the extensional deformation ∆ 𝑇𝑇 due to a change in
temperature of ∆𝑇𝑇 is :
∆ 𝑇𝑇 = 𝛼𝛼∆𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿0 ... ... ... ... ... ... (2)
An illustration of the thermal effect on deformation of

a square and round specimen, due to an increase of
temperature is shown in Fig. 16.
Figure 16
CE 211
Other Idealizations of Constitutive Relations
Figure 17 : Idealized Stress-Strain Diagrams : (a) Rigid Perfectly Plastic Material

(b) Elastic Perfectly Plastic Material, and (c) Elastic Linearly Hardening Material
CE 211
Under rapid or impact loading, two additional material
parameters have relevance: resilience and toughness. Resilience defines
the ability of material to absorb energy without suffering plastic strain.
The area in the elastic region under a stress-strain diagram represents
the density of strain energy that can be absorbed without any
permanent damage to the material. This area is called the modulus of
resilience 𝑈𝑈𝑅𝑅 and is equivalent to the shaded triangular area shown in
Fig. 18(a).
Toughness defines the ability of material to absorb energy prior
to fracture. It can be shown that the area under the stress-strain
diagram represents the density of strain energy absorbed by material
prior to fracture. The area under the complete monotonic stress-strain
diagram is called the modulus of toughness 𝑈𝑈𝑇𝑇 . Figure 18(b) illustrates
the modulus of toughness for brittle and ductile materials. The figure
shows that a brittle material, even of greater ultimate strength, generally
absorbs much less energy from impact loading than a ductile material.
CE 211
Figure 18 : (a) Modulus of Resilience 𝑈𝑈𝑅𝑅 , (b) Modulus of Toughness 𝑈𝑈𝑇𝑇

CE 211
In order to formulate the
∆𝐿𝐿
relation, Equation: 𝜀𝜀 =
𝐿𝐿0
for the normal strain is
recast for a differential
element 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . Thus the
normal strain 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 in the 𝑥𝑥
direction is:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 = ... ... ... (3) Figure 19 : An Axially Loaded Bar
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Where, due to the applied forces, 𝑢𝑢 is the absolute displacement of a

point on a bar from an initial fixed position in space, and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is t he axial
deformation of the infinitesimal element. This is the governing
differential equation for axially loaded bars.
CE 211
Rearranging Eq. 3 as 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, assuming the origin of 𝑥𝑥 at 𝐵𝐵, and
integrating,
𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑢𝑢 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑢𝑢 0 = � 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0
where 𝑢𝑢(𝐿𝐿) = 𝑢𝑢𝐷𝐷 and 𝑢𝑢(𝑂𝑂) = 𝑢𝑢𝐵𝐵 are the absolute or global
displacements of points D and B, respectively. As can be seen from the
figure, 𝑢𝑢(𝑂𝑂) is a rigid-body axial translation of the bar. The difference
between these dis placements is the change in length ∆ between points
D and B. Hence,
𝐿𝐿
∆= � 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ... ... ... ... ... ... (4)
0
Any appropriate constitutive relations can be used to define 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 .

CE 211
For linearly elastic materials, according to Hooke's law,

𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 ⁄𝐸𝐸 , where 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥 ⁄𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 . By substituting these relations
into Eq. 4 and simplifying,
𝐿𝐿
𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∆= � ... ... ... ... ... ... (5)
0 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥

CE 211
Example 2:
Consider bar BC of constant cross-sectional area A and of length L shown in
Fig. 20(a). Determine the deflection of the free end, caused by the
application of a concentrated force P. The elastic modulus of the material is
E.
Figure 20
CE 211
Solution:
A free-body diagram for an isolated part of the loaded bar to the left of
an arbitrary section a-a is shown in Fig. 20(c). From this diagram, it can
be concluded that the axial force 𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥 is the same everywhere along the
bar and is equal to P. It is given that 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 = A, a constant By applying Eq. 5,
𝐵𝐵
𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑃𝑃 𝐿𝐿 𝑃𝑃 𝐿𝐿
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
∆= � = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑜𝑜 =
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 𝐸𝐸 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 0 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Hence,
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ... ... ... ... ... ... (6)
∆=
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Since Eq. 6 frequently occurs in practice, it is meaningful to recast it into
the following form:
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ⁄𝐿𝐿 ∆ ... ... ... ... ... ... (7)
CE 211
This equation is related to the familiar definition for the

spring constant or stiffness 𝑘𝑘 reading :
𝑘𝑘 = 𝑃𝑃/∆ [lb/in] or [N/m] ... ... ... (8)
This constant represents the force required to produce a unit

deflection (i.e., ∆ = 1). Therefore, for an axially loaded 𝑖𝑖th bar or
bar segment of length 𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖 and constant cross section,
𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 ... ... ... ... ... ...

𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖 = (9)
𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖

CE 211
Example 3:
Determine the relative
displacement of point D
from O for the elastic steel
bar of variable cross
section shown in Fig. 21(a)
caused by the application
of concentrated forces P1 =
100 kN and P3 = 200 kN
acting to the left, and P2 =
250 kN and P4 = 50 kN
acting to the right. The
respective areas for bar
segments OB, BC, and CD
are 1000, 2000, and 1000
mm2. Let E = 200 GPa. Figure 21
CE 211
Figure 21
Solution:
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝐿𝐿𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
∆=� = + +
𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸 𝐴𝐴𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝐸𝐸 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 𝐸𝐸 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐸𝐸
𝑖𝑖
where the subscripts identify the segments.
Using this relation, the relative displacement between O and D is
100×103 ×2000 150×103 ×1000 50×103 ×1500
∆= + − +
1000×200×103 2000×200×103 1000×200×103
= +1.000 − 0.375 + 0.375 = +1.000 mm
CE 211
Example 4:
Determine the deflection of free end B of elastic bar OB caused by its own
weight 𝑤𝑤 lb/in; see Fig. 22. The constant cross-sectional area is 𝐴𝐴. Assume
that the constant 𝐸𝐸 is given.
Figure 22
CE 211
Solution:
The free-body diagrams of the bar and its truncated segment are shown,
respectively, in Figs. 22(a) and (b). These two steps are essential in the solution
of such problems. The graph for the axial force 𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥 = 𝑤𝑤(𝐿𝐿 − 𝑥𝑥) is in Fig. 22(c).
By applying Eq. 5, the change in bar length ∆(𝑥𝑥) at a generic point 𝑥𝑥,
𝑥𝑥 𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑤𝑤 𝑥𝑥 2
∆ 𝑥𝑥 = ∫0 𝐴𝐴 𝐸𝐸 = ∫ 𝑤𝑤 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 −
𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2
A plot of this function is shown in Fig. 22(d),with its maximum as B.
The deflection of B is :
𝑤𝑤 𝐿𝐿2 𝑤𝑤𝐿𝐿2 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
∆= ∆ 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿2 − = =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2 2𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
where 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 is the total weight of the bar.
If a concentrated force P, in addition to the bar's own weight, were
acting on bar OB at end B,the total deflection due to the two causes would be
obtained by superposition as
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑃𝑃+ 𝑊𝑊⁄2 𝐿𝐿
∆= + =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
CE 211
Example 5:
For the bracket analyzed for stresses in
Example 3 of Stress Slide, determine the
deflection of point B caused by the applied
vertical force P = 3 kips. Also determine the
vertical stiffness of the bracket at B. Assume
that the members are made of 2024-T4
aluminum alloy and that they have constant
cross sectional areas (i.e., neglect the
enlargements at the connections). See the
idealization in Fig. 23(a).
Figure 23(a)

CE 211
Solution:
As found in Example 3 of Stress Slide, the axial
stresses in the bars of the bracket are 𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =
17.8 ksi and 𝜎𝜎𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 12.9 ksi . The length of
member AB is 6.71 in and that of BC is 8.49 in.
For the specified material, 𝐸𝐸 = 10.6 × 103 ksi.
Therefore, according to Eq. 6, the individual
member length changes are :
Figure 23 (b)
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐿𝐿 17.8×6.71
∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = = 𝜎𝜎 = = 11.3 × 10−3 in (Elongation)
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐸𝐸 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 10.6×103
12.9×8.49
∆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = − = −10.3 × 10−3 in (Contraction)
10.6×103

CE 211
If ∆ is the deflection or displacement of point B to position 𝐵𝐵4 ,
Fig. 23(c), and changes in bar lengths ∆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵2 and ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵1 ,
∆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = ∆ cos 𝜃𝜃2 and ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = ∆ cos 𝜃𝜃1
On forming equal ratios for both sides of these equations, substituting

the numerical values for ∆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 and ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 found earlier, and simplifying, one
obtains :
cos 𝜃𝜃2 ∆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 10.3×10−3
= = = 0.912
cos 𝜃𝜃1 ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 11.3×10−3
However, since,
𝜃𝜃2 = 180° − 45° − 26.6° − 𝜃𝜃1

= 108.4° − 𝜃𝜃1
Figure 23 (c)

CE 211
cos 𝜃𝜃2 = cos 108.4° cos 𝜃𝜃1 + sin 108.4° sin 𝜃𝜃1
And
cos 𝜃𝜃2
= cos 108.4° + sin 108.4° tan 𝜃𝜃1 = 0.912
cos 𝜃𝜃1
Therefore,
tan 𝜃𝜃1 = 1.29 and 𝜃𝜃1 = 52.2°
Based on this result,
∆= ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ⁄cos 𝜃𝜃1 = 18.4 × 10−3 in
forming an angle of 11.2° with the vertical. Figure 23 (c)
Since ∆vert = ∆ cos 11.2° = 18.0 × 10−3 in, the vertical stiffness of the
bracket is given by the spring constant
𝑃𝑃 3
𝑘𝑘 = = = 167 kips/in
∆vert 18.0×10−3
CE 211
Example 6:
Determine the displacement of point B in
Example 5 caused by an increase in
temperature of 100℉. See Fig. 24(a).
Solution:
Determining the deflection at point B due to (a)
an increase in temperature is similar to the
solution of Example 5 for finding the
deflection of the same point caused by
stress. The coefficient of thermal expansion
for 2024-T4 aluminum alloy is 12.9 × 10−6
per ℉. (b)
Figure 24
CE 211
Hence, from Eq. 2, and using the lengths of members given in Example
5,
∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 12.9 × 10−6 × 100 × 6.71 = 8.656 × 10−3 in
∆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 12.9 × 10−6 × 100 × 8.49 = 10.95 × 10−3 in
Here the displacement ∆ 𝑇𝑇 of point B to position 𝐵𝐵4 , Fig. 24(b), caused by
a change in temperature, is related to the bar elongations in the
following manner:
∆ 𝑇𝑇 cos 𝜃𝜃2 = ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and ∆ 𝑇𝑇 cos 𝜃𝜃1 = ∆𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶
Forming equal ratios for both sides of these equations, substituting the
numerical values for ∆𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵 and ∆𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 found earlier, and simplifying, one
obtains :
cos 𝜃𝜃2 ∆𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵 8.656×10−3
= = = 0.7905
cos 𝜃𝜃1 ∆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 10.95×10−3
CE 211
Here, however, 𝜃𝜃2 = 45° + 26.6° − 𝜃𝜃1 = 71.6° − 𝜃𝜃1
cos 𝜃𝜃2 = cos 71.6° cos 𝜃𝜃1 + sin 71.6° sin 𝜃𝜃1
and
cos 𝜃𝜃2
= cos 71.6° + sin 71.6° tan 𝜃𝜃1 = 0.7905
cos 𝜃𝜃1
Hence,
tan 𝜃𝜃1 = 0.500 and 𝜃𝜃1 = 26.6°

Based on this result,
∆ 𝑇𝑇 = ∆𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 ⁄cos 𝜃𝜃1 = 12.2 × 10−3 in
forming an angle of 45° − 𝜃𝜃1 = 18.4° with the horizontal.
It is interesting to note that the small displacement ∆ 𝑇𝑇 is of
comparable order of magnitude to that found due to the applied vertical
force P in Example 5.
CE 211
Saint-Venant’s Principle and Stress Concentration
Figure 25 : Stress Distribution Near a Concentrated Force in A Rectangular Elastic Plate

CE 211
Figure 26 : Stress-
Concentration
Factors for Flat Bars
in Tension
𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐾𝐾𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐾𝐾 ... ... ... ... ... ... (10)
𝐴𝐴
where 𝐾𝐾 is an appropriate stress-concentration factor, and P/A is the
average stress.
CE 211
Example 7:
Find the maximum stress in member AB in the forked end A in Example
3 of Stress Slide.
Solution:
Geometrical proportions :
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐻𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 3⁄16
= = 0.375
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 1⁄2
From Fig. 26: 𝐾𝐾 ≈ 2.15 for r/d = 0.375.

Average stress from Example 3 of Stress Slide:𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃⁄𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 11.2 ksi.
Maximum stress, from Eq. 10 : 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐾𝐾𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 2.15 × 11.2 = 24.1 ksi.
This answer indicates that a large local increase in stress occurs at

this hole, a fact that may be highly significant
CE 211
Elastic Strain Energy for Uniaxial Stress
Figure 27 : (a) An Element in Uniaxial Tension and (b) a Hookean Stress-Strain Diagram

CE 211
Consider an infinitesimal element, such as shown in Fig. 27(a),

subjected to a normal stress 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 . The force acting on the right or the
left face of this element is 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, where 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is an infinitesimal
area of the element. Because of this force. the element elongates an
amount 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, where 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 is normal strain in the 𝑥𝑥 direction. If the
element is made of a linearly elastic material, stress is proportional to
strain; Fig. 27(b). Therefore, if the element is initially free of stress,
the force that finally acts on the element increases linearly from zero
until it attains its full value. The average force acting on the element
1
while deformation is taking place is 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. This average force
2
multiplied by the distance through which it acts is the work done on
the element. For a perfectly elastic body, no energy is dissipated and
the work done on the element is stored as recoverable internal strain
energy.
CE 211
Thus, the internal elastic strain energy U for an infinitesimal element
subjected to uniaxial stress is :
1 1 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜎𝜎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜎𝜎 𝜀𝜀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜎𝜎 𝜀𝜀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ... (11)
2 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
Average Force Distance
Work
where 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the volume of the element.
By recasting Eq. 11, one obtains the strain energy stored in an
elastic body per unit volume of the material or its strain-energy density
𝑈𝑈0 . Thus,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥
𝑈𝑈0 = = ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (12)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
This expression may be graphically interpreted as an area under the
inclined line on the stress-strain diagram; Fig. 27(b).
CE 211
The corresponding area enclosed by the inclined line and the vertical
axis is called the complementary energy. For linearly elastic materials,
the two areas are equal. Expressions analogous to Eq. 12 apply to the
normal stresses 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 and 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 and to the corresponding normal strains 𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦
and 𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧 .
Since in the elastic range Hooke's law applies, 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸𝐸𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 , Eq. 12
may be written as :
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐸𝐸𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥2 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥2 ... ... ... ... ... ... (13)
𝑈𝑈0 = = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2𝐸𝐸
or
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥2
𝑈𝑈 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2𝐸𝐸 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (14)

CE 211
Example 8:
Two elastic bars, whose proportions are shown in Fig. 28, are to absorb
the same amount of energy delivered by axial forces at the free end.
Neglecting stress concentrations, compare the stresses in the two bars.
The cross-sectional area of the left bar is A, and that of the right bar is A
and 2A as shown.
Solution:
The bar shown in Fig. 28(a) is of uniform cross-
sectional area; therefore, the normal stress 𝜎𝜎1 is
constant throughout. Using Eq. 14 and integrating
over the volume V of the bar, one can write the total
energy for the bar as
𝜎𝜎12 𝜎𝜎12 𝜎𝜎12
𝑈𝑈1 = ∫𝑣𝑣 2𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= = ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)
2𝐸𝐸 𝑣𝑣 2𝐸𝐸
where A is the cross-sectional area of the bar and L is
Figure 28
its length.
CE 211
The bar shown in Fig. 28(b) is of variable cross section. Therefore, if the
stress 𝜎𝜎2 acts in the lower part of the bar, the stress in the upper part is
1
𝜎𝜎 . Again, by using Eq. 14 and integrating over the volume of the bar, it
2 2
is found that the total energy that this bar will absorb in terms of the
stress 𝜎𝜎2 is :
𝜎𝜎 2 𝜎𝜎22 𝜎𝜎2 ⁄2 2
𝑈𝑈2 = ∫𝑣𝑣 2𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ∫upper part 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝐸𝐸 lower part 2𝐸𝐸
𝜎𝜎22 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝜎𝜎2 ⁄2 2 3𝐿𝐿 𝜎𝜎22 5

= + 2𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
2𝐸𝐸 4 2𝐸𝐸 4 2𝐸𝐸 8
If both bars are to absorb the same amount of energy, 𝑈𝑈1 = 𝑈𝑈2 and
𝜎𝜎12 𝜎𝜎22 5
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 or 𝜎𝜎2 = 1.265 𝜎𝜎1
2𝐸𝐸 2𝐸𝐸 8

CE 211
Example 9:
A 30-in-long aluminum rod is
enclosed within a steel-alloy tube;
see Figs. 29(a) and (b). The two
materials are bonded together. If
the stress-strain diagrams for the
two materials can be idealized as
shown; respectively, in Fig. 29(d),
what end deflection will occur for
P1 = 80 kips and for P2 = 125 kips?
The cross-sectional areas of steel
As and of aluminum Aa are the
same and equal to 0.5 in2.
Figure 29

CE 211
Solution:
From equilibrium:
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 + 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃1 or 𝑃𝑃2
From compatibility:
∆𝑎𝑎 = ∆𝑠𝑠 or 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎 = 𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠
From material properties:
𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎 = 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 ⁄𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 and 𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 = 𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 ⁄𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠
By noting that 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 ⁄𝐴𝐴𝑎𝑎 one can solve the three equations. From the
diagram the elastic moduli are 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 30 × 106 psi and 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 = 10 × 106
psi. Thus,
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠
𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎 = 𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 = = = =
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴𝑎𝑎 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠
Hence, 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 ⁄𝐴𝐴𝑎𝑎 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 3𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 and 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 + 3𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃1 = 80 k ;
therefore, 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 20 k and 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = 60 k.
CE 211
By applying Eq. 6 to either material. the tip deflect ion for 80 kips will be
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝐿 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿 20×103 ×30
∆= = = = 0.120 in
𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴𝑎𝑎 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 0.5×10×106
This corresponds to a strain of 0.120⁄30 = 4 × 10−3 in/in. In

this range, both materials respond elastically, which satisfies the
material-property assumption made at the beginning of this solution. In
fact, as may be seen from Fig. 29(d), since for the linearly elastic
response the strain can reach 5 × 10−3 in/in for both materials, by
direct proportion, the applied force P can be as large as 100 kips.
At P = 100 kips, the stress in aluminum reaches 50 ksi. According
to the idealized stress-strain diagram, no higher stress can be resisted by
this material, although the strains may continue to increase. Therefore,
beyond P = 100 kips, the aluminum rod can be counted upon to resist
only 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 𝐴𝐴𝑎𝑎 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 0.5 × 50 = 25 kips. The remainder of the applied
load must be carried by the steel tube.
CE 211
Therefore for P2 = 125 kips, 100 kips must be carried by the

steel tube. Hence, 𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 = 100⁄0.5 = 200 ksi. At this stress
level 𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 = 200⁄ 30 × 103 = 6.67 × 10−3 in/in. Therefore,
the tip deflection
∆ = 𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 𝐿𝐿 = 6.67 × 10−3 × 30 = 0.200 in
Note that it is not possible to determine ∆ from the

strain in aluminum, since no unique strain corresponds to
the stress beyond 50 ksi, which is all that the aluminum rod
can carry. However, in this case, the elastic steel tube
constrains the plastic flow. Therefore, since the strains in
both materials are the same-that is, 𝜀𝜀𝑠𝑠 = 𝜀𝜀𝑎𝑎 = 6.67 × 10−3 ;
see Fig. 29(d).
CE 211
If the applied force P2 = 125 kips were removed, both

materials in the rod would rebound elastically. Thus, if one
imagines the bond between the two materials broken, the
steel tube would return to its initial shape. But a
permanent set (stretch) of 6.67 − 5 × 10−3 = 1.67 ×
10−3 in/in would occur in the aluminum rod. This
incompatibility of strain cannot develop if the two
materials are bonded together. Instead residual stresses
develop, which maintain the same axial deformation in
both materials. In this case. the aluminum rod remains
slightly compressed and the steel tube is slightly stretched.

CE 211
TO DO LIST FROM POPOV
Solve following problems in addition to solved

problems of different text books mentioned
Problems from Chapter 3 (2nd ed):
11-14, 17-19, 25, 26, 30, 33 & 49

CE 211
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior
• If the strain disappears when

the stress is removed, the
material is said to behave
elastically.
• The largest stress for which this

occurs is called the elastic limit.
• When the strain does not return

to zero after the stress is
removed, the material is said to
Figure 30
behave plastically.

CE 211
Fatigue
• Fatigue properties are shown

on S-N diagrams.
• A member may fail due to

fatigue at stress levels
significantly below the
ultimate strength if subjected
to many loading cycles.
• When the stress is reduced

below the endurance limit,
fatigue failures do not occur
for any number of cycles.
Figure 31

CE 211
Deformations Under Axial Loading

• From Hooke’s Law:
𝜎𝜎 𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜀𝜀 = =
𝐸𝐸 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
• From the definition of strain:
𝛿𝛿
𝜀𝜀 =
𝐿𝐿
• Equating and solving for the
deformation,
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝛿𝛿 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
• With variations in loading, cross-
section or material properties,
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖
Figure 32 𝛿𝛿 = �
𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖
CE 211
Example 10:
Solution:
• Divide the rod into

components at the load
application points.
Figure 33
𝐸𝐸 = 29 × 10−6 psi • Apply a free-body analysis on

each component to
𝐷𝐷 = 1.07 in. 𝑑𝑑 = 0.618 in. determine the internal force
Determine the deformation • Evaluate the total of the

of the steel rod shown under component deflections.
the given loads.

CE 211
Solution: • Apply free-body analysis to each
component to determine internal
• Divide the rod into forces,
three components: 𝑃𝑃1 = 60 × 103 lb
𝑃𝑃2 = −15 × 103 lb
𝑃𝑃3 = 30 × 103 lb
• Evaluate total deflection,
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖 1 𝑃𝑃1 𝐿𝐿1 𝑃𝑃2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑃𝑃3 𝐿𝐿3
𝛿𝛿 = � = + +
𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴3
𝑖𝑖
60×103 12 −15×103 12
1 +
0.9 0.9
=
29×106 30×103 16
+
0.3
𝐿𝐿1 = 𝐿𝐿2 = 12 in. 𝐿𝐿3 = 16 in. = 75.9 × 10−3 in
𝐴𝐴1 = 𝐴𝐴2 = 0.9 in2 𝐴𝐴3 = 0.3in2 𝛿𝛿 = 75.9 × 10−3 in
CE 211
Example 11: Solution:
• Apply a free-body analysis

to the bar BDE to find the
Figure 34
forces exerted by links AB
and DC.
• Evaluate the deformation

The rigid bar BDE is supported by two of links AB and DC or the
links AB and CD. displacements of B and D.
Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70 GPa)
and has a cross-sectional area of 500 • Work out the geometry to
mm2. Link CD is made of steel (E = 200
find the deflection at E
given the deflections at B
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 600 and D.
mm2.
For the 30-kN force shown, determine the
deflection (a) of B, (b) of D, and (c) of E.
CE 211
Solution:
Free body: Bar BDE
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵 = 0
0 = − 30kN × 0.6m + 𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 × 0.2m
𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = +90 kN Tension
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐷𝐷 = 0
0 = − 30kN × 0.4m − 𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 × 0.2m
𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = −60 kN Compression
CE 211
Displacement of B:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝛿𝛿𝐵𝐵 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
−60 × 103 N 0.3m
=
500 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 70 × 109 Pa
= −514 × 10−6 m
𝛿𝛿𝐵𝐵 = 0.514 mm ↑
Displacement of D:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝛿𝛿𝐷𝐷 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
90 × 103 N 0.4m
=
600 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚2 200 × 109 Pa
= 300 × 10−6 m
𝛿𝛿𝐷𝐷 = 0.300 mm ↓
CE 211
Displacement of E:
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵′ 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
=
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷′ 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
0.514 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 200 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −𝑥𝑥
=
0.300 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 = 73.7 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ′ 𝐻𝐻𝐸𝐸
′ =
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝛿𝛿𝐸𝐸 400+73.7 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
=
0.300 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 73.7 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝛿𝛿𝐸𝐸 = 1.928 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝛿𝛿𝐸𝐸 = 1.928 mm ↓
CE 211
Static Indeterminacy
• Structures for which internal forces and
reactions cannot be determined from
statics alone are said to be statically
indeterminate.
• A structure will be statically indeterminate
whenever it is held by more supports than
are required to maintain its equilibrium.
• Redundant reactions are replaced with
unknown loads which along with the
other loads must produce compatible
deformations.
• Deformations due to actual loads and
redundant reactions are determined
separately and then added or superposed.
Figure 35 𝛿𝛿 = 𝛿𝛿𝐿𝐿 + 𝛿𝛿𝑅𝑅 = 0
CE 211
Example 12:
Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel
bar and loading shown, assuming a close fit at
both supports before the loads are applied.
Solution:
• Consider the reaction at B as redundant,
release the bar from that support, and solve
for the displacement at B due to the applied
loads.
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the
redundant reaction at B.
• Require that the displacements due to the
loads and due to the redundant reaction be
compatible, i.e., require that their sum be
zero.
• Solve for the reaction at A due to applied
Figure 36 loads and the reaction found at B.
CE 211
Solution:
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the applied loads
with the redundant constraint released,
𝑃𝑃1 = 0 𝑃𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑃3 = 600 × 103 N 𝑃𝑃4 = 900 × 103 N
𝐴𝐴1 = 𝐴𝐴2 = 400 × 10−6 m2 𝐴𝐴3 = 𝐴𝐴4 = 250 × 10−6 m2
𝐿𝐿1 = 𝐿𝐿2 = 𝐿𝐿3 = 𝐿𝐿4 = 0.150 m
𝑃𝑃 𝐿𝐿 1.125×109
𝛿𝛿𝐿𝐿 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 =
𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the redundant

constraint,
𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑃2 = −𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵
𝐴𝐴1 = 400 × 10−6 m2 𝐴𝐴2 = 250 × 10−6 m2
𝐿𝐿1 = 𝐿𝐿2 = 0.300 m
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖 (1.95×103 )𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵
𝛿𝛿𝑅𝑅 = ∑𝑖𝑖 = −
𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸
CE 211
• Require that the displacements due to the loads
and due to the redundant reaction be compatible,
𝛿𝛿 = 𝛿𝛿𝐿𝐿 + 𝛿𝛿𝑅𝑅 = 0
1.125×109 (1.95×103 )𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵
𝛿𝛿 = − =0
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 577 × 103 N = 577 kN
• Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the
reaction at B
∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0 = 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 − 300kN − 600kN + 577kN
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 = 323 kN
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 = 323 kN
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 577 kN

CE 211
Thermal Stresses
• A temperature change results in a change in length
or thermal strain. There is no stress associated
with the thermal strain unless the elongation is
restrained by the supports.
• Treat the additional support as redundant and
apply the principle of superposition.
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝛿𝛿𝑇𝑇 = 𝛼𝛼 Δ𝑇𝑇 𝐿𝐿 𝛿𝛿𝑃𝑃 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝛼𝛼 = thermal expansion coefficient
• The thermal deformation and the deformation
from the redundant support must be compatible.
δ = 𝛿𝛿𝑇𝑇 + 𝛿𝛿𝑃𝑃 = 0
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝛼𝛼 Δ𝑇𝑇 𝐿𝐿 + = 0 𝑃𝑃 = −𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝛼𝛼 Δ𝑇𝑇
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑃𝑃
Figure 37 𝜎𝜎 = = −𝐸𝐸𝛼𝛼 Δ𝑇𝑇
𝐴𝐴
CE 211
Dilatation: Bulk Modulus

• Relative to the unstressed state, the change in
volume is
𝑒𝑒 = 1 + 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 1 + 𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 1 + 𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧 -1
= 1 + 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 + 𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧 -1
= 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 + 𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧
1−2𝑣𝑣
= (𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 + 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 )
𝐸𝐸
= dilatation (change in volume per unit volume)
• For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic
pressure,
3 1−2𝑣𝑣 𝑝𝑝
𝑒𝑒 = −𝑝𝑝 =−
𝐸𝐸 𝑘𝑘
𝐸𝐸
𝑘𝑘 = = bulk modulus
3(1−2𝑣𝑣)
• Subjected to uniform pressure, dilatation must be
negative, therefore
1
Figure 38 0 < 𝑣𝑣 <
2
CE 211
Shearing Strain
• A cubic element subjected to a shear stress
will deform into a rhomboid. The
corresponding shear strain is quantified in
terms of the change in angle between the
sides,
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝛾𝛾𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
• A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is
similar the previous plots of normal stress vs.
normal strain except that the strength values
are approximately half. For small strains,
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝐺𝐺𝛾𝛾𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧 = 𝐺𝐺𝛾𝛾𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧 𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 𝐺𝐺𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear
Figure 39 modulus.
CE 211
Example 13:
A rectangular block of material with modulus of rigidity G = 90 ksi is
bonded to two rigid horizontal plates. The lower plate is fixed, while the
upper plate is subjected to a horizontal force P. Knowing that the upper
plate moves through 0.04 in. under the action of the force, determine
(a) the average shearing strain in the material, and (b) the force P
exerted on the plate.
Solution:
• Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain of
the block.
• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing
stress and strain to find the
corresponding shearing stress.
• Use the definition of shearing stress
Figure 40 (a) to find the force P.
CE 211
Solution:
• Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain
of the block.
0.04 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.
𝛾𝛾𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 ≈ tan 𝛾𝛾𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 =
2 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖.
𝛾𝛾𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0.020 rad Figure 40 (b)
•Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress and strain to find the
corresponding shearing stress.
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝐺𝐺𝛾𝛾𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 90 × 103 psi 0.020 rad = 1800 psi
•Use the definition of shearing stress to find the force P.
𝑃𝑃 = 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴 = 1800psi 8in. 2.5in. = 36 × 103 lb
𝑃𝑃 = 36.0 kips
CE 211
Relation Among E, v, and G
• An axially loaded slender bar will
elongate in the axial direction and
contract in the transverse directions.
• An initially cubic element oriented as
in top figure will deform into a
rectangular parallelepiped. The axial
load produces a normal strain.
• If the cubic element is oriented as in
the bottom figure, it will deform into a
rhombus. Axial load also results in a
shear strain.
• Components of normal and shear
strain are related,
𝐸𝐸
Figure 41 = (1 + 𝑣𝑣)
2𝐺𝐺
CE 211
Example 14:
A circle of diameter d = 9 in. is scribed on an unstressed aluminum
plate of thickness t = 3/4 in. Forces acting in the plane of the plate
later cause normal stresses 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 12 ksi and 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 20 ksi.
For 𝐸𝐸 = 10 × 106 psi and 𝑣𝑣 = 1/3, determine the change in:
a) the length of diameter AB,
b) the length of diameter CD,
c) the thickness of the plate, and
d) the volume of the plate.
Figure 42

CE 211
Solution:
• Apply the generalized Hooke’s Law to find the three
components of normal strain.
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧

𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 = + − −
1 1
= 12ksi − 0 − (20ksi)
10×106 psi 3
= +0.533 × 10−3 in./in.

𝑣𝑣𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝑣𝑣𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 = − + −
= −1.067 × 10−3 in./in.
𝑣𝑣𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦
𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧
𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧 = − − +
= +1.600 × 10−3 in./in.
CE 211
• Evaluate the deformation components.
𝛿𝛿𝐵𝐵⁄𝐴𝐴 = 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑 = +0.533 × 10−3 in.⁄in. (9in. )
𝛿𝛿𝐵𝐵⁄𝐴𝐴 = +4.8 × 10−3 in.
𝛿𝛿𝐶𝐶 ⁄𝐷𝐷 = 𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑 = +1.600 × 10−3 in.⁄in. (9in. )

𝛿𝛿𝐶𝐶 ⁄𝐷𝐷 = +14.4 × 10−3 in.
𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡 = 𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = −1.067 × 10−3 in.⁄in. (0.75in. )

𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡 = −0.800 × 10−3 in.
• Find the change in volume
𝑒𝑒 = 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 + 𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧 = 1.067 × 10−3 in3 ⁄in3
∆𝑉𝑉 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 1.067 × 10−3 (15 × 15 × 0.75)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖3
∆𝑉𝑉 = +0.187in3
CE 211
Composite Materials
• Fiber-reinforced composite materials are
formed from lamina of fibers of graphite,
glass, or polymers embedded in a resin
matrix.
• Normal stresses and strains are related by
Hooke’s Law but with directionally
dependent moduli of elasticity,
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝜎
𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧
𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝜀𝜀𝑧𝑧
• Transverse contractions are related by
directionally dependent values of Poisson’s
ratio, e.g.,
𝜀𝜀𝑦𝑦 𝜀𝜀
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = − 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑧𝑧 = − 𝑧𝑧
𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥
• Materials with directionally dependent
Figure 43 mechanical properties are anisotropic.
CE 211
Saint-Venant’s Principle
• Loads transmitted through rigid
plates result in uniform
distribution of stress and strain.
• Concentrated loads result in large
stresses in the vicinity of the load
application point.
• Stress and strain distributions
become uniform at a relatively
short distance from the load
application points.
• Saint-Venant’s Principle:
Stress distribution may be
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0.973𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0.668𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0.198𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 assumed independent of the
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 1.027𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 1.387𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 2.575𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 mode of load application except
in the immediate vicinity of load
Figure 44
application points.
CE 211
Stress Concentration: Hole
Discontinuities of cross
section may result in high 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
localized or concentrated 𝑘𝑘 = Figure 45(a) : Flat Bars with Holes
stresses. 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
CE 211
Stress Concentration: Fillet
Figure 45(b) : Flat Bars with Fillets

CE 211
Example 15:
Determine the largest axial load P that can be safely supported by a flat
steel bar consisting of two portions, both 10 mm thick, and respectively
40 and 60 mm wide, connected by fillets of radius r = 8 mm. Assume an
allowable normal stress of 165 MPa.
Solution:
• Determine the geometric ratios and find the stress concentration
factor from Fig. 45(b).
• Find the allowable average normal stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress concentration factor.
• Apply the definition of normal stress to find the allowable load.
CE 211
• Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 45(b).
𝐷𝐷 60 𝑟𝑟 8
= = 1.5 = = 0.2
𝑑𝑑 40 𝑑𝑑 40
𝐾𝐾 = 1.82
• Find the allowable average normal
stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress
concentration factor.
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 165 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = = 90.7 Mpa
𝐾𝐾 1.82
Figure 45(b)
Apply the definition of normal stress to find the allowable load.

𝑃𝑃 = 𝐴𝐴𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 40𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 90.7𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 36.3 × 103 N
𝑃𝑃 = 36.3 kN
CE 211
Elastoplastic Materials
• Previous analyses based on assumption
of linear stress-strain relationship, i.e.,
stresses below the yield stress
• Assumption is good for brittle material
which rupture without yielding
• If the yield stress of ductile materials is
exceeded, then plastic deformations
occur
• Analysis of plastic deformations is
simplified by assuming an idealized
elastoplastic material
• Deformations of an elastoplastic material
are divided into elastic and plastic ranges
• Permanent deformations result from
Figure 46 loading beyond the yield stress
CE 211
Plastic Deformations
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐴𝐴 • Elastic deformation while
𝑃𝑃 = 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴 =
𝐾𝐾 maximum stress is less than
yield stress
𝜎𝜎𝑌𝑌 𝐴𝐴 • Maximum stress is equal to
𝑃𝑃𝑌𝑌 =
𝐾𝐾 the yield stress at the
maximum elastic loading
• At loadings above the
maximum elastic load, a region
of plastic deformations
develop near the hole
𝑃𝑃𝑈𝑈 = 𝜎𝜎𝑌𝑌 𝐴𝐴 • As the loading increases, the
= 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑌𝑌 plastic region expands until
the section is at a uniform
Figure 47 stress equal to the yield stress
CE 211
Residual Stresses
• When a single structural element is loaded uniformly beyond
its yield stress and then unloaded, it is permanently
deformed but all stresses disappear. This is not the general
result.
• Residual stresses will remain in a structure after loading and
unloading if
 only part of the structure undergoes plastic
deformation
 different parts of the structure undergo different
plastic deformations
• Residual stresses also result from the uneven heating or
cooling of structures or structural elements
CE 211
Example 16:
A cylindrical rod is placed inside a tube
of the same length. The ends of the rod
and tube are attached to a rigid support
on one side and a rigid plate on the
other. The load on the rod-tube
assembly is increased from zero to 5.7
kips and decreased back to zero.
a) Draw a load-deflection diagram for

the rod-tube assembly
b) Determine the maximum elongation
c) Determine the permanent set
Figure 48
d) Calculate the residual stresses in the
rod and tube.
CE 211
a) Draw a load-deflection diagram for the rod-
tube assembly
𝑃𝑃𝑌𝑌,𝑟𝑟 = 𝜎𝜎𝑌𝑌,𝑟𝑟 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟 = 36ksi 0.075in2 = 2.7 kips
𝜎𝜎𝑌𝑌,𝑟𝑟 36×103 psi
𝛿𝛿𝑌𝑌,𝑟𝑟 = 𝜀𝜀𝑌𝑌,𝑟𝑟 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 = 30in.
𝐸𝐸𝑌𝑌,𝑟𝑟 30×106 psi
= 36 × 10−3 in
𝑃𝑃𝑌𝑌,𝑡𝑡 = 𝜎𝜎𝑌𝑌,𝑡𝑡 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 = 45ksi 0.100in2 = 4.5 kips

𝜎𝜎𝑌𝑌,𝑡𝑡 45×103 psi
𝛿𝛿𝑌𝑌,𝑡𝑡 = 𝜀𝜀𝑌𝑌,𝑡𝑡 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 = 30in.
𝐸𝐸𝑌𝑌,𝑡𝑡 15×106 psi
= 90 × 10−3 in
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 + 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡
𝛿𝛿 = 𝛿𝛿𝑟𝑟 = 𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡

CE 211
• At a load of P = 5.7 kips, the rod has reached the
plastic range while the tube is still in the elastic
range
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = 𝑃𝑃𝑌𝑌,𝑟𝑟 = 2.7 kips
𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 = 𝑃𝑃 − 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = 5.7 − 2.7 = 3.0 kips
𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 3.0 kips
𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡 = = = 30 ksi
𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 0.1 in2
𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡 30×103 psi
𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡 = 𝜀𝜀𝑡𝑡 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 = 30in.
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡 15×106 psi
𝛿𝛿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡 = 60 × 10−3 in
• the rod-tube assembly unloads along a line parallel
to 0Yr
4.5 kips
𝑚𝑚 = −3
= 125 kips⁄in. = slope
36×10 in
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 5.7 kips
𝛿𝛿 ′ = − =− = −45.6 × 10−3 in
𝑚𝑚 125 kips⁄in
𝛿𝛿𝑝𝑝 = 𝛿𝛿𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝛿𝛿 ′ = (60 − 45.6) × 10−3 in
𝛿𝛿𝑝𝑝 = 14.4 × 10−3 in.
CE 211
• calculate the residual stresses in the rod and
tube.
• calculate the reverse stresses in the rod and
tube caused by unloading and add them to the
maximum stresses.
′ 𝛿𝛿 ′ −45.6×10−3 in
𝜀𝜀 = = = −1.52 × 10−3 in.⁄in.
𝐿𝐿 30 in.
𝜎𝜎𝑟𝑟′ = 𝜀𝜀 ′ 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 = −1.52 × 10−3 30 × 106 psi
= −45.6 ksi
𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡′ = 𝜀𝜀 ′ 𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡 = −1.52 × 10−3 15 × 106 psi
= −22.8 ksi
𝜎𝜎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟,𝑟𝑟 = 𝜎𝜎𝑟𝑟 + 𝜎𝜎𝑟𝑟′ = 36 − 45.6 ksi = −9.6 ksi
𝜎𝜎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟,𝑡𝑡 = 𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡 + 𝜎𝜎𝑡𝑡′ = 30 − 22.8 ksi = +7.2 ksi

Strain

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Strain

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CE 211

Stress & Strain: Axial Loading

Strain (Linear): Strain (Linear) is defined as the deformation

Figure 4: This Machine is Used Figure 5: Test Specimen with tensile

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

Stress-Strain Diagram : Ductile Materials

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

Stress-Strain Diagram : Mild Steel

Figure 7: Stress-Strain Diagram for Ductile Steel

Figure 9: Comparison of Tension and Compression Monotonic Stress-Strain Diagrams

Stress-Strain Diagram : Brittle Materials

Figure 10: Stress-Strain Diagram for a Typical Brittle Material

Stress-Strain Diagram : Different Materials

Figure 11: Typical

Hooke’s Law : Modulus of Elasticity

• Below the yield stress: 𝜎𝜎 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝐸𝐸 = Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity

Figure 12: Stress-Strain Diagrams

• The elongation in the x-direction is

• Poisson’s ratio is defined as :

Generalized Hooke’s Law

• With these restrictions:

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

Thermal Strain and Deformation

𝜀𝜀𝑇𝑇 = 𝛼𝛼∆𝑇𝑇 ... ... ... ... ... ... (1)

Equal thermal strains develop in every direction for

∆ 𝑇𝑇 = 𝛼𝛼∆𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿0 ... ... ... ... ... ... (2)

An illustration of the thermal effect on deformation of

Other Idealizations of Constitutive Relations

Figure 17 : Idealized Stress-Strain Diagrams : (a) Rigid Perfectly Plastic Material

Figure 18 : (a) Modulus of Resilience 𝑈𝑈𝑅𝑅 , (b) Modulus of Toughness 𝑈𝑈𝑇𝑇

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

Where, due to the applied forces, 𝑢𝑢 is the absolute displacement of a

Any appropriate constitutive relations can be used to define 𝜀𝜀𝑥𝑥 .

For linearly elastic materials, according to Hooke's law,

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

This equation is related to the familiar definition for the

𝑘𝑘 = 𝑃𝑃/∆ [lb/in] or [N/m] ... ... ... (8)

This constant represents the force required to produce a unit

𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 ... ... ... ... ... ...

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

∆𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = ∆ cos 𝜃𝜃2 and ∆𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = ∆ cos 𝜃𝜃1

On forming equal ratios for both sides of these equations, substituting

𝜃𝜃2 = 180° − 45° − 26.6° − 𝜃𝜃1

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

tan 𝜃𝜃1 = 0.500 and 𝜃𝜃1 = 26.6°

Saint-Venant’s Principle and Stress Concentration

Figure 25 : Stress Distribution Near a Concentrated Force in A Rectangular Elastic Plate

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

From Fig. 26: 𝐾𝐾 ≈ 2.15 for r/d = 0.375.

This answer indicates that a large local increase in stress occurs at

Elastic Strain Energy for Uniaxial Stress

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

Consider an infinitesimal element, such as shown in Fig. 27(a),

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

𝜎𝜎22 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝜎𝜎2 ⁄2 2 3𝐿𝐿 𝜎𝜎22 5

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

This corresponds to a strain of 0.120⁄30 = 4 × 10−3 in/in. In

Therefore for P2 = 125 kips, 100 kips must be carried by the